HARDWARE

3.1 Computer Architecture

Syllabus 2023-2025

51
 COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE & OPERATING SYSTEM
Von Neumann architecture

The Von Neumann architecture is based on the concept of a stored-program computer. A

stored-program computer is a computer that stores programs and instruction in digital
memory. A modern stored-program computer is one that keeps its programmed instructions,
as well as its data, in read-write, random-access memory (RAM). Before a computer can
actually read data, process it and produce information, it must read a set of instruction called
a ‘program’. The program will state what processing is required.

The Von Neumann architecture had the following main features.

 the concept of a central processing unit (CPU or processor)
 the CPU was able to access the memory directly
 computer memories could store programs as well as data
 stored programs were made up of instructions which could be executed in sequential
order.

The Von Neumann architecture, on a simple level, state that a computer system can be
through to consist of three main sections: CPU, Storage and INPUT/OUTPUT devices.

The central processing unit (CPU)

The main processing unit of the system, also known as the processor.

 Control Unit (CU)

This is an internal part of the CPU and it controls the flow of data through the CPU. It also
the interactions between the different parts of the CPU it tells the different components,
as well as any linked hardware, how to respond to the instruction given.

52
 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
This is an internal part of the CPU that carries out calculation on data. The arithmetic part
uses the usual operators such as multiply, divide, add and subtract. The logic part carries
out comparisons such as ‘equal to’, ‘greater than’ and ‘less than’. Values need to be
placed in the accumulator for calculation to be carried out.

 Immediate access store (IAS)

This is the memory found inside a CPU and is used to hold not only data but also the
instruction needed to process that data. It is also more commonly known as the CPU
memory. The CPU needs to hold the data and instructions here before processing as it
would be much too slow bringing them directly from the main memory to be processing.
The data and instruction are firstly loaded into the main memory and then brought into
the IAS to be processed.
 System clock is used to produce timing signals on the control bus to ensure this vital
synchronization takes place. Without the clock the computer would simply crash.

Storage
 Primary memory (also known as main memory) is fast to access and it directly
accessible by the processor. RAM and ROM from main memory, along with cache
memory and registers.
 Second storage (also known as backing storage) is slow to access and is not directly
accessible by the processor. Instead, communication with secondary memory is through
input/output controllers. Hard drives and CD-ROMs are example of secondary memory.

Input and output devices

These allow interaction with the computer. Instructions are processed from and to them in the
CPU. For example, a keyboard (input) or printer (output).

Buses
The components of the model need to be connected to one another and this is usually done
through buses. A bus is a series of conductors, or pathways, which can be considered a sort
of ‘highway’ for information. Three separate buses are used:

Buses are internal connections. These are three types of buses.

1. Data Bus
2. Address Bus
3. Control Bus

53
 Data Bus Address Bus Control Bus
 It sends data between  It carries signals relating to  It carries signals relating to
the processor, the addresses between the the control and
memory unit and the processor and the memory. coordination of all activities
input/output devices. within the computer.
 It is unidirectional. Signals
 It is bi-directional, data travel in one direction.  Examples include: the read
can travel in both and write functions
directions.
 It is unidirectional. Signals
travel in one direction only.

Memory
The computer will have memory that can hold both data and its address and also the program
processing that data. In modern computers this memory is RAM.
The address will uniquely identify every location in the memory and the content will be in the
binary value stored in each location.
Let us consider two examples how MDR and MAR registers can be used when carrying out a
read and write operation to and from memory.
Registers
These are internal memory location within the CPU. They temporarily hold data and instruction
during processing. Registers are used to move data instruction into and around the different
components of the CPU.

There are five special registers:

1. Program counter – PC
2. Current Instruction Register – CIR
3. Memory Address Register – MAR
4. Memory Data Register – MDR
5. Accumulator – ACC

MAR: The memory address register is used to hold the memory address that contains either
the next piece of data or an instruction that is to be used.
MDR/MBR: The memory data register acts like a buffer and holds anything that is copied from
the memory ready for the processor to use it.
PC: The program counter keeps track of where to find the next instruction so that a copy of
the instruction can be placed in the current instruction register. Sometimes the program
counter is called the Sequence Control Register (SCR) as it controls the sequence in which
instructions are executed.
CIR/IR: The current instruction register holds the instruction that is to be executed.
Accumulator: It is the register that holds intermediate values of arithmetic operations.

54
Clock speed

It determines the number of cycles the CPU can execute per second. Increasing clock speed
increases the number of operations/numbers of fetch-execute cycles that can be carried out
per unit of time, however, there is a limit on clock speed.

The fetch-execute cycle

Von Neumann create architecture with a single processor that follows a linear sequence.
This sequence is called the ‘fetch-execute cycle’;

Steps 1 – Fetching the instruction

The address part of the instruction is copied to Program counter. It is then shifted to MAR.
Control unit send signals to read the data on the address and copied its content in MDR. MDR
then moved the data to CIR. Program counter is incremented.

Steps 2 – Fetching the instruction

During this process, Current instruction register is examined and control unit identify the
required operation. The data from memory is copied to the registers to carry out the operation.
For example: the instruction might say “Add’. Decode unit make CPU ready to carry put this
instruction.

Step 3- Executing the instruction

Now the CPU understands the instruction, it can execute the instruction. Once the CPU has
executed the instruction the cycle can begin again for the next instruction.

Stages of Fetch Cycle

55
Register Notation

1. [MAR] [PC]
2. [MDR] [ [MAR]]
3. [CIR] [MDR]
4. [PC] [PC] +1

Read Operation

1. Program counter contains the address of memory location of next instruction to be

fetched.
2. Load the address that is in the program counter (PC) into the memory address register
(MAR)
3. The control unit send a signal to read the memory address using control bus.
4. The data/contents on memory address is stored in MDR.
5. Instruction is now moved into IR/CIR.

Write Operation

1. Data to be stored is first written in MDR.

2. The respective address is written in MAR.
3. The control unit send a signal to write on the memory address.
4. Value is then written on the memory address.

Cache

Most data is stored on the hard disk. When we use that data, it is loaded into Random Access
Memory (RAM) because it is much faster to access the data from RAM than from the hard
disk.

56
When we looked at the 'immediate access store' earlier, we found out that the CPU needs to
access data very quickly. Although RAM is faster than the hard disk, it still isn't fast enough to
cope with the speed that the CPU needs to deal with data.

To appreciate this, image a race taking place between two cars, one is a powerful high speed
sports car and the other is an ordinary little run-about. Their task is to race across town but
there are many traffic lights in the way. The start flag goes down and the big car shoots off the
line and the little car just tootles along, well behind. Moments later, the big car has to stop at
a traffic light, so within a minute the small car catches up once again. By the time the race is
over, the big car is hardly in front of the slow car because of all the traffic light delays. This is
exactly what happens in a CPU. The processor may sit around idly waiting for new data to
arrive and so it appears less powerful than it really is.

The way around this, is to store as much data as possible, as close as possible to the CPU to
avoid delays. This nearby storage area is called the 'cache'.

