BASIC SOCIAL PROCESS

People are always interacting with others in different modes or forms. Some people cooperate with
other people and some people compete with others.
For Example, student compete with classmates but cooperate with the teachers and administration
by behaving and abiding by the rules and regulation of educational institutions. A football team
cooperate with other members but compete with rival members. These kinds or modes of
interaction are called social process.

Definition of Social Process

1. A. W. Green: Social processes are merely the characteristic ways in which interaction occurs.
2. Ginsberg: Social processes mean the various modes of interaction between individuals or groups
including cooperation and conflict, social differentiation and integration, development and decay.

Social Interaction
Social interaction is the foundation of society. Interaction is the basic social process and describe
a dynamic social relationship. These interactions are governed by social norms, roles and values.
According to Sutherland (1961) it is the dynamic interplay of forces in which contact between
persons and groups results in a modification of the attitudes and behavior of the participants.
A few conditions of social interactions are:
1. Social contact: Interaction is not possible without social contact. It is the first stage of
interaction. Social contact exists when there is reciprocal response among the members or groups.
Only physical contact like travelling in a crowded bus without interaction is not social contact.
2. Communication: Communication is the medium of interaction. It is essential to social
interaction. Communication may be verbal or non-verbal written or non- written symbols, may be
in language, in dress, in banners and in other forms.

Social Process or Forms of Interaction

Since people interact with others in different ways in the society, there are different forms of social
interaction. The major basic social process or forms of interaction are -
A. Cooperation, B. Competition, C. Conflict, D. Accommodation, E. Assimilation, and F.
Acculturation.

A. Cooperation

The term together and 'cooperation' is derived from the two Latin words, 'Co' meaning together
and 'operari' meaning to work. Literally cooperation means working together toward common
objectives or goals.

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Definition:
1. Merrill: "Cooperation is a form of social interaction wherein two or more persons work together
to gain a common end".
2. Fairchild: “Cooperation is the process by which the individual or groups combine their effort,
in a more or less organized way for the attainment of common objective.”
Cooperation is essential for the maintenance of a stable society both rural and urban. It is found in
groups as small as the dyad (group of two persons - husband and wife) and as large as the
cooperatives, farmers club, farmers association etc. self-centered gain, self-advancement or for
self-protection. Cooperation requires sympathy and identification, mutual aid.
Example: Self Help Group members express a feeling of sympathy to other members, help others
in distress.
Importance of Cooperation
1. Cooperative action motivates members in the group to achieve personal gains through
cooperative efforts.
Example: Self Help Group formation
2. Cooperation helps society progress. It creates public assets for development. It motivates people
to work together for construction of a village road, village school, community center etc.
3. Cooperation helps people stand by others while in a distress condition. People jointly collect
funds to help others whose houses have been destroyed or for treatment of poor persons.
4. Cooperation helps mitigate the rivalry between two groups in a village to achieve a common
goal of mutual value such as the establishment of medical center, village protection squad.
Example: Cooperation in a Tribal Community
In Mizoram, among the Jhumia communities when any person is unable to perform the task of
jhuming (shifting cultivation) due to physical illness or any other reason, it is a well-established
convention of people, to assist families in jhum operation. This type of cooperation is called "Ta-
lwmngaihna".

Types or Forms of Cooperation

Based on differences in group attitudes and group organization, different types of cooperation are
prevalent in the society.
1. Direct cooperation: In this type of cooperation individuals are involved to perform same type of
work.
Example: Playing together, cultivating field by both men and women together. Performance of a
common task with joint effort provides satisfaction.
2. Indirect cooperation: In this type of cooperation individuals or groups are working separately to
achieve a common objective. This is based on the principle of division of labour and specialization.
Example: Farmers, spinners, weavers, dyers, tailors are working separately for producing clothes.
3. Primary cooperation: It is found in primary groups like family, children's play group. Each
member work for betterment of all. The rewards are shared to all

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members. Identification of individual group and task to be performed are interlocked.
4. Secondary cooperation: Secondary cooperation is highly formalized and specialized. Attitudes
are more likely to be individualistic and calculating. Each person performs an assigned task and
help others perform their tasks, so that he can separately enjoy the fruits of his cooperation. A
political leader cooperates with other members for their benefits but he is more concerned to
enhance his status, prestige and economic gain than the general members. Secondary cooperation
is also found in business office, an industrial concern or factory.
5. Tertiary cooperation: It is found between two or more political parties, tribes, religious groups,
and so on. It is often called accommodation. Two political parties may work together to defeat a
third political party. When the opposite party is defeated, their cooperation may cease.

