CIRCUIT
THEOREMS, LAWS,
& TECHNIQUES
TOPIC 3
Nodes, Branches, and
Loops
✣ A branch represents a single element such
as a voltage source or a resistor.
✣ A node is the point of connection between
two or more branches.
✣ A loop is any closed path in a circuit.
✣ A loop is said to be independent if it contains
at least one branch which is not a part of any
other independent loop.
✣ A network with b branches, n nodes, and l
independent loops will satisfy the
fundamental theorem of network topology:
b=l+n–1
✣A network may be regarded as an
interconnection of elements or devices.
✣ A circuit is a network providing one or more
closed paths.
Example 1
✣ Determine the number of branches and
nodes in the circuit shown in Fig. 2.12.
Identify which elements are in series and
which are in parallel.
Answer:
4 branches:
10 V, 5 & 6 ohms, and 2 A.
3 nodes: identified in Fig. 2.13
The 5-ohm resistor is in series with the
10-V voltage source because the same
current would flow in both.
The 6-ohm resistor is in parallel with the
2-A current source because both are
connected to the same nodes 2 and 3.
Example 2
✣ How many branches and nodes does the
circuit in Fig. 2.14 have? Identify the
elements that are in series and in parallel.
Answer:
Five branches and three nodes are
identified in Fig. 2.15. The 1-ohm
and 2-ohm resistors are in parallel.
The 4-ohm resistor and 10-V
source
are also in parallel.
Kirchhoff’s Laws
✣ Ohm’s law by itself is not sufficient to analyze
circuits. However, when it is coupled with
Kirchhoff’s two laws, we have a sufficient,
powerful set of tools for analyzing a large
variety of electric circuits. Kirchhoff’s laws
were first introduced in 1847 by the German
physicist Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (1824–
1887). These laws are formally known as
✣ Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) and
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL).
Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)
✣ states that the algebraic sum of currents
entering a node (or a closed boundary) is
zero.
✣ states that the sum of the currents entering a
node is equal to the sum of the currents
leaving the node.
✣ Two sources (or circuits in general) are said
to be equivalent if they have the same I-V
relationship at a pair of terminals.
✣ A simple application of KCL is combining
current sources in parallel. The combined
current is the algebraic sum of the current
supplied by the individual sources. For
example, the current sources shown in Fig.
2.18(a) can be combined as in Fig. 2.18(b).
The combined or equivalent current source
can be found by applying KCL to node a.
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law(KVL)
✣ states that the algebraic sum of all voltages
around a closed path (or loop) is zero.
✣ Sum of voltage drops = Sum of voltage rises
✣ KVL can be applied in two ways: by taking
either a clockwise or a counter-clockwise trip
around the loop. Either way, the algebraic
sum of voltage around the loop is zero.
✣ For example, for the voltage sources shown
in Fig. 2.20(a), the combined or equivalent
voltage source in Fig. 2.20(b) is obtained by
applying KVL.
-Vab + V1 + V2 - V3 = 0 or
Vab = V1 + V2 - V3
To avoid violating KVL, a
circuit cannot contain two
different voltages and in
parallel unless V1 = V2.
Example 3
✣ For the circuit in Fig. 2.21(a), find voltages v1
and v2.
Solution:
To find and we apply Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s voltage law.
Assume that current i flows through the loop as shown in Fig.
2.21(b).From Ohm’s law,
v1 = 2i, v2 = -3i (eq.1)
Applying KVL around the loop gives -20 + v1 – v2 = 0 (eq.2)
Substituting eq.1 into eq.2, we obtain -20 + 2i + 3i = 0 0 or 5i = 20, i
=4A
Substituting i to eq.1 finally gives: v1 = 8 V and v2 = -12 V
Example 4
✣ Find v1 and v2 in the circuit
of Fig. 2.22.
Example 5
✣ Determine Vo and i in the
circuit shown in Fig. 2.23(a).