The cache is a special type of computer memory which can be accessed much faster than
RAM. The CPU looks in the cache for the data it needs. If the data is there, it will retrieve it
and process it. If the data is not there, then the CPU accesses the system memory and then
puts a copy of the new data in the cache before processing it.

Cache memory is volatile i.e. when the computer is shut down, the data stored there is lost.
Thus, in order to improve the computer's performance, it is important to keep the local cache
full at all times so that the CPU doesn't have to wait around with nothing to do.

Summarizing all the factors need to be taken into account when considering computer
performance.

 Increasing but width (data and address buses) increases the performance and speed
of a computer system
 Increasing clock speed will potentially increase the speed of a computer
 A computer’s performance can be changed by altering bus width, clock speed and use
of multi-core CPUs
 Use of cache memories can also speed up a CPU’s performance.

57
Instruction Sets

Instructions are a set of operations which are decoded in a sequence. Each operation will
instruct the ALU and CU. Operation consists of two parts opcode and operand.

Opcode: Operation needs to be done

Operand: It is the data which needs to be acted on or it can refer to a register in the memory.

Computer needs to understand the operation to be carried out, there is actually a limited
number of opcodes that can be used; this is known as the instruction set.

For example: Intel, Pentium and AMD Athlon CPU’s use almost identical x86 instructions even
though they are based on very different designs.

Instruction sets are the low-level language instructions that instructs the CPU how to carry out
the operations.

OPERATING SYSTEMS

An operating system (OS), in its most general sense, is software that allows a user to run other
applications on a computing device. An OS is the framework that allows us to communicate
with computer hardware in an interactive way. Operating systems perform basic tasks. Such
as recognizing input from the keyboard, sending output to the display screen, keeping track of
file and controlling peripheral devices such as printers.

Before operating system developed to have a GUI, they had a command line interface (CLI).
In this type of interface, a user would need to type in the different commands they would like
to carry out on the operating system. Some users still use a CLI operating system; an example
of this is Linux.

58
An OS has several main functions:

 It provides the GUI for the user to interact with the computer.
 It manages the hardware and peripherals that are connected to the computer.
 It manages the transfer of programs into and out of memory. The OS will manage how
the programs will be places into the available memory.
 It manages security for the computer, such as anti-virus software and firewalls, and
manages access right (the amount of information a user is allowed access to).
 It manages file handing, allowing users to store, delete and move files on a computer. It
keeps track of all action carried out on files.
 It manages utility software on the computer such as disk defragmentation and disk
formatting software.

Without an operating system a computer would basically be rendered useless as it wouldn’t

be able to load any software and we would not be able to interact with it.

Interrupts

An interrupt is a signal. When this signal is received it will inform software that something
has happened, an event has occurred. An interrupt could be generated by many sources. It
could be generated by a user pressing keys on a keyboard, it could be form printer
connected to the computer. The signal will come a device attached to the computer or from a
program within the computer.

An interrupt will cause the operating system on a computer to stop and then the operating
system will need to work out what to do next. After an interrupt is detected, the operating
system will either continue running the the program it was currently running or it will begin
running a new program.

A computer can only run one program at a time, but because the program it is currently
running can be interrupted to run another program, it can perform multiple tasks. It will take it
in turn to run the programs so that it appears to be running them a same time. This is called
‘multitasking’. It is the ability to do his that means that we can listen to music on our
computer, whilst completing work in a word processing application, whilst surfing the internet
for information.

An OS will contain a program called an interrupt handler. The role of the interrupt handler is
to priorities the interrupt signals as it receives them and places them in a queue to be
handled.

Buffers
Buffers are used in computers as a temporary memory area. These are essential in modern
computers since hardware devices operate at much slower speeds than the processor. If it
wasn’t for buffers, processors would spend the majority of their time idle, waiting for the
hardware device to complete its operation. Buffers are essentially filled from the processor or
memory unit and whilst these are emptied to the hardware device, the processor carries on
with other tasks. Buffers are used, for example, when streaming a video from the internet.

59
This ensures that the video playback doesn’t keep on stopping to wait for data from the
internet.
Buffers and interrupts are often used together to allow standard computer functions to be
carried out.
KEY TERM
Cache memory – a portion of memory used for high-speed storage.
Register –an internal memory location within the CPU that temporarily holds data and
instruction during processing.
Accumulator – the register that is used for arithmetic and logic calculation.

Embedded Systems

Embedded System is a combination of hardware and software which is designed to carry out
a specific set of functions. The hardware is electronic, electrical or electro-mechanical.
Embedded system can be based on:

Embedded System will have a specific set of tasks:

60
Depending on the device, embedded systems are either programmable or non-programmable.
Non-programmable devices need, in general, to be replaced if they requires a software
upgrade. Programmable devices permit upgrading by two methods:

 Connecting the device to a computer and allowing the download of updates to the software
(for example, this is used to update the maps on a GPS System used in a vehicle).
 Automatic updates via a Wi-fi, satellite or cellular (mobile phone network) link (for example,
many modern cars allow updates to engine management systems and other components
via satellite link).

There are definite benefits and drawbacks of devices being controlled using embedded
systems:

Uses of Embedded Systems

Motor Vehicles
Modern cars have many parts that rely on embedded systems to function correctly. Figure
shows some of the many components that are controlled in this way.

61
Set-top Box

A Set-up Box uses an embedded system to allow, for example, recording and playback of
television programmes. This can be operated remotely by the user when not at home using
an internet enabled device or by using the interface panel when at home.

Security Systems

Embedded Systems are used in many security devices:

62
Lighting Systems

Embedded Systems are used in modern sophisticated lighting systems from simple home use
to major architectural lighting systems. We will concentrate here on a lighting system used in
a large office. The system needs to control the lighting taking into account:

 The time of day or day of the week

 Whether the room is occupied
 The brightness of natural light

An embedded system can automatically control the lighting using a number of inputs (such as
light sensors) and key data stored in memory. Again, this fits very well into the system
described.

Vending Systems

Vending Machines make considerable use of embedded systems. They usually use
microcontrollers to control a number of functions that we all associate with vending machines.

63
Washing Machines

Many white goods (such as refrigerators, washing machines, microwave ovens and so on) are
controlled by embedded systems. They all come with a keyboard or dials that are used to
select the temperature, wash cycle or cooking duration. This data forms the input to the
embedded system, which then carries out the required task without any further human
intervention.

64
3.2 Input & Output Devices

65
 3.2 INPUT AND OUTPUT DEVICES

INPUT Devices:

Input Devices are peripherals used to provide data and control signals to a computer. Input
devices allow us to enter raw data for processing. There are many examples of input devices,
each with their own benefits and drawbacks.

Scanners:

SCANNERS are either two-dimensional (2D) or three-dimensional (3D).

