Fundamentals of Mechanical Design

(MEMI23)

Mr. Lala Samprit Ray

1
Course Learning Objectives
1. Intended to provide an introduction to the design process.
2. Impart the Fundamental information on materials in selecting the
most appropriate materials, processes and methods to transform
ideas into a successful product.
3. To understand the effect of various loads and corresponding
deformation and stresses in mechanical components.
4. To learn the procedure to design various mechanical components
such as shafts, springs, bearing etc.

2
Syllabus
• Module 1
• Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Design, Materials – Significance of Materials
properties, Strength and Stiffness, Hardness, Impact strength, Thermal effects, Ferrous and
Non-ferrous metals, Plastics and Composites, Material Selection.
• Module 2
• Load and Stress Analysis – Equilibrium and Free-body diagrams, Shear force and Bending
moments in beams, Stress and Strains, Deflection and Stiffness – Spring rates, Tension,
Compression and Torsion, Deflection due to bending, Strain Energy.
• Module 3
• Failures resulting from Static Loading – Static Strength, Stress Concentration, Failure theories.
• Module 4
• Design of Mechanical Elements – Shaft and Shaft Components, Screws, Fasteners, Springs –
Helical and leaf springs, Rolling contact bearings, Gears – Spur and Helical gears.

3
Overview of the course
• In the first part we begin by explaining some differences between design
and analysis and introducing some fundamental notions and approaches to
design.
• Then we review material properties, stress analysis, and stiffness and
deflection analysis, which are the key principles necessary for the
remaining portion
• Next Failure Prevention we find out why machine parts fail and how they
can be designed to prevent static failure only.
• The previous portions are applied to the analysis, selection, and design of
specific mechanical elements such as shafts, fasteners, springs, rolling
contact bearings and gears.

4
Materials and Processes

5
Static analysis and failure prevention

6
Selection of dimensions of component

7
Module 1
Introduction to Mechanical Engineering Design, Materials – Significance of
Materials properties, Strength and Stiffness, Hardness, Impact strength, Thermal
effects, Ferrous and Non-ferrous metals, Plastics and Composites, Material
Selection.

8
Chapter 1

9
Design
• Design involves formulating a plan to satisfy a need or solve a problem,
resulting in a functional, safe, reliable, competitive, usable,
manufacturable, and marketable product.
• Design is an innovative, iterative, and decision-making process.
• Decisions are made with varying or uncertain amounts of information and
may be adjusted as more becomes known.
• Design is a communication-intensive activity that requires effective
communication and collaboration with people of many disciplines.
• A designer’s personal resources, such as creativity, communication ability,
and problem-solving skill, are intertwined with knowledge of technology
and first principles.
• Engineering tools are combined to produce a functional, safe, reliable,
competitive, usable, manufacturable, and marketable product.
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Mechanical Engineering Design
• Mechanical engineers are associated with the production and processing of
energy and with providing the means of production, the tools of
transportation, and the techniques of automation.
• Mechanical engineering design involves all the disciplines of mechanical
engineering namely mechanics of solids and fluids, mass and momentum
transport, manufacturing processes, and electrical and information theory.
• Phrases such as machine design, machine-element design, machine-
component design, systems design, and fluid-power design are somewhat
more focused examples of mechanical engineering design. They all draw on
the same bodies of knowledge, are similarly organized, and require similar
skills.
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The Phases and Interactions of the Design
Process
What is the design process? How does it begin? Does the engineer simply sit down at a
desk with a blank sheet of paper and jot down some ideas? What happens next? What
factors influence or control the decisions that have to be made? Finally, how does the
design process end?

1. Identification of need generally starts the design process.

2. The definition of problem is more specific and must include all the specifications for
the object that is to be designed. The specifications are the input and output
quantities, the characteristics and dimensions of the space the object must occupy,
and all the limitations on these quantities.
3. The synthesis of a scheme connecting possible system elements is sometimes called
the invention of the concept or concept design.
4. Synthesis and analysis and optimization are intimately and iteratively related.
5. Evaluation is the final proof of a successful design and usually involves the testing of a
prototype in the laboratory. Here we wish to discover if the design really satisfies the
needs.
6. Communicating the design to others is the final, vital presentation step in the design
process. Undoubtedly, many great designs, inventions, and creative works have been
lost to posterity simply because the originators were unable or unwilling to properly
explain their accomplishments to others. Presentation is a selling job.

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Design considerations

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Design tools and references
• Computational tools
• CAD
• Example :- AutoCAD, Solid Works, Fusion 360. (Open source: Shaper, FreeCad)
• CAE (FEA and CFD)
• Example :- Ansys, Abaqus, COMSOL. (Open source: Elmer, Calculix, Fenicsx, Code-Aster, open-foam)
• CAM (Computer Aided Manufacturing) for CNC toolpath, rapid prototyping, etc.
• Other software
• Maple, MathCad, MATLAB, Mathematica. (Free/open source :- WxMaxima, SMath, Python, R).
• Technical information
• Libraries(NITT library), Government sources (ISRO, data.gov.in), Professional
Societies(ASME,SAE,ASTM), Commercial vendors (Catalog, samples, cost) and Internet.
The list is most incomplete; however, it is a good starting point.

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A design engineers' professional
responsibilities
• Satisfy the needs of the customer in a competent,
responsible, ethical, and professional manner.
• Some key advise for a professional engineer.
• Be competent.
• Keep current in field of practice.
• Keep good documentation.
• Ensure good and timely communication.
• Act professionally and ethically.

15
Standards and codes
• Aluminum Association (AA) • British Standards Institution (BSI)
• American Bearing Manufacturers Association • Industrial Fasteners Institute (IFI)
(ABMA)
• Institute of Transportation Engineers (ITE)
• American Gear Manufacturers Association (AGMA)
• Institution of Mechanical Engineers (IMechE)
• American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC)
• International Bureau of Weights and Measures
• American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) (BIPM)
• American National Standards Institute (ANSI) • International Federation of Robotics (IFR)
• American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air- • International Standards Organization (ISO)
Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE)
• National Association of Power Engineers (NAPE)
• American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
• National Institute for Standards and Technology
• American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM) (NIST)
• American Welding Society (AWS) • Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE)
• ASM International

16
Economics
• Standard sizes
• Using standard or preferred sizes of materials is a principle of cost reduction. Designers
must have access to stock lists to ensure they specify standard or preferred sizes.
However, they should make an effort to specify readily available purchased parts, such
as motors, pumps, bearings, and fasteners.
• Large Tolerances
• Tolerances cover dimensional variation and surface-roughness range and also the
variation in mechanical properties resulting from heat treatment and other processing
operations.
• Breakeven Points
• Sometimes it happens that, when two or more design approaches are compared for
cost, the choice between the two depends on a set of conditions such as the quantity
of production, the speed of the assembly lines, or some other condition. There then
occurs a point corresponding to equal cost, which is called the breakeven point.
• Cost Estimates
• There are many ways of obtaining relative cost figures so that two or more designs can
be roughly compared.
• For example, we can compare the relative value of two Cars by comparing the cost per Kg of
weight.
• Another way to compare the cost of one design with another is simply to count the number
of parts. The design having the smaller number of parts is likely to cost less.

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Safety and product liability
• A manufacturer is liable for any harm or damage resulting from a
defect in their product, regardless of whether they knew or could
have known about the defect.
• The best approaches to preventing product liability are good
engineering in analysis and design, quality control, and
comprehensive testing procedures.
• Advertising statements should be reviewed carefully by the
engineering staff to eliminate excessive promises and insert adequate
warnings and instructions for use.

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Stress and strength
• The survival of many products depends on how the designer
adjusts the maximum stresses in a component to be less
than the component’s strength at critical locations.
• The designer must allow the maximum stress to be less than
the strength by a sufficient margin so that despite the
uncertainties, failure is rare.
• Strength is an inherent property of a part, a property built
into the part because of the use of a particular material and
process.
• Stress is a state property at a specific point within a body,
which is a function of load, geometry, temperature, and
manufacturing processing.
• Imagine stress to be the pressure that is being pumped into
your bicycle tires and strength of the tire to be the amount
of pressure that will burst the tire (or deform it so that it
becomes unusable i.e, loss of function.).

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Other Terminology
• Bending of beams = Flexure of beams
• Buckling– The sudden change in shape (deformation) of a structural
component under load, such as the bowing of a column under
compression or the wrinkling of a plate under shear.
• Nominal– denotes non specificity (average)

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Uncertainty in design
Uncertainty in design may arise due to the following Engineers must accommodate uncertainty
reason The design factor is defined as
• Composition of material and the effect of variation on
properties.
• Variations in properties from place to place within a bar of
stock.
• Effect of processing locally, or nearby, on properties.
• Effect of nearby assemblies such as weldments and shrink If the parameter is load (as would be the case for
fits on stress conditions. column buckling), then the maximum allowable load
• Effect of thermomechanical treatment on properties. can be found from
• Intensity and distribution of loading.
• Validity of mathematical models used to represent reality.
• Intensity of stress concentrations.
• Influence of time on strength and geometry.
• Effect of corrosion.
• Effect of wear.
• Uncertainty as to the length of any list of uncertainties.

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Question 1
Consider that the maximum load on a structure is known with an
uncertainty of ±20 percent, and the load causing failure is known
within ±15 percent. If the load causing failure is nominally 2000 N,
determine the design factor and the maximum allowable load that will
offset the absolute uncertainties.