B. Competition
According to Chitambar (1997) competition is the struggle for possession of material and / or non-
material items that are in limited supply. There is competition in nature among plants and animals.
"Survival of the fittest" is based on competition for commodities that are in short supply.
Definition
1. Horton: "It is the process of seeking to monopolize a reward by surpassing all rivals".
2. Biesanz: Competition is the striving of two or more persons for the same goal which is limited
so that all cannot share.
Nature of Competition
1. Competition occurs when there is limited supply of goods and services.
2. Competition also occurs not only for food, shelter and other basic needs, but also for non-
material items like status, fame, wealth etc.
3. Competition is universal. It is found in all societies all over the world.
4. Competition is dynamic. It stimulates the level of aspiration from lower level to higher level.
5. Competition may be personal or impersonal. It is personal when two individuals contest for
election. It is impersonal when thousands of students compete in civil service examination and the
contestants are unknown persons.
6. Competition may be healthy or unhealthy. When few students compete for securing the first
position it is a healthy competition. Farmers may compete to raise the best crop to get the "Krishi
Pandit" award - it is also healthy competition. But when industrialists resort to such kind of
competition to make the small business men to become bankrupt - it is unhealthy competition.
7. Competition is a cause of social change because it motivates a person to adopt a new innovation.
Forms of Competition
Competition may be Absolute or Relative; Personal and Impersonal. These are explained below:
1. Absolute and Relative Competition:
In absolute competition the goal is achieved by only one person among the competitors.
Example: Among two or three competitors one person becomes the President of India.
2. Relative Competition is based on the degree to which the goal or objective may be achieved by
more than one competitor.

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Example: In the Olympic game, a person can gain only gold or silver or bronze medals in a
particular event. He cannot take three medals on the same event.
2. Personal and Impersonal Competition
In personal competition the competitor strives to eliminate the other competitors. Such personal
competition may invite conflict.
Impersonal competition, on the other hand, has no personal focus on individual rivals but to reach
a goal.
Example: In football match the main focus is to send the ball into the rival's goal post in order to
win the game.
According to Bernard there are four types of competition. These are:
1. Social competition: In social competition people compete to secure higher status, prestige and
position, through his talent, merit and ability. It is found in democratic society.
2. Economic competition: It is observed at the individual and group level. People compete for job,
wages, salaries, promotion, money, property etc. as well as for higher standard of living.
3. Political competition: Political parties compete to secure power. It is found during election.
4. Cultural competition: Cultural competition takes place between two or more cultural groups.
Example: Competition between Negroes and the Whites, between Aryans and Dravidians.
Role or Function of Competition
Competition performs a number of useful functions in society. Important role or functions of
competition are presented below:
1. Competition is a source of motivation for the individual. Individual can show his ability and
talent.
2. Competition can serve effectively to increase productivity in agriculture, business.
Example: A progressive farmer may compete with other farmers for agricultural production in
terms of quality and quantity.
3. Competition is associated with social status: People compete with others to enhance their status.
4. Fair competition is conducive to economic as well as social progress.
5. The competition provides the mechanism by which well qualified and competent persons can
be selected for the job.

C. Conflict
According to Horton (1964), conflict has been defined as the process of seeking to monopolize
rewards by eliminating or weakening the competitors. Conflict takes place whenever a person or
group try to achieve a reward by preventing the competitors from effectively competing.
Characteristics of Conflict
1. Conflict is present in all societies all over the world, so it is universal in nature.
2. Individual or groups involved in conflict consciously.
3. Conflict is not continuous process, people involved in conflict with the rival group
intermittently.