Two-dimensional scanners

These types of scanner are the most common form and are generally used to input hard-copy
(paper) documents. The image is converted into an electronic form which can be stored in a
computer.
A number of stages occur when scanning a document:

66
They come in two varieties, flatbed or handheld. Some printers have inbuilt flatbed scanners.
The functionality of 2D scanners is enhanced when combined with OMR and OCR
software. For example, OCR software can convert scanned in text into a computer readable
form.

Application of 2D scanners at an airport

2D scanners are used at airports to read passports. They make use of OCR technology to
produce digital images which represent the passport pages. Because of the OCR technology,
these digital images can be manipulated in a number of ways.

At many airports the two-dimensional photograph in the passport is also scanned and stored
as a jpeg image. The passenger’s face is also photographed using a digital camera (a 2D
image is taken so it can be matched to the image taken from the passport). The two digital
images are compared using face recognition/detection software. Key parts of the face are
compared.

The face in above figure shows several of the positions used by the face recognition software.
Each position is checked when the software tries to compare two facial images. Data such as:
 distance between the eyes
 width of the nose
 shape of the cheek bones
 length of the jaw line
 shape of the eyebrows
are all used to identify a given face.

Typical applications for 2D scanners

 Converting a hard copy of a document into an electronic / digital form for storage,
sending or editing
 Reading passports

Three-dimensional scanners

A 3D scanner is an input device that creates a 3D model of the object scanned. Scanning can
be achieved either by using lasers, light, radio waves or x-rays.

67
The scanned images can be used in COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN (CAD) or, more recently,
sent to a 3D printer to produce a working model of the scanned image.

There are numerous technologies used in 3D scanners like lasers, magnetic resonance, white
light, and so on.

Application of 3D scanning – computed tomographic (CT) scanners

COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHIC (CT) SCANNERS are used to create a 3D image of a solid

object. This is based on TOMOGRAPHY technology which basically builds up an image of the
solid object through a series of very thin ‘slices’. Together these 2D ‘slices’ make up a
representation of the 3D solid object.
Each slice is built up by use of X-rays, radio frequencies or gamma imaging; although a
number of other methods exist. Each ‘slice’ is then stored as a digital image in the computer
memory. The whole of the solid object is represented digitally in the computer memory.
Depending on how the image is formed, the type of tomographic scanner can have different
names. For example:
 X-rays CT scanners computerised tomography
 radio frequencies MRI magnetic resonance imaging
 gamma rays SPECT single photon emission computed tomography.

Below diagram shows a simple example of how tomography works.

Typical applications for 3D scanners

 Security screenings to check for weapons or restricted objects

 Creating a computer model ready for 3D printing
 Biometric devices
 Turning real people into gaming characters

68
Barcode readers/scanners

A barcode is a machine readable code represented by an

image consisting of black and white lines. The lines in a
barcode relate to numbers 0 to 9.

Black and white surfaces reflect light differently, this is

how the scanner is able to identify the corresponding digits
from the lines.

Typical applications for barcodes

 Tracking/identifying items in warehouses and factories

 Retail checkouts, e.g. to find product prices and descriptions, allowing automatic
stock control
 Airports, e.g. tracking luggage
 Library systems, e.g. tracking books and borrowers

Benefits of barcodes

 Quick and easy to identify products

 Additional information can be easily retrieved from a database
 Allows the use of automated stock control and sales reports
 Related information (e.g. product price) is changed in the database, meaning the
barcode always remains the same

What happens when a barcode is scanned?

The barcode is first read by a red laser or red LED (LIGHT EMITTING DIODE).
• Light is reflected back off the barcode; the dark areas reflect little or no light which allows
the bars to be read.
• The reflected light is read by sensors (photoelectric cells).
• As the laser or LED light is scanned across the barcode, a pattern is generated which is
converted into digital data – this allows the computer to understand the barcode.
• For example: the digit ‘3’ on the left generates the pattern L D D D D L D (where
L = light and D = dark); this has the binary equivalent of 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 (where L =
0 and D = 1).

Barcode readers are most commonly found at the checkout in supermarkets. There are
several other input and output devices at the checkout:

69
Devices are used at the checkout in supermarkets.

So the barcode has been read, then what happens?

 The barcode number is looked up in the stock database (the barcode is known as the
KEY FIELD in the stock item record); this key field uniquely identifies each stock
item.
 When the barcode number is found, the stock item record is looked up.
 The price and other stock item details are sent back to the checkout (or POINT OF
SALE TERMINAL (POS)).
 The number of stock items in the record is reduced by one each time the barcode is
read.
 This new value for number of stock items is written back to the stock item record.
 The number of stock items is compared to the re-order level; if it is less than or equal
to this value, more stock items are automatically ordered.
 Once an order for more stock items is generated, a flag is added to the record to stop
re-ordering every time the stock item barcode is read.
 When new stock items arrive, the stock levels are updated in the database.

Advantages of using barcodes to the management include:

 much easier and faster to change prices on stock items

 much better, more up-to-date sales information/sales trends
 no need to price every stock item on the shelves (this reduces time and cost to the
management)

70
  allows for automatic stock control
 possible to check customer buying habits more easily by linking barcodes to, for
example, customer loyalty cards.

Advantages of using barcodes to the customers include:

 faster checkout queues (staff don’t need to remember/look up prices of items)

 errors in charging customers are reduced
 the customer is given an itemised bill
 cost savings can be passed on to the customer
 better track of ‘sell by dates’ so food should be fresher.

Quick response (QR) codes

A QR code is a computer generated pattern capable of

holding a modest amount of data. This data is accessed
when the QR code is read by a QR scanner.
QR codes often store simple data such as a URL address,
contact information, calendar entries and product details
(in factories and warehouses etc).

Typical applications for QR codes

 Packaging
 Promotional materials
 Warehouses

Benefits of QR codes

 there is no need for the user to write down or key in a website address; scanning the
QR code does this automatically
 QR codes can store website addresses/URLs that appear in magazines, trains,
buses or even on business cards, giving a very effective method of advertising.
 Data is stored within the pattern, so no need for a connected database
 Simple and quick way to store and retrieve information
 Can store a variety of information

71
Digital cameras

Digital cameras are input devices that capture images (and sometimes video) digitally. Digital
cameras use an image sensor chip to capture the image, rather
than the film used by a traditional camera.

The images recorded on a digital camera are stored on memory

cards, although some may have a limited amount of external
memory of its own. Digital cameras feature an LCD screen which
allow you to preview and review your images, plus change menu
settings. Modern digital cameras simply link to a computer system
via a USB port or by using Bluetooth (which enables wireless
transfer of photographic files).

These cameras are controlled by a microprocessor which can automatically

carry out the following tasks:

 adjust the shutter speed

 focus the image automatically
 operate the flash automatically
 adjust the aperture size
 adjust the size of the image
 remove ‘red eye’ when the flash has been used

Interactive Whiteboard

 Developed long before touchscreens became affordable, interactive

whiteboards combine a large touch sensitive board with a projection screen.
 Interactive whiteboards are versatile input devices, allowing navigation and
drawing/writing via your finger or special dummy pens.