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Design factor and Factor of safety
• The design factor is the minimum requirement (set by regulation) for
`
how much load a part is required to withstand.
• After the design is completed, the actual design factor may change
due to changes such as using standard sizes or off-the-shelf
components with higher ratings. The factor is then referred to as the
factor of safety, which has the same definition as the design factor
but may differ numerically.
• In other words, the design factor is what is calculated during the
design process, while the factor of safety is what is actually used in
the final product.
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Question 2
A rod with a cross-sectional area of A and
loaded in tension with an axial force of P = 8900
N undergoes a stress of σ = P∕A. Using a
material strength of 165 MPa and a design
factor of 3.0, determine the minimum diameter
of a solid circular rod. Using Table, A–17, select
a preferred fractional diameter and determine
the rod’s factor of safety.

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Dimensions and tolerances
• A machine designer’s task is to specify the parts and components
necessary for a machine to perform its desired function.
• Early in the design process, it is usually sufficient to work with
nominal dimensions to determine function, stresses, deflections, and
the like.
• However, eventually it is necessary to get to the point of specificity
that every component can be purchased and every part can be
manufactured.
• Example 25 ± 0.05 mm

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Units
• 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 or 𝐹 = 𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2
• Units for any three of these are called base units. The first three having been
chosen, the fourth is called the derived units.
• If Force, length and time are chosen as base units , mass becomes the derived
unit. This system is called the gravitational system of unit.
• If Mass, length and time are chosen as base units , Force becomes the derived
unit. This system is called an absolute system of unit.
• U.S. customary foot-pound-second system (fps) and the inch-pound-second
system (ips) are the two standard gravitational systems most used by engineers in
the U.S .
• The SI (International System of units) unit system is an absolute unit system.
• Exercise : Find out the units of Weight and Mass in ips gravitational unit system
and fps gravitational unit system.

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Calculations and Significant figures
• Significant figures indicate the accuracy of a number. More significant figures mean more
precision. Usually, three or four significant figures are enough for engineering.
• Leading zeros are not significant, e.g., 0.003 has one significant figure.
• Trailing zeros are significant if there is a decimal point, e.g., 706.0 has four significant
figures.
• Scientific notation can show the number of significant figures clearly.
• The power of 10 does not affect the number of significant figures, only the digits do.
• Consider a number 91600.
• To show that it has three significant figures, write it as 91.6 × 103
• To show that it has four significant figures, write it as 91.60 × 103 .
• The number of significant figures in a result should never exceed the least accurate input.
• Use the most accurate values for calculations but round off the final results. Rounding off
too early can cause errors and inaccuracies in the final result.

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Question 3

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Chapter 2

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Material Selection and Its Impact on Design Analysis
• Material selection is a crucial decision in design, often made before dimensions are set.
• Material selection depends on the
• Process,(cold worked or hot worked etc )
• Geometry (circular or square cross section)
• Function (Bells cannot use lead. Have to use bronze)
• Condition of use of the part (Humidity, salt content, temperature.)
• Material properties, such as stiffness, strength, corrosion resistance, and thermal effects,
affect stress and deflection analysis.
• To find how much a part bends or twists, we need to know how stiff the material is.
• To find how much stress the part can handle, we need to compare it with the material’s
strength at that point and situation.
• So many other factors besides stress and strain may govern the design of parts that the
designer must have the versatility that comes only with a broad background in materials
and processes.

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Standard tensile test
• Used to obtain material characteristics and
strengths
• Loaded in tension with slowly increasing the
load P.
• Load and deflection are recorded.

Some of the standard dimensions used for 𝑑0 are 2.5, 6.25, and 12.5 mm, but
other sections and sizes are in use. Common gauge lengths 𝑙0 used are 10, 25,
and 50 mm.

Source: See ASTM standards E8 and E-8 m for standard

dimensions.
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Stress and Strain
• The stress from universal tensile test is calculated using
𝑃
𝜎=
𝐴0
1
• Where 𝐴0 = 𝜋𝑑02 is the original cross-sectional area.
4
• The normal strain (as opposed to shear strain) is calculated from
𝑙 − 𝑙0
𝜀= ,
𝑙0
• Where 𝑙0 is the original gauge length and 𝑙 is the current length
corresponding to the current load 𝑃.

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Stress-Strain Diagram
• Plot stress vs. normal strain
• Typically, linear relation until the
proportional limit, 𝑝𝑙 .
• No permanent deformation until elastic
limit, 𝑒𝑙
• Yield strength, 𝑆𝑦 , defined at point where
significant plastic deformation begins, or
where permanent set reaches a fixed
amount, usually 0.2% of the original
gauge length.
• Ultimate strength, 𝑆𝑢 , defined as the
maximum stress on the diagram.

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Elastic relationship of stress and strain
• Slope of linear section is Young’s
Modulus or modulus of elasticity 𝐸
• Hooke’s law,
𝜎 = 𝐸𝜀
• 𝐸 is relatively constant for a given
type of material (Ex:- steel, copper,
aluminum)
• Usually independent of heat
treatment, carbon content, or
alloying.
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True stress-strain diagram
• Engineering stress-strain diagrams are based on original area.
• Area typically reduces under load, particularly during “necking” after
point u.
• True stress is based on actual area corresponding to current P.
• True strain is the sum of the incremental elongations divided by the
current gauge length at load P.
𝑙 𝑑𝑙 𝑙
• 𝜀𝑇 = ‫𝑙׬‬ = ln 𝑙
0 𝑙 0
• Note that true stress continually increases all the way to fracture.
• Relationship between true stress and true strain with engineering stress
and strain.
• 𝜀𝑇 = ln(1 + 𝜀)
• 𝜎𝑇 = 𝜎 1 + 𝜀
• Here subscript T is for true stress and strain and non subscript are for
engineering stress and strain.

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Compression Strength Tests
• Compression tests are used to
obtain compressive strengths.
• Buckling and bulging make the tests
difficult.
• For ductile material, compressive
strengths are usually about the
same as tensile strengths,
𝑆𝑢𝑐 = 𝑆𝑢𝑡 .
• For brittle materials, compressive
strengths 𝑆𝑢𝑐 are often greater than
tensile strengths, 𝑆𝑢𝑡 .
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Torsional Strength Tests
• Torsional strengths are found by twisting solid circular
bars.
• Results are plotted as a torque-twist diagram.
• Shear stresses in the specimen are linear with respect to
the radial location — zero at the center and maximum at the
outer radius.
• Maximum shear stress is related to the angle of twist by
𝐺𝑟
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜃
𝑙0
Where,
𝜃 is the angle of twist (in radians).
𝑟 is the radius of the bar .
𝑙0 is the gauge length.
𝐺 is the material stiffness property called the shear
modulus or modulus of rigidity.

37
Torsional strengths (contd…)
• Maximum shear stress is related to the applied torque by
𝑇𝑟
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝐽
Here,
𝐽 is the polar second moment of area of the cross section.
1
For round cross section, 𝐽 = 𝜋𝑟 4 .
2
• Torsional yield strength, 𝑆𝑠𝑦 corresponds to the maximum
shear stress at the point where the torque-twist diagram
becomes significantly non-linear.
• Modulus of rupture, 𝑆𝑠𝑢 corresponds to the torque 𝑇𝑢 at the
maximum point on the torque-twist diagram.
𝑇𝑢 𝑟
𝑆𝑠𝑢 =
𝐽

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Resilience
• Resilience - is the capacity of a material to absorb energy within its elastic range.
• Modulus of resilience, 𝑢𝑟
• Energy absorbed per unit volume without permanent deformation equals the area under the
stress strain curve upto the elastic limit.
• The elastic limit is often approximated by the yield point
• Area under curve to yield point gives approximation
𝜀𝑦
𝑢𝑟 ≅ න 𝜎𝑑𝜀
0
• If Elastic region is linear (will be used in this course)
1 1 𝑆𝑦 Sy2
𝑢𝑟 ≅ Sy 𝜀𝑦 = Sy =
2 2 𝐸 2𝐸
• For two materials with same yield strength, the less stiff material has more
resilience.
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Toughness
• Toughness is the capacity of material to absorb energy without fracture.
• Modulus of toughness 𝑢𝑡
• Energy absorbed per unit volume without fracture equals area under the stress-strain curve up to the fracture
point.
• Area under the curve upto the fracture point is given
𝜀
by
𝑓

𝑢𝑡 = න 𝜎𝑑𝜀
0
• Often estimated graphically from stress strain data.
• Approximated by using the average of (yield and ultimate strengths)
and the strain at the fracture.
𝑆𝑦 + 𝑆𝑢𝑡
𝑢𝑡 ≅ 𝜀𝑓
2

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Resilience and Toughness

• Both are measures of energy absorbing character of

materials
• The units are energy per unit volume.
𝐽
ൗ𝑚3 or 𝑙𝑏𝑓. 𝑖𝑛/𝑖𝑛3
• Assumes low strain rates
• For higher strain rates use impact methods.

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Statistical significance of mechanical property
• Strength values are obtained from testing many nominally
identical specimens.
• Strength, a material property, is distributional and thus statistical
in nature
• Example — Histographic report for maximum stress of 1000
tensile tests on 1020 steel .

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Hardness
• Hardness: The resistance of a material to a penetration by appointed rule
• Two most common hardness-measuring systems
• Rockwell hardness test
• A, B, and C scales
• Specified indenters and loads for each scale
• hardness numbers are relative
• Brinell hardness test
• Hardness number 𝐻𝐵 is the applied load divided by the spherical surface area of the
indentation.
• Can be used as approximations for 𝑆𝑢
• For Steel: 𝑆𝑢 = 3.4𝐻𝐵 𝑀𝑃𝑎
• For Cast iron : 𝑆𝑢 = 1.58𝐻𝐵 − 86 𝑀𝑃𝑎

43
Impact strength
• Charpy notched bar test is used to determine brittleness and impact
strength.
• Specimen is swung by a pendulum
• Energy absorbed is called impact value, is computed from height of
swing after fracture.
• Some materials experience a sharp transition from ductile to brittle at
a certain temperature. (Effect of temperature on impact)

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Effect of Strain rates (Rate of Strain w.r.t time)
• Average strain rates in tensile test is
0.025 mm/(mm · s) or less.
• During impact strain rates increase
which increases strengths.
• At very high strain rates the yield
strength seems to approach the
ultimate strength as a limit.
• However, the ductility remains about
the same (nearly constant elongation).
• Consequent to the increase in yield
strength, a mild steel could be expected
to behave elastically throughout
practically its entire strength range
under impact conditions.