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4. Conflict may take place between two individuals, groups, classes, races and between two
nations. So, it is personal or impersonal.
5. Conflict is cumulative; each act of aggression usually promotes a more aggressive rebuttal.
6. The issue for inviting conflict is numerous. It may be property, power, status, freedom of action
and thought.
7. Conflict may be resolved by accommodation and assimilation (the process of taking in and fully
understanding information or ideas).
8. Sometimes, a certain amount of internal conflict may stimulate group interaction causing a
change of leadership.
Types of Conflict
There are different forms of conflict observed in the social life. Important forms of conflict are:
1. Personal or Individual and Corporate
Personal or individual conflict refers to conflict within a group in society. It involves intense
personal hatred. The motives for personal conflict are based on individual goals.
Corporate conflict occurs between two societies or groups within a society. Such conflict is
impersonal and groups try to impose their will on the other group.
2. Caste Conflict
When any conflict takes place between two castes to show their superiority is called caste conflict.
Example: Conflict between so-called upper caste Hindus and Harijans.
3. Class Conflict
The conflict arises between social classes which have opposite interest.
Example: Conflict between the rich and the poor.
4. Racial Conflict
It takes place between two races due to psychological differences. One race may claim superiority
over the other and try to suppress the other.
Example: Conflict between Negroes and White.
5. International Conflict
The conflict arises between two or more nations due to political, religious economic, imperialistic
and other reasons.
Example: Conflict between India and Pakistan.

Effect of Conflict
Conflict has both positive and negative effect in social life. Conflict causes social disorder, chaos
and confusion. It hampers production and productivity of business firm.
On the other hand, a little internal conflict may enhance group stability and keep the leadership
alert and responsible. International conflict between two countries (viz. India vs. Pakistan) makes
all the political parties united in spite of their ideological differences.
Difference between competition and conflict
1. Competition is the process of seeking to monopolize a reward by surpassing all rivals. Whereas,
conflict is the process of getting a reward by eliminating all rivals.

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2. Competition occurs conscious or unconsciously but conflict is always a conscious activity.
3. Competition is universal and continuous process, whereas, conflict is universal and not
continuous, it is intermittent.
4. Healthy competition brings progress and may lead to positive result, but conflict brings negative
result.

D. Accommodation
The concept of accommodation was first used by the Psychologist, J. M. Baldwin. When the
conflicting parties want to terminate the hostilities or conflicting relationship and develop
temporary working agreements between them, it is called accommodation. Human life is full of
conflict and differences in many aspects. Since conflict cannot continue indefinitely, people pursue
for adjustment by minimizing differences.
Example: A spouse may quarrel for some time but they live together with mutual love and
affection. Two countries invite peace after war.
Definition
1. Horton (1964): Accommodation is a process of developing temporary working agreements
between conflicting individuals or group.
2. Ogburn: "Accommodation is a term used by the sociologists to describe the adjustment of hostile
individuals or groups.
Characteristics of Accommodation
1. Accommodation arises when there is a conflict between the parties. So, it is the natural result of
conflict.
2. Accommodation is found in all societies all over the world. So, it is a universal process.
3. It is a continuous process since throughout the life each person has to accommodate with adverse
situation.
4. Accommodation may be conscious and unconscious activity.
Example: Warring countries consciously enter into pacts to stop war. People adjustment with
social environment is unconscious.
5. Accommodation may help more powerful group, or party to impose their will on the weaker
party.

Forms or Methods of Accommodation

There are different forms of accommodation. But all these forms or methods are not mutually
exclusive and there may be a combination of forms.
These are discussed below:
1. Compromise
Accommodation by means of compromise is made when both the parties are more or less equal in
power and the parties agree to make concessions by "give and take" policy.
Example: Compromise in labour management dispute. A compromise between Landlord and
Bargadar regarding share of the farm produce etc.