Typical applications for interactive whiteboards

 Classrooms
 Business board rooms and training centres

Benefits of interactive whiteboards

 Large display allowing multiple people to view at once

 Interactivity helps learning and presentations
 Very versatile
 Text and drawings made using the special pen can be captured and stored for later
use

72
Keyboards

Keyboards are by far the most common method used for data entry. They are used as the
input device on computers, tablets, mobile phones and many other electronic items.
The keyboard is connected to the computer either by using a USB connection or by wireless
connection. In the case of tablets and mobile phones, the keyboard is often VIRTUAL or a
type of TOUCHSCREEN technology.
Keyboards are a relatively slow method of data entry and are also prone to errors. But they
are probably still the easiest way to enter text into a computer. However, frequent use of these
devices can lead to injuries, such as REPETITIVE STRAIN INJURY (RSI) in the hands and
wrists.
Ergonomic keyboards can help to overcome this problem – these have the keys arranged
differently. They are also designed to give more support to the wrists and hands when doing
a lot of typing.

Pointing devices

The selection of an application often requires the user to ‘click’ on an icon. Selection of the
icon is usually done with a POINTING DEVICE (such as a MOUSE or a TRACKERBALL) or
by using a touchscreen.

Mouse

A mouse is an input device that allows you to control the coordinates and movement of the
onscreen cursor/pointer by simply moving the mouse across a flat surface with your hand.
Mouse comes in various forms:
 the more traditional type with a mechanical ball arrangement; connected to the
computer through a USB port
 the more modern type that use red LEDs to detect movement in the x-y direction; these
are a type of optical mouse
 mice that use either of the above types of technology but use a wireless connection to
the computer.
Most mice are now optical which means they use a laser to detect and track movement across
the surface.

Trackerball

A trackball is an input device used to control a pointer/cursor. Unlike a mouse, the device stays
stationary whilst the user moves the ball within its socket.
Trackballs can be stand-alone devices or combined into a keyboard or control panel. Some
people prefer using a trackball over a mouse as they believe it gives them a finer degree of
control over the pointer. They are also handy for people with limited hand motor skills as they
are less demanding then a mouse.

73
Typical applications for trackballs

 Computer Aided Design (CAD) for fine control

 Situations when space is limited
 Disabled people with limited motor skills

Benefits of trackballs

 Needs little desk space

 Fine control over the pointer
 Can be integrated into a keyboard

Touchscreens

Touchscreens are now a very common form of input device. They allow simple touch to launch
an application or to carry out many of the functions of pointing devices such as a mouse.
One of the main uses of touchscreen technology is in mobile phones. At present, there are
three major types of touchscreen technologies applied to mobile phone screens:

Typical applications for touchscreens

 Smartphones and tablet computers, e.g. easy input of data and selection of apps/icons
 Ticket / Information kiosks, e.g. allows limited options that can be selected easily.

Capacitive touchscreens

Electrical current is sent from the four corners of the screen. When your finger (or stylus)
touches the screen, the current changes. This allows the location of the touch to be calculated.

Benefits Drawbacks
Good visibility in sunlight Glass screen can shatter/break on impact
Very durable surface Cannot use wearing standard gloves
Allows multi-touch

74
Resistive touchscreens

Resistive touchscreens use multiple layers of material that transmit electrical currents. When
the top layer of the screen is pushed/touched into the bottom layer the electrical current
changes. This allows the location of the touch to be found.

Benefits Drawbacks
Inexpensive to manufacture Poor visibility in sunlight
Can use stylus, finger, gloved finger or pen Vulnerable to scratching
to operate
Wears through time
Does not allow multi-touch

Infra-red touchscreens
Infra-red touchscreens use a pattern of LED infra-red beams to form an ‘invisible’ grid on the
screen.

Heat-sensitive:
Uses glass as the screen material. Needs a warm object (e.g. fingers) to carry out an input
operation.

Optical:
Uses glass as the screen material. Uses an array of sensors (in the form of a grid), the
point of contact is based on which grid coordinate is touched.

Benefits Drawbacks
Good durability Expensive to manufacture
Allows multi-touch Glass screen can shatter/break on impact
Can use stylus, finger, gloved finger or pen Sensitive to dust and dirt
to operate

Sensors

Sensors are input devices that record data about the physical environment around it. Sensors
send data to a microprocessor (computer). They do not make judgements, decisions or
control any output devices.
There are many types of sensors used in a variety of household, commercial and industrial
applications.

75
Advantages of using sensors

 Sensors are reliable

 Sensors are accurate
 Sensors don’t get tired
 Sensors work well in places where humans would rather not be

Common sensors and their applications

Sensor Application
Magnetic Field Sensor  Mobile phones
 Anti-lock braking
 Detection of cars at traffic lights
 Reading magnetic ink characters on cheques
Motion (infra-red) Sensor  Automatic doors
 Burglar alarm systems
 Gaming systems,
 Counting, e.g. people or cars
Temperature Sensor  Chemical process or reaction
 Central heating (thermostat) / air-con
 Greenhouses
 Ovens, refrigerators and freezers
Sound Sensor  Burglar alarm systems
 Leak detection system
Moisture / Humidity Sensor  Clothes dryer
 Environmental control / greenhouse, air-con
Pressure Sensor  Burglar alarm systems
 Traffic light controls
 Chemical processes
 Liquid through pipes
Gas Sensor  Pollution monitoring (river)
 Greenhouse environments
 Confined areas (space craft, aircraft)
 Fish tanks / aquariums
 Carbon monoxide alarms
Light Sensor  Controlling street lighting
 Burglar alarms (beams of light)
 Automatic doors
 Greenhouse
pH Sensor  Water treatment plants
 Pollution monitoring (river)
 Aquariums
 Greenhouse

76
Types of sensors

Sensors are used in both monitoring and control applications. There is a subtle difference
between how these two methods work:

Examples of monitoring include:

 monitoring a patient in a hospital for vital signs such as heart rate, temperature, etc.
 monitoring of intruders in a burglar alarm system
 checking the temperature levels in a car engine
 monitoring pollution levels in a river.

Examples of control include:

 turning street lights on at night and turning them off again during daylight
 regulating the temperature in a central heating/air conditioning system
 changing the traffic lights at a road junction
 operating anti-lock brakes on a car when necessary
 regulating the environment in a greenhouse.

77
Monitoring applications

Burglar alarm system

A burglar alarm monitoring system will carry out the following actions:
 The system is activated by keying in a password on a keypad.
 The infra-red sensor picks up the movement of an intruder in the building.
 The acoustic sensor picks up sounds such as footsteps or breaking glass.
 The pressure sensor picks up the weight of an intruder coming through a door or
through a window.
 The sensor data is passed through an ADC if it is in an analogue form to produce
digital data.
 The computer/microprocessor will sample the digital data coming from these
sensors at a given frequency (e.g. every five seconds); the data is compared with
the stored values by the computer/microprocessor.
 If any of the incoming data values are outside the acceptable range, then the
computer sends a signal to:
 • a siren to sound the alarm, or
 • a light to start flashing.
 A DAC is used if the devices need analogue values to operate them.
 The alarm continues to sound/lights continue to flash until the system is reset with a
password.