45
Thermal effects on strength
• Plot of strength vs. temperature for
carbon and alloy steels →
• As temperature increases above room
temperature
• 𝑆𝑢𝑡 increases slightly, then decreases
significantly.
• 𝑆𝑦 decreases continuously
• Results in increased ductility.

46
Creep
• Creep — a continuous deformation under
load for long periods of time at elevated
temperatures
• Often exhibits three stages
• 1st stage: elastic and plastic deformation;
decreasing creep rate due to strain hardening.
• 2nd stage: constant minimum creep rate
caused by the annealing effect.
• 3rd stage: considerable reduction in area;
increased true stress; higher creep rate
leading to fracture.

47
Common numbering systems
Common numbering systems
• Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE)
• American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI)
• Unified Numbering System (UNS)
• American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) for
cast irons

48
Numbering scheme UNS
• UNS system established by SAE in 1975
• Letter prefix followed by 5-digit number
• Letter prefix designates material class
• G — carbon and alloy steel
• A — Aluminum alloy
• C — Copper-based alloy
• S — Stainless or corrosion-resistant steel
• First two numbers indicate composition,
excluding carbon content.
• Next two numbers indicate carbon
content in (x/100) % of weight.
• Fifth number is used for special Example G52986 steel with 0.98% carbon.
occasion

49
Some casting processes and materials

Processes Materials
• Sand Casting • Gray Cast Iron
• Shell Molding • Ductile and
Nodular Cast Iron
• Investment
Casting • White Cast Iron
• Powder- • Malleable Cast
Metallurgy Iron
Process • Alloy Cast Iron
• Cast Steel

50
Hot working processes
• Process in which metal is formed while
heated above recrystallization temperature
• Refined grain size
• Rough surface finish
• Rolling, forging, extrusion, pressing
• Common bar cross-sections from hot-
rolling.

51
Cold working process
• Forming of metal without elevating temperature
above recrystallization
• Strain hardens, resulting in increase in yield
strength
• Increases hardness and ultimate strength,
decreases ductility
• Produces bright, smooth, reasonably accurate
finish
• Cold-rolling used to produce wide flats and
sheets
• Cold-drawing draws a hot-rolled bar through a
smaller die

52
Ferrous materials

Alloy steels Corrosion resistant steels

• Chromium • Stainless steels
• Nickel • Iron-base alloys with at least 12 %
chromium
• Manganese • Resists many corrosive conditions
• Silicon • Four types of stainless steels
• Molybdenum • Ferritic chromium
• Vanadium • Austenitic chromium-nickel
• Martensitic
• Tungsten • Precipitation-hardenable
53
Aluminium
• Aluminum and its alloys have outstanding properties such as:
• High strength-weight ratio
• Resistance to corrosion (due to formation of a thin oxide coating, which forms spontaneously and can be enhanced by
anodizing)
• High thermal and electrical conductivity
• Aluminum is much lighter than steel, with a density of 2770 kg/m3 vs 7750 kg/m3
• Aluminum can be strengthened by cold working and alloying with other materials
• Aluminum and its alloys have a low modulus of elasticity of 71.7 GPa, which means they are less stiff than steel
• Aluminum and its alloys are versatile materials for fabrication because they can be processed by various methods
such as:
• Sand casting, die casting, hot or cold working, or extruding
• Machining, press-working, soldering, brazing, or welding
• The corrosion resistance of aluminum alloys depends on the formation of a thin oxide coating, which forms
spontaneously and can be enhanced by anodizing.
• Aluminum alloys are classified as casting alloys or wrought alloys, depending on their alloying elements and
fabrication methods.

54
Non-ferrous metals (Magnesium)
• Magnesium is the lightest of all commercial metals with a density of about 1800
kg/m3, its greatest use is in the aircraft and automotive industries, but other uses
are now being found for it.
• The strength to weight ratio of magnesium alloys is better than the stronger
aluminum alloys and steel alloys.
• Magnesium alloys find their greatest use in applications where strength is not an
important consideration.
• Magnesium will not withstand elevated temperatures; the yield point is reduced
when the temperature is raised to that of boiling water.
• Magnesium and its alloys have a modulus of elasticity of 45 GPa in tension and in
compression, although some alloys are not as strong in compression as in
tension.
• Cold working reduces the modulus of elasticity, which is unlike many other
metals.
55
Non-ferrous metals (Titanium)
• Titanium and its alloys are similar in strength to moderate-strength steel
but weigh half as much as steel.
• The material exhibits very good resistence to corrosion, has low thermal
conductivity, is nonmagnetic, and has high-temperature strength.
• Its modulus of elasticity is between those of steel and aluminum at 114
Gpa.
• Because of its many advantages over steel and aluminum, applications
include aerospace and military aircraft structures and components, marine
hardware, chemical tanks and processing equipment, fluid handling
systems, and human internal replacement devices.
• The disadvantages of titanium are its high cost compared to steel and
aluminum and the difficulty of machining it.

56
Non-ferrous metals (Copper based Alloys)
• When copper is alloyed with zinc, it is usually called brass.
• Names of types of brass are Gilding brass, Commercial bronze, Red
brass, Low brass, Cartridge brass, Yellow brass, Low-leaded brass,
high-leaded brass, Free-cutting brass, Admiralty metal, Aluminium
brass, Muntz metal, Naval brass.
• If copper is alloyed with another element (not zinc), it is often called
bronze.
• Types of bronze include Silicon bronze, Phosphor bronze, Beryllium
bronze, Aluminium bronze etc.

57
Plastics
• The term thermoplastics is used to mean any plastic that flows or is
moldable when heat is applied to it; the term is sometimes applied to
plastics moldable under pressure. Such plastics can be remolded when
heated.
• A thermoset is a plastic for which the polymerization process is finished in
a hot molding press where the plastic is liquefied under pressure.
Thermoset plastics cannot be remolded.
• The tables are presented next are for information only and should not be
used to make a final design decision. The range of properties and
characteristics that can be obtained with plastics is very great. The
influence of many factors, such as cost, moldability, coefficient of friction,
weathering, impact strength, and the effect of fillers and reinforcements,
must be considered. Therefore, manufacturers’ catalogs will be found quite
helpful in making possible selections.
58
Thermoset and thermoplastic material
properties

59
Composites
• Composite materials are made of two or more different materials that keep their distinct properties. Composite materials have a
reinforcement (filler) and a matrix that hold them together and transfer load.
• Composite materials can achieve high strength-to-weight and stiffness-to-weight ratios compared to metals. Therefore, they are
widely used in applications where weight is important, such as vehicles and spacecraft.
• Composite materials have different properties in different directions (directionality). Composite materials need four constants to
describe their properties in a ply coordinate system.
• The constants are two Young’s moduli (the longitudinal modulus in the direction of the fibers, 𝐸1 , and the transverse modulus normal to the
fibers, 𝐸2 ),
• One Poisson’s ratio (𝜈12 , called the major Poisson’s ratio), and
• One Shear modulus (𝐺12 ).
𝜈 𝜈
• A fifth constant, the minor Poisson’s ratio, 𝜈21 , is determined through the reciprocity relation, 𝐸21 = 𝐸12 .
2 1

• Combining this complexity with multiple plies oriented at different angles makes structural analysis of complex structures
unapproachable by manual techniques. Computer software is needed to calculate the properties of a laminated composite
structure.

60
Material Selection procedure
• Material selection is a process that involves
evaluating various material properties, such
as strength, stiffness, and cost, according to
the design requirements
• One technique for material selection is to list
and prioritize the important properties, and
then rank the available materials for each
property
• On the right is a plot with Young modulus E as
the only selection property, with variations
within the material sample being expressed
as vertical lines.
• Similarly, such plot for other properties like
strength, cost per weight, machinability and
density can be plotted.
• Then a material with the highest combined
rank among these properties can be selected

61
Ashby charts
• M. F. Ashby has developed a powerful and
systematic method using materials selection
charts.
• The x axis displays Density, and the y axis displays
the Young’s Modulus.
• Bubbles represent variation of material property
• The groups of bubbles represent similar material
family.
• From the graph on the right, we can see the 𝐸Τ𝜌
ratio.
• This ratio is useful in reducing weight, where the
primary design restriction is deflection, stiffness or
natural frequency and not strength.
• Many other charts are available like strength-
density ratio, cost-strength ratio, etc.

62
Question 4
If a load of 1000 KN is applied on a specimen of diameter 12.5 mm in a universal
tensile test.
a. Find the axial stress developed in the specimen.
• 𝜎 = 𝑃/𝐴
b. Has the material yielded if the yield strength of the material is 120 MPa?
• Is 𝜎 < 𝜎𝑦
c. If the Youngs modulus of the material is 120 Gpa, what is the amount of strain developed?
• 𝜎 = 𝐸𝜀
d. What is the true strain at this point?
• 𝜀𝑇 = ln(1 + 𝜀)
e. What is the true stress at this point?
• 𝜎𝑇 = 𝜎 1 + 𝜀
f. Comment on whether the results are realistic.
• No. The material has passed the proportionality limit, so the formulas form c to e may not be applicable.