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2. Conversion
In this form of accommodation one party suddenly reject its religious beliefs, convictions, loyalties
and accept the others belief, views etc.
3. Tolerance
In this method of accommodation conflicts are avoided rather than settled. Each party holds its
own position, but respects the opposite viewpoint of other party. Both parties follow "Live-and-
Let Live" policy. Here there is no settlement of difference but only avoidance of conflict, political
group, caste group resort to toleration.
4. Arbitration
Arbitration is a device for bringing about compromise in which third party act as a mediator to
resolve the differences between the contending parties. Arbitration may be formal, such as in a
court of law. In the international level, the United Nations Organization acts as arbitrator. Labor-
management dispute may be resolved by arbitration.
5. Truce
Truce is an agreement to cease hostile activities (or war) for a definite or indefinite period of time.
The main objective of truce is to give both parties time to review the issue in the light of proposals
or suggestions for settlement. This form of accommodation is temporary in nature.
6. Displacement
Displacement involves termination of conflict by replacing it with another conflict.
Example: The threat of war from neighboring country may unify all the political parties within
country.
E. Assimilation
Assimilation is also a form of social adjustment. It is the fusion or blending process. Assimilation
implies complete merging of different cultural groups within a society. It is more permanent than
accommodation.
Definition
1. Horton (1964). 'It is a process of mutual cultural diffusion through which persons and groups
become culturally alike'.
2. Young and Mack, "Assimilation is the fusion or blending of two previously distinct groups into
one".
Example: The culture of U.S.A. is the fusion of many European culture. Hawaiian culture is the
fusion on Chinese, Japanese, and American culture.
Characteristics of Assimilation
1. Assimilation cannot take place all on a sudden. It is slow and gradual process.
2. It is a two-way process. Cultural elements of both the group contribute during assimilation. It
involves the principles of give and take.
3. Assimilation takes place unconsciously. The individual or groups unconsciously discard their
original culture and accept a new culture.

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4. Assimilation provides a permanent solution to intergroup disputes and differences.

Kinds or Forms of Assimilation

1. One culture may merge into other culture: A socialized individual in one culture in course of
time becomes assimilated into the second culture.
2. Two cultures merge into a third culture and maintain the features of both merging cultures.
3. In small groups (husband and wife) assimilation may bring about similarity of behavior. The
cultural difference of the spouse may gradually disappear.
Factors Favoring and Retarding Assimilation
A number of important factors may facilitate or retard the process of assimilation.
These are presented below:
Factors Favoring Assimilation
1. Toleration: Assimilation is possible when individuals and groups are tolerant to cultural
difference of others.
2. Cultural Similarity: When there are similarities of culture between two groups, assimilation
takes place easily.
3. Intimate Social Relationship: When social contact takes place quickly in primary groups (family.
friendship group) assimilation takes place easily.
4. Amalgamation (the action, process, or result of combining or uniting.) or Intermarriage: The
factor which help complete assimilation is amalgamation. It means intermarriage of different
groups.
Factors Retarding Assimilation
1. Dominance: Assimilation is not possible when one group dominate their culture and does not
provide any opportunity to minority group.
2. Cultural Difference: The wide cultural difference between two groups in custom, religious
belief, values etc. hinders assimilation.
3. Physical or Racial Difference: Differences in physical appearance (White and Negroes) retard
assimilation.
4. Prejudice: Prejudice within a community, within a family or within any group hinder
assimilation.

F. Acculturation
People belonging to two different cultures may come into contact in the society. During interaction
they may influence each other in different ways. If such contact is brief and casual there may be
no lasting influence or impact on each of them. On the other hand, if the contact is frequent over a
long period of time, there is greater impact and both the cultures are affected. The process involved
is referred to as acculturation. Thus, acculturation occurs when two culture come into continuous
contact resulting in subsequent changes in cultural pattern of either one culture or both. Cultural
changes mean change in dress, food habit, attitude and values, forms of speech etc.

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Example:
1. The foreign devotees of International Society of Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON) permanently
living in India have changed their dress code, food habit and accepted the behavior pattern, food
habit, values of Indian culture as a result of acculturation.
2. The North India rituals "Dhanteras" (purchasing gold and metal items) celebrated in October
November is gaining popularity among the Bengalee and Odia communities as a result of
acculturation.