Control applications

Control of street lighting

This next sequence shows how a microprocessor is used to control the operation of a street
lamp. The lamp is fitted with a light sensor which constantly sends data to the
microprocessor. The data value from the sensor changes according to whether it is sunny,
cloudy, raining or it is night time etc.

78
  The light sensor sends data to the ADC interface.
 This digitises the data and sends it to the microprocessor.
 The microprocessor samples the data every minute (or at some other frequency
rate).
 If the data from the sensor < value stored in memory:
• a signal is sent from the microprocessor to the street lamp
• and the lamp is switched on.
 The lamp stays switched on for 30 minutes before the sensor readings are sampled
again (this prevents the lamp flickering off and on during brief heavy cloud cover,
for example).
 If the data from the sensor >= value stored in memory:
• a signal is sent from the microprocessor to the street lamp
• and the lamp is switched off.
 The lamp stays switched off for 30 minutes before sensor readings are sampled
again (this prevents the lamp flickering off and on during heavy cloud cover, for
example).

Anti-lock braking systems (on cars)

 ANTI-LOCK BRAKING SYSTEMS (ABS) on cars use magnetic field sensors to stop
the wheels locking up on the car if the brakes have been applied too sharply.
 When one of the car wheels rotates too slowly (i.e. it is locking up), a magnetic
field sensor sends data to a microprocessor.
 The microprocessor checks the rotation speed of the other three wheels.
 If they are different (i.e. rotating faster), the microprocessor sends a signal to the
braking system:
• and the braking pressure to the affected wheel is reduced
• the wheel’s rotational speed is then increased to match the other wheels.
 Checking the rotational speed using these magnetic field sensors is done several times
a second and the braking pressure to all the wheels can be constantly changing to
prevent any of the wheels locking up under heavy braking; this is felt as a ‘judder’ on
the brake pedal as the braking system is constantly switched off and on to equalise
the rotational speed of all four wheels.
 If one of the wheels is rotating too quickly, braking pressure is increased to that
wheel until it matches the other three.

Output devices

Inkjet printers

INKJET PRINTERS are essentially made up of:

 A print head which consists of nozzles which spray droplets of ink on to the paper to
form characters
 An ink cartridge or cartridges; either a group of cartridges for each colour (blue, yellow
and magenta) and a black cartridge or one single cartridge containing all three colours
+ black (Note: some systems use six colours.)
 A stepper motor and belt which moves the print head assembly across the page from
side to side
 A paper feed which automatically feeds the printer with pages as they are required.

79
The ink droplets are produced currently using two different technologies.
 Thermal bubble: tiny resistors create localised heat which makes the ink vaporise. This
causes the ink to form a tiny bubble; as the bubble expands, some of the ink is ejected
from the print head onto the paper. When the bubble collapses, a small vacuum is
created which allows fresh ink to be drawn into the print head. This continues until the
printing cycle is completed.
 Piezoelectric: a crystal is located at the back of the ink reservoir for each nozzle. The
crystal is given a tiny electric charge which makes it vibrate. This vibration forces ink
to be ejected onto the paper; at the same time more ink is drawn in for further printing.

The basic steps in the printing process of Inkjet printers are:

1. Data from document sent to printer driver
2. Printer driver ensures data is in correct format
3. Check made by printer driver that chosen printer is available
4. Data is sent to printer, stored in a temporary memory (printer buffer)
5. Sheet of paper is fed; sensor detects if paper is available in paper tray
6. Print head moves across paper printing text/image, four ink colours sprayed in exact
amount
7. Paper is advanced so next line is printed
8. Repeated until buffer is empty
9. Once it is done, printer send an interrupt to the processor (request for more data to be
sent)

Applications of Inkjet printers

INKJET PRINTERS are best for one-off photos or where only a few pages of good quality,
colour printing are needed; the small ink cartridges or small paper trays would not be an issue
with such applications.

Laser printers
LASER PRINTERS differ greatly from inkjet printers in the way they print pages. They use dry
powder ink rather than liquid ink and make use of the properties of static electricity to produce
the text and images. Unlike inkjet printers, laser printers print the whole page in one go (inkjet
printers print the page line by line).
Their advantage is the speed at which they can carry out large print jobs (e.g. 2000 leaflets)
and the fact that they don’t run out of ink halfway through.

The basic steps in the printing process of laser printers are:

1. Data from document sent to printer driver

2. Printer driver ensures data is in correct format
3. Check made by printer driver that chosen printer is available
4. Data is sent to printer, stored in a temporary memory (printer buffer)
5. Printing drum is given a positive charge; as the drum Rotates, a laser beam is scanned
across it removing the positive charge leaves negatively charged areas which match
the text/image
6. Drum is then coated with positively charged toner, it only sticks to negatively charged
parts of the drum
7. A negatively charged sheet is rolled over the drum
8. Toner on the drum now sticks to the paper to produce copy of page

80
 9. Paper finally goes through a fuser (set of heated rollers); heat melts the ink so it is
permanent
10. Discharge lamp removes all electric charge from the drum, ready to print next page

Applications of laser printers

LASER PRINTERS produce high quality printouts and are very fast when making multiple
copies of a document; any application that needs high-volume printing (in colour or
monochrome) would choose the laser printer (for example, producing a large number of high
quality flyers or posters for advertising) they have two advantages: they have large toner
cartridges and large paper trays (often holding more than a ream of paper).

3D printers

They can produce solid objects which actually work. The solid object is built up layer by layer
using materials such as powdered resin, powdered metal, paper or ceramic powder.

Uses of 3D printers
 Used for models of cars
 Produce solid objects that work
 Built up layer by layer, using powdered resin, ceramic powder
 A design is made using Computer-aided Design (CAD)

How to create a solid object using a 3D printer

81
2D and 3D cutters

A three-dimensional (3D) laser cutter works in a similar way to a two-dimensional (2D) cutter.
The main difference is that the 3D cutter can recognise an object in the xy-z direction rather
than just x-y.
3D laser cutters can cut the following materials:
 glass
 crystal
 metal
 polymer
 wood.
Very complex designs can be cut since the cutters are controlled by computers and very
sophisticated software.
A 3D cutter can cut beyond the surface of the material and produce very intricate designs.
It is interesting to contrast this method of shaping objects with 3D printers,
although it is true to say that not all the materials which can undergo 3D cutting can be used
in 3D printing methods.

Actuators
ACTUATORS are used in many control applications involving sensors and devices such as
ADC and DAC.