63
Question 5
1. If the Brinell hardness for a steel specimen is found to be 100 MPa
what is the approximate ultimate tensile strength?
a) 𝑆𝑢 = 3.4𝐻𝑏 𝑀𝑃𝑎
2. If the Brinell hardness for a cast iron specimen is found to be 235
MPa what is the approximate ultimate tensile strength?
a) 𝑆𝑢 = 1.58𝐻𝑏 − 86 𝑀𝑃𝑎

64
Question 6
What is the Modulus of Resilience and Modulus of Toughness of a
specimen with
Yield strength = 276 MPa
Ultimate tensile strength = 414 MPa
Youngs modulus = 204.77 GPa
Strain at fracture = 373.2028985507246 × 10−3 𝑚𝑚/𝑚𝑚

65
Assignment Question
• What is casting?
• What are some casting process?
• What type of materials are suitable for casting process?
• What is hot working? How is it different from casting and cold
working?
• What is anodizing and why is it done?
• In Question 4 of the slide, find the stress at yield point if yielding
occurs at 2% strain.

66
Module 2
Load and Stress Analysis – Equilibrium and Free-body diagrams, Shear force and
Bending moments in beams, Stress and Strains, Deflection and Stiffness – Spring
rates, Tension, Compression and Torsion, Deflection due to bending, Strain Energy.

67
Free body diagram and equilibrium
• Equilibrium
• A system with zero acceleration is set to be in equilibrium if that system is motionless
or at most as constant velocity.

Σ𝐹 = 0, Σ𝑀 = 0;
• Free body diagrams
• Free body diagrams help simplifying the analysis of a very complex structure or
machine by successively isolating each element and then studying and analysing it

Every equilibrium problem begins by drawing and labelling a free-body

diagram!

68
Creating free body diagram
The basic process for drawing a free body diagrams is 4. Traverse the perimeter of the object and
wherever a support was removed when
1. The “free-body” in free-body diagram means that the body isolating the body, replace it with the forces
to be analysed must be free from the supports that are and/or couple-moments which it provides.
physically holding it in place. Simply sketch a quick outline Label each reaction with a descriptive variable
of the object as if it is floating in space disconnected from name and a clear arrowhead. Again, if a vector’s
everything. Do not draw free-body diagram forces on top of direction is unknown just assume one.
your problem drawing — the body needs to be drawn free
of its supports.
5. Identifying the correct reaction forces and
couple-moments coming from supports is
2. Select a right-handed coordinate system to use as a perhaps the most challenging step in the entire
reference for your equilibrium equations. If you are using equilibrium process.
something other than a horizontal x axis and vertical y 6. Verify that every dimension, angle, force, and
axis, indicate it on your diagram. Select a coordinate system moment is labelled with either a value or a
which minimizes the number of unknown force components symbolic name if the value is unknown. Supply
in your equations. the information needed for your calculations,
but don't clutter the diagram up with unneeded
3. Add vectors arrows representing the applied forces and information; This diagram should be a “stand-
couple-moments acting on the body. These are often alone” presentation.
obvious. Include the body’s weight if it is non-negligible. If a
vector has a known line of action, draw the arrow in that
direction; if its sense is unknown, assume one. Every vector
should have a descriptive variable name and a clear
arrowhead indicating its direction. 69
Supports
• Supports supply reaction forces and moment which prevent bodies from moving when
loaded.
• In the most basic terms, forces prevent translation, and moments prevent rotation.
• The reactions supplied by a support depend on the nature of that particular support.
• For example, in a top view, a door hinge allows the door to rotate freely but prevents it
from translating.
• We model this as a frictionless pin that supplies a perpendicular pair of reaction forces,
but no reaction moment.
• We can evaluate all the other physical supports in a similar way to come up with the
table below.
• You will notice that some two-dimensional supports only restrain one degree of freedom
and others restrain up to three degrees of freedom.
• The number of degrees of freedom directly correlates to the number of unknowns
created by the support.

70
2D and 3D Supports.

71
Question 7

72
Question 8

73
Types of beams
Cantilever beam

Simply supported beam

Overhang beam

Fixed fixed beam

Continuous beam

74
Types of loads
Concentrated load

Uniformly distributed load

Uniformly varying load

75
Shear Force and Bending moment
• The algebraic sum of the vertical forces at any section of the beam to
the right or left of the section is called as shear forces. It is briefly
written as S. F.
• The algebraic sum of the moments of all forces acting at any section
of the beam to the right or left of the section is called as bending
moment. It is briefly written as B. M.

76
Concept of a section
• Cut beam at any location 𝑥1 (Use convenient coordinate system)
• The internal Shear force and Bending moment must ensure
equilibrium.

77
Relationship among S.F, B.M and load

78
Sign convention Shear force
• The shear force at a section will be considered positive when the resultant of the forces
to the left of the section is upwards and to the right of the section is downwards.
• The shear force at a section will be considered negative if the resultant of the forces to
the left of the section is downwards or to the right of the section is upwards .
• Here the resultant force to the left of the section is upwards and hence the shear force
will be positive

79
Sign convention Bending Moment
• The bending moment at a section is considered positive if the bending moment at that section is
such that it tends to bend the beam to a curvature having concavity at the top.
• Similarly, the bending moment at a section is considered negative if the bending moment at the
section is such that it tends to bend the beam to a curvature having convexity at the top.
• The positive bending moment is often called sagging movement and negative bending movement
as hogging moment.

80
Points to note for drawing SFD and BMD
• Consider the left or the right portion of the section
• Add the forces including reaction normal to the beam on one of the portion if right
portion of the section is chosen a force on the right portion acting downwards is positive
while a force acting upwards is negative.
• If the left portion of the section is chosen a force on the left portion acting upwards is
positive while a force acting downwards is negative.
• The positive values of shear force and bending moments are plotted above the baseline
and negative values below the baseline.
• The shear force diagram will increase or decrease suddenly i.e, by a vertical straight line
at a section where there is a vertical point load.
• The shear force between any 2 vertical loads will be constant and hence the shear force
diagram between 2 vertical loads will be horizontal.
• The bending moment at the 2 supports of a simply supported beam and at the free end
of a cantilever will be zero.

81
Drawing SFD and BMD with inclined load
• The shear force is defined as the algebraic sum of all the vertical force
acting at any section of a beam to the right or left of the section.
• When a beam carries inclined loads, then these inclined loads are first
resolved into their vertical and horizontal components.
• The vertical component will only cause shear forces and bending moment
in the beam
• The horizontal forces will induce axial forces or thrust in the beam. The
variation of the axial forces in the beam is recorded in a separate diagram
called the thrust diagram or axial force diagram.
• In most of the cases one end will be supported by a roller and the other
end by a hinge.
• The hinge will only support the axial load by providing a horizontal
reaction, whereas the roller provides no horizontal reaction.
82
Stress
• When an internal surface is isolated as shown, the net force and moment acting
on the surface manifest themselves as force distributions across the entire area.
• The force distribution acting at a point on the surface is unique and will have
components in the normal and tangential directions called normal stress and
tangential shear stress, respectively.
• Normal and shear stresses are labelled by the Greek symbols σ and τ,
respectively.
• If the direction of σ is outward from the surface it is considered as a tensile stress
and is a positive normal stress.
• If σ is into the surface it is a compressive stress and commonly considered to be a
negative quantity.
• The units of stress in U.S. Customary units are pounds per square inch (psi). For SI
units, stress is in newtons per square meter (N/m2); 1 N/m2 = 1 pascal (Pa).

83
Cartesian stress component
• Normal stress is normal to a surface and is denoted by 𝜎𝑥 . (If the surface
normal is the 𝑥 direction)
• Shear stress is tangent to a surface and is denoted by 𝜏𝑛𝑒𝑡 . It can be
resolved into components along the 𝑦 and 𝑧 directions as 𝜏𝑥𝑦 and 𝜏𝑥𝑧

• Note that double subscripts are necessary for the

shear.
• The first subscript indicates the direction of the
surface normal whereas the second subscript is
the direction of the shear stress.

84
State of stress at a point
• The state of stress at a point is defined by three mutually
perpendicular surfaces.
• As the dimension of the cube approaches zero the
stresses on the hidden faces become equal and opposite
to those on the opposing visible faces.
• Thus, in general, a complete state of stress is defined by
nine stress components, 𝜎𝑥 , 𝜎𝑦 , 𝜎𝑧 , 𝜏𝑥𝑦 , 𝜏𝑥𝑧 , 𝜏𝑦𝑧 , 𝜏𝑦𝑥 ,
𝜏𝑧𝑦 , 𝜏𝑧𝑥 .
• The cross shears are equal for equilibrium. This reduces
the number of stress components for most three-
dimensional states of stress from nine to six quantities,
𝜎𝑥 , 𝜎𝑦 , 𝜎𝑧 , 𝜏𝑥𝑦 , 𝜏𝑥𝑧 , 𝜏𝑦𝑧 .

85
 Plane stress
• When stresses on one of the surfaces is zero, it results in a state of stress
called as plane stress condition.
• Arbitrarily assuming that the normal for the stress-free surface is the 𝑧
direction such that 𝜎𝑧 = 𝜏𝑧𝑥 = 𝜏𝑧𝑦 = 0.
• The cross shears 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 𝜏𝑦𝑥 and 𝜏𝑦𝑧 = 𝜏𝑧𝑦 = 𝜏𝑥𝑧 = 𝜏𝑧𝑥 = 0
• The given figure explains this; however, it is important to note that it is still
a cube.
A state of plane stress typically occurs under two conditions.
• The first condition is on free surfaces where no stresses exist
perpendicular to the surface.
• The second, on thin, flat parts only loaded perpendicular to the
thickness plane.