Example 6
✣ Find Vx and Vo in the circuit of Fig. 2.24.
Example 7
✣ Find current Io and voltage
Vo in the circuit shown in
Fig. 2.25.
Example 8
✣ Find Vo and Io in the circuit of Fig. 2.26.
Example 9
✣ Find currents and voltages in the circuit
shown in Fig. 2.27(a).
Example 10
✣ Find the currents and voltages in the circuit
shown in Fig. 2.28.
Methods of Analysis
No great work is ever done in a hurry. To develop a great
scientific discovery, to print a great picture, to write an
immortal poem, to become a minister, or a famous
general—to do anything great requires time, patience, and
perseverance. These things are done by degrees, “little by
little.”
—W. J. Wilmont Buxton
Nodal Analysis
✣ Nodal analysis is also known as the node-voltage
method. Given a circuit with n nodes without voltage
sources, the nodal analysis of the circuit involves taking
the following three steps:
Steps to Determine Node Voltages:
✣ 1. Select a node as the reference node. Assign voltages
V1, V2,…,Vn-1 to the remaining n-1 nodes. The voltages
are referenced with respect to the reference node.
✣ 2. Apply KCL to each of the n-1 non-reference nodes.
Use Ohm’s law to express the branch currents in terms
of node voltages.
✣ 3. Solve the resulting simultaneous equations to obtain
the unknown node voltages.
✣ The first step in nodal analysis is selecting a node as the
reference or datum node. The reference node is
commonly called the ground since it is assumed to have
zero potential.
✣ The number of non-reference nodes is equal to the
number of independent equations that we will derive.
✣ As the second step, we apply KCL to each non-
reference node in the circuit. To avoid putting too much
information on the same circuit, the circuit in Fig. 3.2(a)
is redrawn in Fig. 3.2(b), where we now add i1, i2,and i3
as the currents through resistors R1, R2, and R3,
respectively. At node 1, applying KCL gives
I1 = I2 + i1 + i2 (eq.1)
At node 2,I2 + i2 = i3 (eq.2)
We now apply Ohm’s law to express the unknown
currents i1, i2,and i3 in terms of node voltages. The key
idea to bear in mind is that, since resistance is a
passive element, by the passive sign convention,
current must always flow from a higher potential to a
lower potential.
Current flows from a higher potential to a lower
potential in a resistor.
We can express this principle as
(eq.3)
Substituting eq. 3 to eq. 1 and eq. 2,
Example 11
✣ Calculate the node voltages in the circuit shown
in Fig. 3.3.
✣ Solution:
Consider Fig. 3.3(b), where the circuit in Fig. 3.3(a) has been
prepared for nodal analysis. Notice how the currents are selected for
the application of KCL. Except for the branches with current sources,
the labelling of the currents is arbitrary but consistent. (By consistent,
we mean that if, for example, we assume that i2 enters the resistor
from the left-hand side, i2 must leave the resistor from the right-hand
side.) The reference node is selected, and the node voltages V1 and
V2 are now to be determined.
✣ At node 1, applying KCL and Ohm’s law gives
✣ Multiplying each term in the last equation by 4, we
obtain or (1)
✣ At node 2, we do the same thing and get
✣ Multiplying each term by 12 results in
or (2)
✣ Using the elimination technique, adding (1) and (2) will
give us
✣ Substituting V2 = 20 to (1) gives
✣ If we need the currents, we can easily calculate them
from the values of the nodal voltages.
✣ The fact that i1 is negative shows that the current flows
in the direction opposite to the one assumed.
MESH ANALYSIS
Exercise 1
✣ 1. Obtain the node
voltages in the circuit
of Fig. 3.4.
✣ 2. Determine the
voltages at the nodes
in Fig. 3.5.
✣ 3. Use Mesh analysis to
solve for i1, i2, and i3 in
the circuit.
✣ 4. Find the value of i
using mesh analysis.