Loudspeakers/headphones
Sound is produced from a computer by passing the digital data through a DIGITAL TO
ANALOGUE CONVERTER (DAC) and then through an AMPLIFIER, finally the sound
emerges from a (loud)SPEAKER.
The sound is produced by voltage differences vibrating a cone in the speaker housing at
different frequencies and amplitudes:

LCD and LED monitors

The days of the old cathode-ray monitors are almost gone. Most monitors and television set
these days are made using LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY/DIODE (LCD) technology.
This means that the front layer of the monitor is made up liquid crystal diodes, these tiny diodes
are grouped together in threes or fours which are known as pixels (picture elements). The
three colours which are grouped together use red, green and blue diodes. Those systems that
use groups of four include a yellow diode – this is said to make the colours more vivid.

Modern LCD monitors are back lit using LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED)
technology. This gives the image better contrast and brightness. Before the use of LEDs, LCD
monitors used a cold cathode fluorescent lamp (CCFL) as the backlighting method.

82
Essentially, CCFL uses two fluorescent tubes behind the LCD screen which supplies the light
source. When LEDs are used, a matrix of tiny LEDs is used behind the LCD screen. Because
LCD doesn’t emit any light, some form of back-lit technology needs to be used.

LEDs have become increasingly more popular because of a number of

advantages over older CCFL technology:

 LEDs reach their maximum brightness almost immediately (there is no need to ‘warm
up’ before reaching full efficiency)
 LEDs give a whiter light which sharpens the image and make the colours appear more
vivid; CCFL had a slightly yellowish tint
 LEDs produce a brighter light which improves the colour definition
 monitors using LED technology are much thinner than monitors using CCFL
technology
 LEDs last almost indefinitely; this makes the technology more reliable and means a
more consistent product
 LEDs consume very little power which means they produce less heat as well as using
less energy.

ORGANIC LIGHT EMITTING DIODES (OLEDS)

Future LED technology is making use of ORGANIC LIGHT EMITTING DIODES (OLEDS).
These use organic materials (made up of carbon compounds) to create semi-conductors
which are very flexible. Organic films are sandwiched between two charged electrodes (one
is a metallic CATHODE and the other a glass ANODE). When an electric field is applied to the
electrodes, they give off light. This means that no form of backlighting is required. This allows
for very thin screens.

83
Advantages of using OLED compared with existing LEDs and LCDs include:

 the plastic, organic layers of an OLED are thinner, lighter and more flexible than the
crystal structures used in LEDs or LCDs
 the light-emitting layers of an OLED are lighter; OLED layers can be made from plastic
rather than the glass used in LED and LCD screens
 OLEDs give a brighter light than LEDs
 OLEDs do not require backlighting like LCD screens – OLEDs generate their own light
 since OLEDs require no backlighting, they use much less power than LCD screens
(most of the LCD power is used to do the backlighting); this is very important in battery-
operated devices such as mobile phones
 since OLEDs are essentially plastics, they can be made into large, thin sheets (this
means they could be used on large advertising boards in airports, subways, and so
on)
 OLEDs have a very large field of view, about 170 degrees, which makes them ideal for
use in television sets and for advertising screens.

Light projectors

There are two common types of light projector:

 digital light projectors (DLP)
 LCD projectors.
Projectors are used to project computer output onto larger screens or even onto interactive
whiteboards. They are often used in presentations and in multimedia applications.
The following two sections describe the basic differences behind these projector technologies.

84
Digital Light Projectors (DLP)
 Uses millions of micro mirrors
 the number of micro mirrors and the way they are arranged on the DLP chip determines
the resolution of the image
 When the micro mirrors tilt towards the light source, they are on
 When the micro mirrors tilt away from the light source, they are off
 This creates a light or dark pixel on the projection screen
 A bright white light source passes through a colour filter on its way to the DLP chip
 White light splits into primary colours

LCD Projectors
 Older technology than DLP
 A powerful beam of white light is generated from a bulb
 This beam of light is then sent to a group of chromatic-coated mirrors; these reflect the
light back at different wavelengths
 When the white light hits the mirrors, the reflected light has wavelengths corresponding
to red, green and blue
 These three different lights pass through three LCD screens; these screens show the
image to be projected as millions of pixels in grayscale
 When the coloured light passes through the LCD screens, a red, green and blue
version of the grey image emerges
 Finally, the image passes through the projector lens onto the screen

Loudspeakers
Loudspeakers are output devices that produce sound. When connected to a computer system,
digitized sound stored on a file needs to be converted into sound as follows:

85
 The digital data is first passed through a digital to analogue converter (DAC) where it is
changed into an electric current.
 This is then passed through an amplifier (since the current generated by DAC will be very
small); this creates a current large enough to drive a loudspeaker.
 This electric current is then fed to a loudspeaker where it is converted into sound.
The following schematic shows how this is done:

If the sound is stored in a computer file, it must pass through a digital to analogue converter
to convert binary (digital) data into an analogue form (electric current) that can then drive the
loudspeakers. It shows how the loudspeaker converts the electric current into sound:

86
3.3 Data Storage

87
 3.3 Data Storage

Computer storage:

There are three type of storage that a computer uses:

• Primary storage
• Secondary storage
• Off-line storage

Here is a summary of the differences between primary memory and storage devices:

88
Primary storage

Primary storage is also known as ‘primary memory ‘or ‘memory’. Once data has been input
into a computer, it needs to be stored in a place that can be accessed quickly and directly by
the computer’s processor. Primary storage is a computer’s internal storage.

Primary is separated into random access memory (RAM) and read only memory (ROM). Both
types are memory chips.

Random Access Memory (RAM)

The features of Random-Access Memory (RAM) are:

 it is volatile/temporary memory (the contents of the memory are lost when the power
to the RAM is turned off)
 it is used to store data, files, or part of the operating system that are currently in use
 it can be written to or read from and the contents of the memory can be changed.

RAM is much faster to write to or read from than other types of memory; but its main drawback
is its volatility. RAM is often built into peripherals such as printers. Data to be printed is
transferred to the printer’s RAM, and then the printer prints the data whilst the computer moves
on to other tasks.

Application:

 The user may wish to program in their own routines; these new instructions
 Would be stored in the RAM chip
 The RAM chip will store the data/instructions received from the remote control unit.

There are currently two types of RAM technology:

 Dynamic ram (DRAM)

 Static RAM (SRAM).

89
Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

Each DYNAMIC RAM (DRAM) chip consists of a number of transistors and capacitors. Each
of these parts is tiny since a single RAM chip will contain millions of transistors and capacitors.
The function of each part is:

 Capacitor – this holds the bits of information (0 or 1)

 Transistor – this acts like a switch; it allows the chip control circuitry to read the
capacitor or change the capacitor’s value.

This type of RAM needs to be constantly REFRESHED (that is, the capacitor needs to be
recharged every 15 microseconds otherwise it would lose its value). If it wasn’t refreshed, the
capacitor’s charge would leak away very quickly, leaving every capacitor with the value 0.
DRAMs have a number of advantages over SRAMs:

 They are much less expensive to manufacture than SRAM

 They consume less power than SRAM
 They have a higher storage capacity than SRAM.

Static RAM (SRAM)

A big difference between SRAM and DRAM is that this type

of memory doesn’t need to be constantly refreshed. It makes
use of ‘flip flops’ which hold each bit of memory.