86
Plane stress transformation equations
• Cutting plane stress element at an arbitrary angle and balancing
stresses gives plane stress transformation equations.
𝜎𝑥 +𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦
𝜎= + cos 2𝜙 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜙
2 2
𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦
𝜏=− sin 2𝜙 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 cos 2𝜙
2
• 𝜎 is the resultant stress acting normal to the oblique
surface which is at an angle 𝜙 (ccw +ve) to the selected
coordinates x axis.
• 𝜏 is the resultant stress acting tangential to the surface
which is at angle 𝜙 to the selected coordinates x axis.
• 𝜎𝑥 , 𝜎𝑦 and 𝜏𝑥𝑦 are the components of 𝜎 and 𝜏.

87
The Plane of maximum normal stresses or
principal stress plane
𝜎𝑥 +𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦
• Differentiating 𝜎 = + cos 2𝜙 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜙
2 2
𝑑𝜎
with respect to 𝜙 and setting the result equal to zero (i.e = 0) maximizes 𝜎 and
𝑑𝜙
gives two values for the angle 2𝜙𝑝 .
2𝜏𝑥𝑦
tan 2𝜙𝑝 =
𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
• Principal stress planes 𝜙𝑝 are 90° apart and give the maximum and minimum
stresses 𝜎1 and 𝜎2 respectively.
2𝜏𝑥𝑦
• Substituting, 2𝜙𝑝 = tan−1
𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦
𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦
into 𝜏 = − sin 2𝜙 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 cos 2𝜙 gives 𝜏 = 0.
2
∴ The two surfaces containing the principal stresses do not contain shear stresses.

88
The Plane of maximum shear stresses
𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦
• Differentiating 𝜏 = − sin 2𝜙 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 cos 2𝜙
2
𝑑𝜏
with respect to 𝜙 and setting the result equal to zero (i.e = 0) maximizes 𝜏 and gives two values for the
𝑑𝜙
angle 2𝜙𝑠 which are 90° apart.

𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
tan 2𝜙𝑠 = −
2𝜏𝑥𝑦
• Maximum shear stress planes 𝜙𝑠 are 90° apart.
𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦
• Substituting, 2𝜙𝑠 = tan−1 2𝜏𝑥𝑦
𝜎𝑥 +𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦
into 𝜎 = + cos 2𝜙 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜙, gives
2 2
𝜎𝑥 +𝜎𝑦
𝜎= .
2
𝜎𝑥 +𝜎𝑦
∴ The two surfaces containing the maximum shear stresses also contain equal normal stresses of value .
2
• The plane of maximum shear stress may not be the plane of zero normal stress.

89
 −1 𝑌
Calculating tan accurately.
𝑋
• if denominator X is negative, adding π radians or 180° to the result
obtained from calculators will result in an accurate description of the
angles.
−𝟏 𝟒
𝐭𝐚𝐧 = −𝟓𝟑. 𝟏𝟑° 𝑊𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑔
• E𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 : −𝟑
−𝟓𝟑. 𝟏𝟑° + 𝟏𝟖𝟎° = 𝟏𝟐𝟔. 𝟖𝟕° 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡

90
Principal stresses and extreme values of shear
• By substituting the the angles 2𝜙𝑝 into 2𝜙 in the plane stress
transformation equations, we can get the extreme values of stresses
in the system or the principal stresses. Given by,
𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2
2
𝜎1 , 𝜎2 = ± + 𝜏𝑥𝑦
2 2
• Similarly, the extreme values of shear are given by,
𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦 2 2
𝜏1 , 𝜏2 = ± + 𝜏𝑥𝑦
2

91
Assignment
• Derive the stress transformation equations for a plane stress element.
• Derive the principal stress and maximum stress equations from the
stress transformation equation.

92
Mohr Circle
𝜎𝑥 +𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦
𝜎= + cos 2𝜙 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜙
2 2
𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦
𝜏=− 2
sin 2𝜙 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 cos 2𝜙
Examining the above equations,
• σ and 𝜏 can be shown to be a set of
parametric equation describing a
circle on a 𝜎, 𝜏 plane with the
parameter being 2𝜙 and
• A𝜎circle center with coordinates C =
𝑥 +𝜎𝑦
,0
2
• A radius described by 𝑅 =
𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦 2 2
+ 𝜏𝑥𝑦
2
• An arbitrary surface located at an angle 𝜙
ccw from the x face is

93
Mohr Circle Shear convention
• Shear stresses tending to rotate
the element clockwise (c.w) are
plotted above the σ axis.
• Shear stresses tending to rotate
the element counterclockwise
(c.c.w) are plotted below the σ
axis.
• The classical approach to Mohr’s
circle uses a different convention
for the shear stress.

94
Mohr Circle Construction- Point A
• Using the stress state, we plot
Point A on Mohr’s circle
• First look at the right surface of the
element (called the x face where ϕ =
0°) containing 𝜎𝑥 to establish the sign
of 𝜎𝑥 . If outwards, then the stress is
tensile and point A must be plotted
on positive 𝜎 axis.
• Look at the shear direction, if it tends
to rotate the element ccw (+ve), then
point A must be plotted in the
negative 𝜏 axis or below the 𝜎 axis.
• With the given values of 𝜎𝑥 and 𝜏𝑥𝑦
𝑐𝑐𝑤 ).
plot point A(𝜎𝑥 , 𝜏𝑥𝑦

95
Mohr Circle Construction- Point B
• Look at y face where ϕ =
90°containing 𝜎𝑦 to establish its
sign. If outwards, then the stress is
tensile and point B must be plotted
on positive 𝜎 axis.
• Look at the shear direction, if it
tends to rotate the element cw (-
ve), then point B must be plotted in
the negative 𝜏 axis or above the 𝜎
axis.
• With the given values of 𝜎𝑦 and
𝑐𝑤 ).
𝜏𝑥𝑦 plot point B(𝜎𝑥 , 𝜏𝑥𝑦

96
Mohr Circle Construction- Circle
• Since the faces of the stress
states are 90° (𝜙) apart, the
points on the Mohr circle must
be 180° apart (2𝜙).
• These two points are taken as
the diameter of a circle and a
circle is constructed by bisecting
the line AB to get the center of
the Mohr circle at C lying on σ
axis.

97
Mohr Circle- Insights
• The principal stresses are points lying on the Mohr
circle and the 𝜎 axis.
• The maximum shear stresses are the points lying
on the top and bottom most point of the Mohr
circle. They lie on the same vertical line as the
Center.
• The state of stress on an arbitrary surface located
at an angle 𝜙 ccw from the x face is a point H
(here). It is located 2𝜙 c.c.w from line CA.
• The principal directions are at 90° (180° on Mohr
circle) to each other.
• The maximum shear stress planes are at 90° (180°
on Mohr circle) to each other.
• The maximum shear stress and principal directions
are at 45° (90° on Mohr circle) to each other.

98
Question
• A plane stress element has 𝜎𝑥 = 80
MPa, 𝜎𝑦 = 0 MPa, and 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 50
MPa cw, as shown in Figure.
• (a) Using Mohr’s circle, find the
principal stresses and directions,
and show these on a stress
element correctly aligned with
respect to the xy coordinates. Draw
another stress element to show 𝜏1
and 𝜏2 , find the corresponding
normal stresses, and label the
drawing completely.
• (b) Repeat part a using the
transformation equations only.
99
Answer

100
101
102
103
104
105
Elastic Strain
• The normal strain of a tensile specimen is calculated from
𝑙 − 𝑙0 𝛿
𝜀= = ,
𝑙0 𝑙0
• Where 𝑙0 is the original gauge length, 𝛿 is the elongation within the length
𝑙0 and 𝑙 is the current length corresponding to the current load 𝑃.
• The Hooke’s law for a tensile specimen is calculated by:
𝜎 = 𝐸𝜀
• The constant E is called Young’s modulus or the modulus of elasticity.
• When a material is placed under tension, there exists not only an axial
strain, but also a negative strain (contraction) perpendicular to the axial
strain.
106
Poisson’s Ratio
• Assuming a linear, homogeneous, isotropic material, the negative
lateral strain is proportional to the axial strain.
• If the axial direction is , then the lateral strains are 𝜀𝑦 = 𝜀𝑧 = −𝜈𝜀𝑥
• The constant of proportionality 𝜈 is called Poisson’s ratio (Siméon
Denis Poisson (1781–1840)) , which is about 0.3 for most structural
metals.

107
 Strains under multiaxial loading
Using the principle of superposition,
Valid under the condition that
the stresses do not exceed the
proportional limit and the
deformations involved remain
small.

A positive value for a stress component

signifies tension and a negative value
compression.
Under the given multiaxial loading, the element of sides of length
Similarly, a positive value for a strain
1, 1, 1 will deform into a rectangular parallelepiped of sides equal
component indicates expansion in the
to 1 + 𝜀𝑥 , 1 + 𝜀𝑦 and 1 + 𝜀𝑧 , where 𝜀𝑥 𝜀𝑦 , and 𝜀𝑧 denote the
corresponding direction and a negative value
values of the normal strain in the directions of the three coordinate
contraction.
axes .

108
Plane Strain
• If the beam thickness is very thin in the z direction (approaching zero
thickness in the limit), then the state of stress will be plane stress.
• If the beam is very wide in the z direction (approaching infinite width
in the limit), then the state of strain will be plane strain.
• The strain-stress equations(previous slide), can then be modified for
plane strain.

109
Assignment
• What is the difference between area moment of inertia and mass
moment of inertia? Explain with equations and figures.

110
Question
Electrical strain gauges were applied to a notched specimen to
determine the stresses in the notch.
The results were 𝜀𝑥 = 0.0019 and 𝜀𝑦 = −0.00072.
Find 𝜎𝑥 and 𝜎𝑦 if the material is carbon steel.

111
Normal stresses in beam bending
Assumptions
• The beam is subjected to pure bending. This means that the shear
force is zero, and that no torsion or axial loads are present (for
most engineering applications it is assumed that these loads affect
the bending stresses minimally).
• The material is isotropic and homogeneous.
• The material obeys Hooke’s law.
• The beam is initially straight with a cross section that is constant
throughout the beam length.
• The beam has an axis of symmetry in the plane of bending.
• The proportions of the beam are such that it would fail by bending
rather than by crushing, wrinkling, or sidewise buckling.
• Plane cross sections of the beam remain plane during bending.
Neutral Axis : Elements of the beam coincident with the Neutral axis
have zero bending stress. The location of the neutral axis with respect
to the cross section is coincident with the centroidal axis of the cross
section.

112
Equations in beam bending
The bending stress varies linearly with the distance from the
neutral axis, y, and is given by
𝑀𝑦
𝜎𝑥 = − ,
𝐼
𝐼= ‫ 𝑦 ׬‬2 𝑑𝐴 second moment of area about the z axis .
𝑀𝑐 𝑀
∴ 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = ,
𝐼 𝑍
Z is called the section modulus

113
Geometric properties of sections -- 1

114
Geometric properties of sections -- 2

115
Geometric properties of solids

116
Question
A beam having a T section with the dimensions shown in the given figure is subjected to a bending
moment of 1600 N · m, about the negative z axis, that causes tension at the top surface. Locate the
neutral axis and find the maximum tensile and compressive bending stresses.

117
…Continued
A beam having a T section with the dimensions shown in the given figure is subjected to a bending
moment of 1600 N · m, about the negative z axis, that causes tension at the top surface. Locate the
neutral axis and find the maximum tensile and compressive bending stresses.

118
Deflection
• All real bodies deform under load, either elastically or flexible, the teeth will not mesh properly, and the result will
plastically. be excessive impact, noise, wear, and early failure.
• A body can be sufficiently insensitive to deformation that a• In rolling sheet or strip steel to prescribed thicknesses, the
presumption of rigidity does not affect an analysis enough rolls must be crowned, that is, curved, so that the finished
to warrant a nonrigid treatment. product will be of uniform thickness. Thus, to design the
rolls it is necessary to know exactly how much they will
• If the body deformation later proves to be not negligible, bend when a sheet of steel is rolled between them.
then declaring rigidity was a poor decision, not a poor
assumption. • Sometimes mechanical elements must be designed to have
a particular force-deflection characteristic.
• A wire rope is flexible, but in tension it can be robustly rigid,
and it distorts enormously under attempts at compressive• The suspension system of an automobile, for example, must
loading. The same body can be both rigid and nonrigid. be designed within a very narrow range to achieve an
optimum vibration frequency for all conditions of vehicle
• Deflection analysis enters into design situations in many loading, because the human body is comfortable only
ways. A snap ring, or retaining ring, must be flexible enough within a limited range of frequencies.
to be bent without permanent deformation and assembled
with other parts, and then it must be rigid enough to hold• The size of a load-bearing component is often determined
the assembled parts together. on deflections, rather than limits on stress.
• In a transmission, the gears must be supported by a rigid
shaft. If the shaft bends too much, that is, if it is too

119
Spring Rates

Non-Linear stiffening spring

Non- Linear Hardening spring

Linear spring

The spring rate is defined as For a linear force deflection curve spring
𝐹
constant 𝑘 is a constant given by 𝑘 = 𝑦

120
 Spring rates for Tension Compression and
Torsion
• The total extension of a uniform bar in pure tension or compression is
𝐹𝐿
𝛿=
𝐴𝐸
𝐹
Comparing with 𝑘 = with 𝛿 = 𝑦 we see that the spring constant of an axially loaded bar is given
𝑦
by,
𝐴𝐸
𝑘=
𝐿
• The angular deflection of a uniform solid or hollow round bar subjected to a twisting moment 𝑇 is
given by
𝑇𝑙
𝜃=
𝐺𝐽
𝐹
Comparing with 𝑘 = with 𝛿 = 𝜃, 𝑇 = 𝐹 we see that the torsional spring constant is
𝑦
𝐺𝐽
𝑘=
𝑙

121
Question

B) If the simple support at point A were eliminated and the

cantilever spring rate of OA is given by 𝑘𝐿 , determine the overall
spring rate of the bar based on the deflection of point B.

122
Deformations of Members Under Axial
Loading

123
Assignment

124
Bending deformation
ρ = radius of arc DE 𝐿 = 𝜌𝜃,
θ = central angle 𝐿′ = 𝜌 − 𝑦 𝜃,
DE = undeformed length L 𝛿 = 𝐿′ − 𝐿,
JK = deformed length L’
⇒ 𝛿 = 𝜌 − 𝑦 𝜃 − 𝜌𝜃 = −𝑦𝜃,
𝑐 = 𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑦
⇒ 𝜀𝑥 = −
𝜌
c
𝜀𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝜌
1 𝜀 𝜎 1 Mc M
⇒ = 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑚 = =
𝜌 𝑐 𝐸𝑐 Ec I EI

1 𝑑2𝑦 𝑀 𝑑3 𝑦 𝑉 𝑑4𝑦 𝑞
⇒ = = ⇒ = ⇒ =
𝜌 𝑑𝑥 2 𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥 3 𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥 4 𝐸𝐼
𝑑𝑦
𝜃= ;𝑦 =𝑓 𝑥
𝑑𝑥

125
Utilizing the deflection formula
After going through the shear force and bending moment calculations,
𝑤𝑙𝑥 𝑤𝑥 2
We get the solution: for bending moment 𝑀 = − for 0 < 𝑥 < 𝐿
2 2
𝑀 𝑑2 𝑦
Using = 2 , determine the equations for the slope and deflection of the beam, the slopes at
𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥
the ends, and the maximum deflection.
𝐸𝐼𝑑𝑦 𝑤𝑙𝑥 2 𝑤𝑥 3
= ‫= 𝑥𝑑𝑀 ׬‬ − + 𝐶1
𝑑𝑥 4 6
𝑤𝑙 𝑤
⇒ 𝐸𝐼𝑦 = ‫ 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑑𝑀 ׭‬3 − 𝑥 4 + 𝐶1 𝑥 + 𝐶2
12 24
The boundary conditions for the simply supported beam are
𝑤𝑙 3
𝑦 = 0 at 𝑥 = 0, 𝐿, ⇒ 𝐶1 = − , 𝐶2 = 0
24
𝑤𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑤𝑥
⇒𝑦= 2𝑙𝑥 2 − 𝑥 3 − 𝑙 3 ⇒ 𝜃 = = (6𝑙𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 3 − 𝑙 3 )
24𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥 24𝐸𝐼
𝑤𝑙 3
𝜃ȁ𝑥=0 = −
48𝐸𝐼
𝑤𝑙 3
𝜃ȁ𝑥=𝑙 =
48𝐸𝐼

At the midspan, substituting x = l∕2 gives dy∕dx = 0,

The maximum deflection occurs where dy∕dx = 0. Substituting x = l∕2 in

𝑤𝑥 5𝑤𝑙 4
𝑦= 2𝑙𝑥 2 − 𝑥 3 − 𝑙 3 yields 𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 = −
24𝐸𝐼 384𝐸𝐼
126
Methods of finding beam deflection
1 𝑑2 𝑦 𝑀 𝑑3 𝑦 𝑉 𝑑4 𝑦 𝑞 𝑑𝑦
= = ⇒ = ⇒ = ;𝜃 = ;𝑦 =𝑓 𝑥
𝜌 𝑑𝑥 2 𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥 3 𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥 4 𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥
• Methods using the equations given above:
• Superposition✅
• The moment-area method
• Singularity functions
• Numerical integration
• Methods not utilizing the equations given above:
• Finite element method
• Strain energy method ✅
• Castigliano’s method

127
Beam deflection by superposition
• Superposition resolves the effect of combined loading on a structure
by determining the effects of each load separately and adding the
results algebraically.
• Superposition may be applied provided
• each effect is linearly related to the load that produces it;
• a load does not create a condition that affects the result of another load; and
• the deformations resulting from any specific load are not large enough to
appreciably alter the geometric relations of the parts of the structural system.

128
Table of beam deflection -1

129
Table of beam deflection -2

130
Table of beam deflection -3

131
Table of beam deflection -4

132
Table of beam deflection -5

133
Table of beam deflection -6

134
Table of beam deflection -7

135
Table of beam deflection -8

136
Temperature effects
• When the temperature of an unrestrained
body is uniformly increased, the body expand
s and the normal strain is,
𝜀𝑥 = 𝜀𝑦 = 𝜀𝑧 = 𝛼 ΔT ,
Where, 𝛼 is the coefficient of thermal
expansion and Δ𝑇 is the temperature change, in
degrees.
• If a straight bar is restrained at the ends to
prevent lengthwise expansion and then is
subjected to a uniform increase in
temperature, a compressive stress will
develop due to the axial constraint. The stress
is,
𝜎 = −𝜀𝐸 = −𝛼 Δ𝑇 𝐸

137
Torsion
• Any moment vector that is collinear with an axis of a mechanical part
is called a torque vector, because the moment caused the part to be
twisted about that axis.
• A bar subjected to such a moment is said to be in torsion.
The assumptions used in this analysis are.
• The bar is acted upon by a pure torque, and the sections
under consideration are remote from the point of
application of the load and from a change in diameter.
• The material obeys Hooke’s law.
• Adjacent cross sections originally plane and parallel
remain plane and parallel after twisting, and any radial
line remains straight. 138
Torsion- angle of twist
• The angle of twist, in radians, for a solid round bar is:

𝑇𝑙
𝜃=
𝐺𝐽
Here,
𝑇 = torque
𝑙 = length
𝐺 = modulus of rigidity
𝐽 = polar second moment of area
139
Torsion – shear stress
• Shear stress 𝜏 develops throughout the cross section and is given by:

𝑇𝜌
𝜏=
𝐽
Here,
𝑇 = torque
𝜌 = radius to the outer surface
𝐽 = polar second moment of area

140
Torsion – Power
In U.S System In S.I System

𝐹𝑉 2𝜋𝑇𝑛 𝑇𝑛 9.55𝐻
𝐻= = = , 𝐻 = 𝑇𝜔, (or T ≈ )
33000 33000 12 63025 𝑛

H = power, hp H = power, W
T = torque, lbf · in T = torque, N · m
n = shaft speed, rev/min ω = angular velocity, rad/s
F = force, lbf n = shaft speed, rev/min
V = velocity, ft/min
141
Question
• The 1.5 cm-diameter solid steel shaft shown in Figure 3–24a is simply
supported at the ends. Two pulleys are keyed to the shaft where
pulley B is of diameter 4.0 cm and pulley C is of diameter 8.0 cm.
Considering bending and torsional stresses only, determine the
locations and magnitudes of the greatest tensile, compressive, and
shear stresses in the shaft.