SRAM is much faster than DRAM when it comes to data

access (typically, access time for SRAM is 25 nanoseconds
and for DRAM is 60 nanoseconds). DRAM is the most
common type of RAM used in computers, but where absolute
speed is essential, then SRAM is the preferred technology.

For example, the processor’s MEMORY CACHE is the high

speed portion of the memory; it is effective because most
programs access the same data or instructions many times. By keeping as much of this
information as possible in SRAM, the computer avoids having to access the slower DRAM.

90
Read Only Memory (ROM)

ROM is primary storage that can be read from but not written to. Unlike RAM, ROM does not
lose its contents when the computer’s power is switched off. As a result we say that ROM is
‘non-volatile’.

General purpose device use ROM to hold software known as a bootstrap. The bootstrap
contains instructions that determine the basic hardware structure of the computer and
instruction for finding and loading the operating system.

The main features of READ ONLY MEMORY (ROM) can be summarised as follows:

 They are non-volatile/permanent memories (the contents of the memory remain even
when the power to the ROM is turned off)
 They are often used to store the start-up instructions when the computer is first
switched on (for example, ROM might store the basic input/output system (BIOS))
 The data or contents of a ROM chip can only be read; they cannot be changed.

Application

 Stores the factory settings such as remote control frequencies

 Stores the ‘start-up’ routines when the toy car is first switched on
 Stores the set routines; for example, how the buttons on the hand-held device control
turning left, acceleration, stopping, and so on.

Hard Disk drive:

HARD DISK DRIVES (HDD) are probably still

the most common method used to store data on
a computer.
Data is stored in a digital format on the magnetic
surfaces of the disks (or platters, as they are
frequently called). The hard disk drive will have
a number of platters which can spin at about
7000 times a second. A number of read write
heads can access all of the surfaces in the disk
drive. Normally each platter will have two
surfaces which can be used to store the data.
These read write heads can move very quickly
– typically they can move from the center of the disk to the edge of the disk (and back again)
50 times a second. Key points to remember about HDD:

 Data is stored in a digital format on the magnetic surface of the disks (platter)
 Number of read/write heads can access all of the surfaces of the disk
 Each platter will have two surfaces which can be used to store the data
 Data is stored on the surfaces in sectors and tracks
 HDD have very slow data access compared to RAM

91
Solid state Drives (SSD)

SOLID-STATE DRIVES (SSD) remove this issue considerably. They have no moving parts
and all data is retrieved at the same rate. They don’t rely on magnetic properties; the most
common type of solid-state storage devices store data by controlling the movement of
electrons within NAND chips. The data is stored as 0s and 1s in millions of tiny transistors
within the chip. This effectively produces a non-volatile rewritable memory.

ELECTRONICALLY ERASABLE PROGRAMMABLE READ-ONLY MEMORY

(EEPROM) technology.

The main difference is the use of NOR chips rather than NAND. This makes them faster in
operation but devices using EEPROM are considerably more expensive than those that use
NAND technology. EEPROM also allows data to be read or erased in single bytes at a time.
Use of NAND only allows blocks of data to be read or erased. This makes EEPROM
technology more useful in certain applications where data needs to be accessed or erased in
byte-sized chunks.

Main benefits of using SSD rather than HDD

 They are more reliable (no moving parts to go wrong)

 They are considerably lighter (which makes them suitable for laptops)
 They don’t have to ‘get up to speed’ before they work properly
 They have a lower power consumption
 They run much cooler than HDDs (these last two points again make them very suitable
for laptop computers)
 Because they have no moving parts, they are very thin
 Data access is considerably faster than HDD.

Drawback of SSD
The main drawback of SSD is the questionable longevity of the technology. Most solid state
storage devices are conservatively rated at only 20 GB write operations per day over a three
year period – this is known as SSD endurance.

Why SSD technology is not used in servers?

SSD technology is not used in servers, for example, where a huge number of write operations
take place every day. However, this issue is being addressed by a number of manufacturers
to improve the durability of these solid-state systems.

Off-line storage
Off-line storage is any non-volatile storage device or, medium that is disconnected (off-line) or
removed, from a computer. Typical examples of off-line storage include optical media (CD,
DVD and Blu-ray disks), USB RAM sticks, external hard drives and magnetic tape.

92
CD/DVD disks

CDS and DVDS are described as OPTICAL

STORAGE DEVICES. Laser light is used to
read data and to write data in the surface of the
disk.
Both CDs and DVDs use a thin layer of metal
alloy or light. Sensitive organic dye to store the
data. Both systems use a single, spiral track
which runs from the center of the disk to the
edge.
The data is stored in ‘pits’ and ‘bumps’ on the
spiral track. A red laser is used to read and
write the data. CDs and DVDs can be designated R (write once only) or RW (can be written
to or read from many times).

DVD technology is slightly different to that used in CDs.

One of the main differences is the use of DUAL-LAYERING which considerably increases the
storage capacity. Basically, this means that there are two individual recording layers.
Two layers of a standard DVD are joined together with a transparent (polycarbonate) spacer,
and a very thin reflector is also sandwiched between the two layers. Reading and writing of
the second layer is done by a red laser focusing at a fraction of a millimeter difference
compared to the first layer.
Standard, single layer DVDs still have a larger storage capacity than CDs because the ‘pit’
size and track width are both smaller. This means that more data can be stored on the DVD
surface. DVDs use lasers with a wavelength of 650 nanometres; CDs use lasers with a
wavelength of 780 nanometres. The shorter the wavelength of the laser light, the greater the
storage capacity of the medium.

93
DVD-RAM
DVD-RAM uses a very different technology to CDs and DVDs. They have the following
features:
 Instead of a single, spiral track, they use a number of concentric tracks
 Use of concentric tracks allows simultaneous read and write operations to take place.
 They allow numerous read and write operations (up to 100 000 times) and have great
longevity (over 30 years) which makes them ideal for archiving.

Blu-ray disks
BLU-RAY DISKS are another example of optical storage media. However, they are
fundamentally different to DVDs in their construction and in the way they carry out read–write
operations.
The main differences between CD,DVD and Blue ray are:
• A blue laser, rather than a red laser, is used to carry out read and write operations; the
wavelength of blue light is only 405 nanometres (compared to 650 nm for red light).
• Using blue laser light means that the ‘pits’ and ‘bumps’ can be much smaller; consequently,
Blu-ray can store up to five times more data than normal DVD.
• Blu-ray uses a single 1.1 mm thick polycarbonate disk; normal DVDs use a sandwich of two
0.6 mm thick disks.
• using two sandwiched layers can cause BIREFRINGENCE (light is refracted into two
separate beams causing reading errors); because Blu-ray uses only one layer, the disks don’t
suffer from birefringence.
• Blu-ray disks automatically come with a secure encryption system which helps to prevent
piracy and copyright infringement.

USB flash memories

MEMORY STICKS/FLASH MEMORIES (also known as pen drives) use solid-state
Technology. They usually connect to a computer through the USB port.
Their main advantage is that they are very small, lightweight devices which make them
suitable as a method for transferring files between computers. They can also be used as small
back-up devices for music or photo files.
Each memory card is made up of NAND chips and, as with all solid-state memories, there are
no moving parts.

94
How flash memory works
Large electric current used to force electrons through a barrier and trap them on the other
side. They remain on the other side until “flashed” with a new current, hence the name.
Trapped (charged) or not trapped = 0 or 1.

Removable hard disk drives

REMOVABLE HARD DISK DRIVES are essentially HDD but can be connected to the
computer using one of the USB ports. In this way, they can be used as a back-up device or
as another way of transferring files between computers.

Virtual Memory
If the amount of available RAM is exceeded due to multiple programs running, it is likely to
cause a system crash. This can be solved by utilizing the hard disk drive (or SSD) if we need
more memory. This is the basis behind virtual memory.
Essentially RAM is the physical memory, while virtual memory is RAM+swap space on the
hard disk or SSD.

It is possible to show the differences between using normal memory management and virtual
memory management in two simple diagrams.

Without virtual memory

Diagram shows what would happen without virtual memory being used (i.e. the computer
would run out of RAM memory space)

With virtual memory

We will now consider what happens if the CPU uses virtual memory to allow all five programs
to access RAM as required. This will require moving data out of RAM into HDD/SSD and then
allowing other data to be moved out of HDD/SSD into RAM.

95
The main benefits of virtual memory are:
 Programs can be larger than physical memory and still be executed
 There is no need to waste memory with data that isn’t being used (e.g. during error
handling)
 It reduces the need to buy and install more expensive RAM memory (although as
mentioned earlier there are limits to the value of doing this).

Drawback of virtual memory

When using HDD for virtual memory the main drawback is disk thrashing. As main memory
fills, more and more data needs to be swapped in and out of virtual memory leading to a very
high rate of hard disk read/write head movements, this is known as disk thrashing.

Cloud Storage
Cloud storage is a method of data storage where data is stored on remote servers. The same
data is stored on more than one server in case of maintenance or repair, allowing clients to
access data at any time. This is known as data redundancy. The physical environment is
owned and managed by a hosting company and may include hundreds of servers in many
locations.

96
There are three common systems:
Public Cloud: this is a storage environment where the customer/client and cloud storage
provider are different companies.

Private Cloud: The private cloud is defined as computing services offered either over the
Internet or a private internal network and only to select users instead of the general public.

Hybrid Cloud: this is combination of the two above environments, some data resides in the
private cloud and less sensitive/less commercial data can be accessed from a public cloud
storage provider.

97
3.4 Network Hardware

98
 NETWORK HARDWARE
Network Interface Card (NIC):
A network interface card (NIC) is needed to allow a device to connect to a network (such as
the Internet). It is usually part of the device hardware and contains the Media Access Control
(MAC) address generated at the manufacturing stage.

Types of network interface cards

While the standard NIC is a plastic circuit board that slides into a computer to connect with
the motherboard, there are multiple ways this connection can occur:

 Wireless
 Wired
 USB
 Fiber optics

Media Access Control (MAC)

A MEDIA ACCESS CONTROL (MAC) ADDRESS refers to a number which uniquely identifies
a device on the internet. The MAC address refers to the network interface card (NIC) which is
part of the device. The MAC address is rarely changed so that a particular device can always
be identified no matter where it is.

A MAC address is usually made up of 48 bits which are shown as six groups of hexadecimal
digits (although 64-bit addresses are also known):

NN – NN – NN – DD – DD – DD

or NN:NN:NN:DD:DD:DD

Where the first half (NN – NN – NN) is the identity number of the manufacturer of the device
and the second half (DD – DD – DD) is the serial number of the device.

For example: 00 – 1C – B3 – 4F – 25 – FE is the MAC address of a device produced by the

Apple Corporation (code: 001CB3) with a serial number of 4F25FE. Sometimes lower case
hexadecimal letters are used in the MAC address: 00-1c-b3-4f-25-fe.

Other manufacturer identity numbers include:

• 00 – 14 – 22 which identifies devices made by Dell

• 00 – 40 – 96 which identifies devices made by Cisco

• 00 – A0 – C9 which identifies devices made by Intel, and so on.

99
Types of MAC address

It should be pointed out that there are two types of MAC address: the UNIVERSALLY
ADMINISTERED MAC ADDRESS (UAA) and the LOCALLY ADMINISTERED MAC
ADDRESS (LAA).

The UAA is by far the most common type of MAC address and this is the one set by the
manufacturer at the factory. It is rare for a user to want to change this MAC address.

However, there are some occasions when a user or an organisation wishes to change their
MAC address. This is a relatively easy task to carry out but it will cause big problems if the
changed address isn’t unique.

There are a few reasons why the MAC address needs to be changed using LAA:

 Certain software used on mainframe systems needs all the MAC addresses of devices
to fall into a strict format; because of this, it may be necessary to change the MAC
address of some devices to ensure they follow the correct format.
 It may be necessary to bypass a MAC address filter on a router or a firewall; only MAC
addresses with a certain format are allowed through, otherwise the devices will be
blocked.
 To get past certain types of network restrictions it may be necessary to emulate
unrestricted MAC addresses; hence it may require the MAC address to be changed on
certain devices connected to the network.

Internet Protocol (IP) address

An IP address is a unique address that identifies a device on the internet or a local network.
IP stands for "Internet Protocol," which is the set of rules governing the format of data sent via
the internet or local network.

There are two versions of IP: IPv4 and IPv6.

 IPv4 is based on 32-bits and the address is written as four groups of eight bits. For
example: 254.25.28.77
 IPv6 is based on 128-bits address and it take the form of eight groups of hexadecimal
digits. For example A8FB: 7A88:FFF0:0FFF:3D21:2085:66FB:F0FA
IPv6 has been designed to allow the internet to grow in terms of the number of hosts
and potential increase in the amount of data traffic.

The main advantages of IPv6 compared to IPv4 are

 removes the risk of IP address collisions

 has built-in authentication checks
 allows for more efficient packet routes.

100
101
Static and dynamic IP addresses

Static IP addresses are usually assigned to:

 Remote servers which are hosting a website
 An online database
 A File Transfer Protocol (FTP) server. FTP servers are used when files are need to
be transferred to various computers throughout the network.

Dynamic IP addresses are assigned by the ISP each time a device logs onto the internet.
This is done using Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP). A computer on the internet,
configured as a DHCP server, is used by the ISP to automatically assign an IP address to a
device.

102
Routers
Routers enable data packets to be routed between different networks, for example, to join a
LAN to a WAN. The router takes data transmitted in one format from a network (which is using
a particular protocol) and converts the data to a protocol and format understood by another
network. Thereby allowing them to communicate.

The router’s main function is to transmit internet and transmission protocols between two
networks and also allow private networks to be connected together.

Routers inspect the data package sent to it from any computer on any of the networks
connected to it. Routers can be wired or wireless devices.

103