142
Answer

143
Question
Determine an appropriate size for a circular cross-section solid steel
shaft to transmit 185 kW at a speed of 540 rev/min if the maximum
allowable shear stress is 103.421 MPa.

144
Module 3
Failures resulting from Static Loading – Static Strength, Stress Concentration, Failure theories.

145
Terms
• Strength: Strength is a property or characteristics of a mechanical
element.
• Static load: It is a stationary force, or a moment applied to a member.
To be stationary , the force or couple must not change in magnitude,
point or points of applications and direction.
• Failure can mean a part:
• Has separated into two or more pieces.
• Has become permanently distorted.
• Has its reliability degraded.
• Has its function compromised.

146
Failure Examples 1
• Failure of truck driveshaft spline due to corrosion fatigue.

147
Failure Examples 2
• Impact failure of a lawn mower blade driver hub.
• The blade impacted a surveying pipe marker.

148
Failure Examples 3
• Failure of an overhead-pulley retaining bolt on a weightlifting
machine.
• A manufacturing error caused a gap that forced the bolt to take the
entire moment load.

149
Failure Examples 4
• Chain test fixture that failed in one
cycle.
• To alleviate complaints of excessive
wear, the manufacturer decided to
case-harden the material
(a) Two halves showing brittle
fracture initiated by stress
concentration
(b) Enlarged view showing
cracks induced by stress
concentration at the support-pin
holes
150
Failure Examples - 5

151
Failure Examples -6
• Valve spring failure caused by spring surge in an oversped engine.
• The fractures exhibit a classic 45° shear failure.

152
Failure of materials
• Mohr's circle for a uniaxial tensile test (left) shows
the existence of shear stress at some planes.
• Existence of normal stress for a case of torsion test
(pure shear)
• In both the cases, which stress causes the failure?
• In a static tensile test, in general, ductile materials
are limited by their shear strength and the brittle
materials are by their normal strength
• Hence, one kind of failure theory doesn't explain
all the materials
• Different failure theories for the two classes
(ductile and brittle) of materials
• But, before actually talking about a failure theory, a
proper definition of failure itself is important!

153
Before that what is a ductile material?
• If the percentage elongation up to fracture is greater than 5%
• For many ductile materials, this number is usually 10%.

154
Failure of materials
• A component may be considered failed if it yields and deforms
sufficiently large leading to improper functioning.
• A component might fail by fracture.
• Both the conditions are failure; but the mechanisms are different!
• The loading can be Static or Dynamic failure.

155
Failure of ductile materials
• Ductile materials fail by fracture if loaded beyond ultimate tensile
strength
• Typically, the machine components made of ductile materials are
considered to be failed when they yield under static loading.
• Yield strength of a ductile material is much less than the ultimate
strength.

156
Role of testing and using published data in
design.
• If the part is to experience a bending load, it should be tested with a bending load.
• If it is to be subjected to combined bending and torsion, it should be tested under
combined bending and torsion.
• If it is made of heat-treated AISI 1040 steel drawn at 500°C with a ground finish, the
specimens tested should be of the same material prepared in the same manner.
• Such tests will provide very useful and precise information. Whenever such data are
available for design purposes, the engineer can be assured of doing the best possible job
of engineering.
• But the cost of gathering such extensive data prior to design is justified if failure of the
part may endanger human life or if the part is manufactured in sufficiently large
quantities.
• It is necessary to design using only published values of yield strength, ultimate strength,
percentage reduction in area, and percentage elongation.

157
Need for failure theories

158
Assumptions in failure theories
• No crack is present
• Material is isotropic and homogeneous

159
Maximum Normal (Principal) Stress theory for
brittle materials
• Theory: Yielding begins when the
maximum principal stress in a
stress element exceeds the yield
strength.
• For any stress element, use Mohr's
circle to find the principal stresses.
• Compare the largest principal
stress to the yield strength.
• Experimental data shows the
theory is unsafe in the 4th
quadrant.
• This theory is not safe to use for
ductile materials.

160
Maximum shear stress theory for ductile
materials
• Theory: Yielding begins when the maximum shear
stress in a stress element exceeds the maximum
shear stress in a tension test specimen of the same
material when that specimen begins to yield.
• For a tension
𝜎1 test specimen, the maximum shear
stress is .
2
• At yielding,
𝑆𝑦
when 𝜎1 = 𝑆𝑦 , the maximum shear
stress is .
2
• Could restate the theory as follows:
• Theory: Yielding begins when the maximum
𝑆𝑦
shear
stress in a stress element exceeds .
2

161
Maximum shear stress theory for ductile
materials - Steps
• For any stress element, use Mohr's circle
𝑆𝑦
to find the maximum shear stress.
Compare the maximum shear stress to .
2
• Ordering the principal stresses such that 𝜎1 > 𝜎2 > 𝜎3 .
𝜎1 −𝜎3 𝑆𝑦
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ≥ or 𝜎1 − 𝜎3 ≥ 𝑆𝑦 .
2 2
• Incorporating a design factor n.
𝑆𝑦 𝑆𝑦
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = or 𝜎1 − 𝜎3 ≥
2𝑛 𝑛
• Or solving for factor of safety
𝑆𝑦
𝑛= 2
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥

162
Maximum shear stress theory for ductile materials
– Comparison with experimental data
• To compare to experimental data, • Case 1: 𝜎𝐴 > 𝜎𝐵 > 0
express 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 in terms of principal • For this case 𝜎1 = 𝜎𝐴 and 𝜎3 = 0
stresses and plot. • From 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝜎1 −𝜎3 𝑆𝑦
≥ , we get
2 2
• To simplify, consider a plane stress 𝜎𝐴 > 𝑆𝑦
state. • Case 2: 𝜎𝐴 > 0 > 𝜎𝐵
• Let 𝜎𝐴 , 𝜎𝐵 and represent the two • For this case 𝜎1 = 𝜎𝐴 and 𝜎3 = 𝜎𝐵
non-zero principal stresses, then • From 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝜎1 −𝜎3 𝑆𝑦
≥ , we get
order them with the zero principal 𝜎𝐴 − 𝜎𝐵 > 𝑆𝑦
2 2
stress such that 𝜎1 > 𝜎2 > 𝜎3 .
• Assuming 𝜎𝐴 > 𝜎𝐵 there are three • Case 3: 0 > 𝜎𝐴 > 𝜎𝐵
cases to consider. • For this case 𝜎1 = 0 and 𝜎3 = 𝜎𝐵
𝜎1 −𝜎3 𝑆𝑦
• From 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ≥ , we get
2 2
𝜎𝐵 < −𝑆𝑦

163
Maximum shear stress theory for ductile
materials – Plotting
• Plot three cases on principal stress
axes
• Case 1: 𝜎𝐴 > 𝜎𝐵 > 0
• 𝜎𝐴 > 𝑆𝑦
• Case 2: 𝜎𝐴 > 0 > 𝜎𝐵
• 𝜎𝐴 − 𝜎𝐵 > 𝑆𝑦
• Case 3: 0 > 𝜎𝐴 > 𝜎𝐵
• 𝜎𝐵 < −𝑆𝑦
• Other lines are symmetric cases.
• Inside envelope is predicted safe
zone.

164
Maximum shear stress theory for ductile materials
– Comparison with experimental data
• Conservative in all quadrants.
• This is commonly used for design
situations.

165
3-d State of stress
• 6 components of stress are required to specify a general state of stress in three
dimensions, and the problem of determining the principal stresses and directions
is more difficult.
• In design, three-dimensional transformations are rarely performed (except in
contact problems) since most maximum stress states occur under plane stress
conditions.
• In fact, all states of stress are truly three-dimensional, where they might be
described one- or two-dimensionally with respect to specific coordinate axes.
• The process in finding the three principal stresses from the six stress components
𝜎𝑥 , 𝜎𝑦 , 𝜎𝑧 , 𝜏𝑥𝑦 , 𝜏𝑦𝑧 , 𝜏𝑧𝑥 involves finding the roots of the cubic equation.
• 𝜎 3 − 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 + 𝜎𝑧 𝜎 2 + 𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑦 + 𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑧 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑧 − 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2 − 𝜏2 − 𝜏2 𝜎 −
𝑦𝑧 𝑧𝑥
2 2 2
𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑧 + 2𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜏𝑦𝑧 𝜏𝑧𝑥 − 𝜎𝑥 𝜏𝑦𝑧 − 𝜎𝑦 𝜏𝑧𝑥 − 𝜎𝑧 𝜏𝑥𝑦 =0

166
3-d State of stress – Mohr circle
• In plotting Mohr’s circles for three-dimensional
stress, the principal normal stresses are
ordered so that 𝜎1 > 𝜎2 > 𝜎3 .
• The stress coordinates σ, τ for any arbitrarily
located plane will always lie on the boundaries
or within the shaded area.
• The figure shows that the principal shear
stresses are given by the equations
𝜎1 −𝜎2 𝜎2 −𝜎3 𝜎1 −𝜎3
• 𝜏1/2 = ; 𝜏2/3 = ; 𝜏1/3 =
2 2 2
• 𝜏12 is shown in figure b.
• 𝜏_ max = 𝜏1/3 only when principal stresses are
ordered

167
Distortion energy theory for ductile materials
• Also known as:
• Octahedral Shear Stress
• Shear Energy
• Von Mises
• Von Mises – Hencky
• Originated from observation that ductile materials stressed hydrostatically (equal
principal stresses) exhibited yield strengths greatly in excess of expected values.
• Theorizes that if strain energy is divided into hydrostatic volume changing energy
and angular distortion energy, the yielding is primarily affected by the distortion
energy.
• Theory: Yielding occurs when the distortion strain energy per unit volume
reaches the distortion strain energy per unit volume for yield in simple tension or
compression of the same material.
168
Derivation of DE – 1

169
Derivation of DE – 2

170
Von-Mises Stress

171
DE theory comparison with experimental data
• Plot von Mises stress on principal
stress axes to compare to
experimental data (and to other
failure theories)
• DE curve is typical of data
• Note that typical equates to a 50%
reliability from a design
perspective
• Commonly used for analysis
situations
• MSS theory useful for design
situations where higher reliability is
desired

172
Use of Von Mises stress in Finite element
analysis

• Von Mises Stress can be thought of as a single, equivalent,

or effective stress for the entire general state of stress in a
stress element.
• Distortion Energy failure theory simply compares von Mises
stress to yield strength.

173
Octahedral Shear Stress Theory
• Theory: Yielding begins when the
octahedral shear stress in a stress
element exceeds the octahedral shear
stress in a tension test specimen at
yielding.
• Same results as DE with VM obtained by
evaluating octahedral stresses.
• Octahedral stresses are identical on 8
surfaces symmetric to the principal stress
directions.
• Octahedral stresses allow representation
of any stress situation with a set of
normal and shear stresses.
174
Octahedral shear stress
• Octahedral normal stresses are normal to the octahedral surfaces and are equal
to the average of the principal stresses.
• Octahedral shear stresses lie on the octahedral surfaces and is given by:
1 2 2 2
1
𝜏𝑜𝑐𝑡 = 𝜎1 − 𝜎2 + 𝜎2 − 𝜎3 + 𝜎3 − 𝜎1 2
3
• For a tension test specimen at yielding, 𝜎1 = 𝑆𝑦 , 𝜎2 = 𝜎3 = 0
1
1 2 2
• Substituting in 𝜏𝑜𝑐𝑡 = 𝜎1 − 𝜎2 + 𝜎2 − 𝜎3 + 𝜎3 − 𝜎1 2 2 we get 𝜏𝑜𝑐𝑡 =
2 3
𝑆 .
3 𝑦
• The theory predicts failure when
1
𝜎1 − 𝜎2 2 + 𝜎2 − 𝜎3 2 + 𝜎3 − 𝜎1 2 2
> Sy
2

175
Shear Strength Predictions
• For pure shear loading, Mohr's
circle shows that 𝜎𝐴 = −𝜎𝐵 = 𝜏
• Plotting this equation on
principal stress axes gives load
line for pure shear case
• Intersection of pure shear load
line with failure curve indicates
shear strength has been reached
• Each failure theory predicts
shear strength to be some
fraction of normal strength
176
Shear Strength Prediction for MSS
• For MSS theory, intersecting
pure shear load line with failure
𝜎1 −𝜎3 𝑆𝑦
line 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ≥ results in
2 2
• 𝑆𝑠𝑦 = 0.5𝑆𝑦 or yield strength in
shear is half that of
unidirectional tensile yield
strength.

177
Shear Strength Prediction for DE
• For DE theory, intersection pure
shear load line with failure curve
1
𝜎 ′ = 𝜎𝑥2 − 𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑦 + 𝜎𝑦2 + 3𝜏𝑥𝑦
2 2

along with 𝜎 ′ ≥ 𝑆𝑦 gives

1
2
3𝜏𝑥𝑦 2 = 𝑆𝑦
or
𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 𝑆𝑦 / 3 = 0.577 𝑆𝑦

178
Coulomb-Mohr theory for ductile materials
• Yield strength in compression of
magnesium < 50% yield strength in
tension.
• Ultimate strength of grey cast iron
in compression is 3 to 4 times the
ultimate tensile strength.
• The design equation is given by
𝜎1 𝜎3 1
• − =
𝑆𝑡 𝑆𝑐 𝑛
• Torsional shear strength is given by
𝑆𝑦𝑡 𝑆𝑦𝑐
• 𝑆𝑠𝑦 =
𝑆𝑦𝑡 +𝑆𝑦𝑐

179
Mohr theory modifications for brittle
materials
• Two modifications of a Mohr theory for plane
stress to find the design factor.
• Brittle Coulomb-Mohr Theory
𝑆𝑢𝑡
• 𝜎𝐴 = ; 𝜎𝐴 ≥ 𝜎𝐵 ≥ 0
𝑛
𝜎𝐴 𝜎𝐵 1
• − = ; 𝜎𝐴 ≥ 0 ≥ 𝜎𝐵
𝑆𝑢𝑡 𝑆𝑢𝑐 𝑛
𝑆
• 𝜎𝐵 = − 𝑛𝑢𝑐 ; 0 ≥ 𝜎𝐴 ≥ 𝜎𝐵
• Modified Mohr Theory
𝑆𝑢𝑡
• 𝜎𝐴 = ; 𝜎𝐴 ≥ 𝜎𝐵 ≥ 0
𝑛
𝑆 𝜎
• 𝜎𝐴 = 𝑛𝑢𝑡 ; 𝜎𝐴 ≥ 0 ≥ 𝜎𝐵 ; 𝜎𝐵 ≤ 1
𝐴
𝑆𝑢𝑐 −𝑆𝑢𝑡 𝜎𝐴 𝜎𝐵 1 𝜎𝐵
• − = ; 𝜎 ≥ 0 ≥ 𝜎 ; >1
𝑆𝑢𝑐 𝑆𝑢𝑡 𝑆𝑢𝑐 𝑛 𝐴 𝐵 𝜎
𝐴
𝑆𝑢𝑐
• 𝜎𝐵 = − 𝑛 ; 0 ≥ 𝜎𝐴 ≥ 𝜎𝐵

180
Selection of failure criteria
For ductile behavior the preferred criterion is the distortion-
energy theory, although some designers also apply the
maximum-shear-stress theory because of its simplicity
and conservative nature.
In the rare case when Syt ≠ Syc, the ductile Coulomb-Mohr
method is employed.
For brittle behavior, the original Mohr hypothesis,
constructed with tensile, compression, and torsion tests, with
a curved failure locus is the best hypothesis we have.

181
Stress concentration - Explanation
• The basic stress equations do not permit geometric irregularities.
• A machine must be permitted some changes in the cross sections of the members.
• Rotating shafts must have shoulders designed on them so that the bearings can be properly
seated and so that they will take thrust loads; and the shafts must have key slots machined into
them for securing pulleys and gears.
• A bolt has a head on one end and screw threads on the other end, both of which account for
abrupt changes in the cross section.
• Other parts require holes, oil grooves, and notches of various kinds.
• Discontinuity alters the stress distribution in the neighbourhood where simple stress
equations are not valid.
• Such discontinuities are called stress raisers, and the regions in which they occur are
called areas of stress concentration.
• Stress concentrations can also arise from some irregularity not inherent in the member,
such as tool marks, holes, notches, grooves, or threads.

182
Stress concentration - Application
• A theoretical (because it is only defined by geometry not the material), or
geometric, stress-concentration factor (SCF) 𝐾𝑡 or 𝐾𝑡𝑠 is used to relate the
actual maximum stress at the discontinuity to the nominal stress.
• The factors are defined by the equations
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥
• 𝐾𝑡 = = normal stress ; 𝐾𝑡𝑠 = = shear stress
𝜎0 𝜏0
• Always cross check the source of 𝐾𝑡 , 𝐾𝑡𝑠 before calculating the maximum
stress, sometimes 𝜎0 , 𝜏0 in the equations to calculate them may come from
gross or net area.
• In ductile materials under static loading SCF are generally not applied.
• In brittle materials the geometric stress-concentration factor 𝐾𝑡 is applied
to the nominal stress before comparing it with strength.
• In dynamic loading SCF are always applied.
183
Stress concentration graph 1

184
Stress concentration graph 2

185
Stress concentration graph 3

186
Other theories and failure analysis method
which are out of scope in this course
• Fracture mechanics
• Fatigue failure resulting from variable loading

187
Extra Slides for diagramming

188
 𝜎𝑏 = 30 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝜏𝑏 = 5 𝑀𝑃𝑎

𝜎𝑑 = 30 𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝜎𝑐 = 20 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝜏𝑑 = − 5 𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝜏𝑐 = 5 𝑀𝑃𝑎

𝜎𝑎 = 20 𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝜎𝑎 = 20 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝜏𝑎 = −5 𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝜏𝑎 = −5 𝑀𝑃𝑎

𝜎𝑑 = 30 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝜎𝑐 = 20 𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝜏𝑑 = − 5 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝜏𝑐 = 5 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝜎𝑏 = 30 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝜏𝑏 = 5 𝑀𝑃𝑎
191