Jaipur Engineering College and Research Centre

Lab Record
RF Simulation Lab (5EC4-21)

III Year - V Semester:

B.Tech. (Electronics & Communication Engineering)

Submitted By:

Name: Anish Jain

RTU Roll No: 22EJCEC300

 LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

S.No. NAME OF THE EXPERIMENT Page

No.

1. Study of field patterns of various modes inside a 4

rectangular waveguide.

Observe the transient phenomenon of terminated

2. coaxial transmission lines in order to study their 8
time domain behavior.

Study of field patterns of various modes inside a

3. 13
rectangular cavity.
Study the behavior of terminated coaxial transmission
4. lines in frequency domain. 20

Find the change in characteristics impedance and

reflection coefficients of the transmission line by
5. changing the dielectric properties of materials
24
embedded between two conductors.
Study the behavior of impedance matching for passive
networks using Smith chart. 30
6.
 RAJASTHAN TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY, KOTA
SYLLABUS
III Year - V Semester: B.Tech. (Electronics & Communication Engineering)

5EC4-21: RF Simulation Lab

Credit:1.5 Max. Marks: 100(IA:60,ETE:40)

0L+0T+3P End Term Exam: 2Hours
SN Contents

1 Introduction: Objective, scope and outcome of the course.

2 Study of field pattern of various modes inside a rectangular and circular

waveguide.

3 Find the change in characteristics impedance and reflection coefficients of the

transmission line by changing the dielectric properties of materials embedded
between two conductors.

4 Design and simulate the following Planar Transmission Lines:

I. Strip and micro-striplines

II. Parallel coupled stripline

III. Coplanar and Slotlines

Determine their field patterns and characteristic impedance.

5 Design and simulate the following:

I. 3-dB branch linecoupler

II. Wilkinson powerdivider

III. Hybridring

IV. Backward wavecoupler

V. Low passfilters

VI. Band passfilters

6 Design RF amplifier using microwave BJT.

7 Design RF amplifier using microwave FET.

Syllabus of 3rd Year B. Tech. (EC) for students admitted in Session 2021-22 onwards Page 11
 Lab Manual
Aim of Experiment:
Study of field patterns of various modes inside a rectangular waveguide.

Requirement:
You have to install a LabVIEW Run time Engine on your computer to run the exe file in
order to perform the experiment. The Run Time Engine can be downloaded free of cost
from the following link: http://joule.ni.com/nidu/cds/view/p/id/1101/lang/en

Knowledge Required for the Experiment:

 Waveguides
 Wave behavior inside a waveguide
 Configuration of (TEmn ,TM mn )
Modes
 Cut off frequency
 Surface current
density

Objective of Experiment:
This experiment provides the field patterns of various modes inside a rectangular
waveguide. This gives the basic idea of the change in the field pattern; that is, electric
and magnetic field patterns with the change in modes inside a rectangular waveguide.
One can observe the field patterns of various modes in xy, xz and yz planes for different
frequency bands. Surface current density can also be observed on the walls of a
rectangular waveguide.

Fig.1 Rectangular Waveguide

Theory:
Electromagnetic waves propagating in open space travel out in all directions. The power
intensity of these waves decreases as the distance increases - it is proportional to
the power of the source divided by the square of the distance. The waveguide
operates by confining the electromagnetic wave inside a metallic structure so that it
does not spread out, and losses resulting from this effect are eliminated. In
electromagnetics, the term waveguide may refer to any linear structure that guides
electromagnetic waves between two endpoints. Typically a waveguide is thought of as a
transmission
line comprising a hollow conducting tube, which may be rectangular or circular within
which electromagnetic waves are propagated. Unlike coaxial cable, there is no centre
conductor within the waveguide. Signals propagate within the confines of the metallic
walls that act as boundaries. The signal is confined by total internal reflection from the
walls of the waveguide. Waveguides are used principally at frequencies in the microwave
range. Waveguides will only carry or propagate signals above a certain frequency, known
as the cut-off frequency. Below this the waveguide is not able to carry the signals. The
cut-off frequency of the waveguide depends upon its dimensions.

Rectangular Waveguide

A rectangular waveguide is a hollow metallic tube with a rectangular cross section. The
conducting walls of the waveguide confine the electromagnetic fields and thereby guide
the electromagnetic wave. The rectangular waveguide is basically characterized by its
dimensions i.e., length ‘a’ and breadth ‘b’.

Fig. 2 Waveguide structure with dimension ‘a’ and ‘b’

Modes: Electromagnetic waveguides are analyzed by solving Maxwell's equations, or

their reduced form, the electromagnetic wave equation, with boundary conditions
determined by the properties of the materials and their interfaces. These equations have
multiple solutions, or modes, which are eigen functions of the equation system. Each
mode is therefore characterized by an eigenvalue, which corresponds to a cutoff
frequency below which the mode cannot exist in the guide

Waveguide propagation modes depend on the operating wavelength and polarization

and the shape and size of the guide. The modes of the waveguide are typically classified
into following types:

 TE modes (Transverse Electric) have no electric field component in the direction of

propagation.
 TM modes (Transverse Magnetic) have no magnetic field component in the
direction of propagation.
 TEM modes (Transverse Electromagnetic) have neither electric nor magnetic field
component in the direction of propagation.

Field Theory: As we know, an electromagnetic field is comprised of electric and magnetic

fields which are perpendicular to each other. These fields have different patterns for
each mode. These patterns depend upon the mode numbers (m and n) and the
dimensions (‘a’ and ‘b’) of the waveguide. The electric field and magnetic field pattern
are different for various modes in different waveguides. The electric field component of
an EM wave is characterized by Ex, Ey and Ez components of the wave. Similarly, the
magnetic field component of an EM wave is characterized by Hx, Hy and Hz components
of the wave. These components are usually plotted on an XY plane which shows the
field pattern for both the fields.
Field Equations:
For mode, the field equations for a rectangular waveguide are:[2]

For mode, the field equations for a rectangular waveguide are:

Procedure:
Step 1: Select the frequency band in which you wish to see the field pattern.
Step 2: Select the type of mode, i.e. either Transverse Electric (TE) or Transverse
magnetic (TM). Step 3: Select pattern:
 Electric Field: Select this to view the electric field pattern of the given mode.
 Magnetic Field: Select this to view the magnetic field pattern of the given mode.
 Surface Current: Select this option to view the surface current density for TE10
mode.
Step 4: Enter the values of m and n to obtain the field pattern, where m stands for
number of half waves of electric or magnetic intensity in the X- direction, and n stands
for number of half waves in the y direction if the propagation of wave is in z direction.
Step 5: Run the VI up to see the desired field pattern in XY, YZ and XZ planes. In case,
you wish to see the other field pattern then click stop and repeat steps 1-4 before
running the program again.

Task:
1. Plot the electric and magnetic field patterns for TE11 mode in X-band inside a
rectangular waveguide. Explain the field patterns with proper reasons.
2. Plot the electric and magnetic field patterns for TM11 mode and also check for
TM10 mode and check if the mode exists, explain the facts behind the behavior of
the mode.

Summary:
From the experiment, we can observe the field patterns of various modes inside a
rectangular
waveguide in xy, yz and zx planes. This also shows the current density TE10 mode in
variation in all
three planes. Here, one can observe the field patterns for various frequency bands. One
can correlate the above mentioned field equations with the field patterns of various
modes and can develop better understanding of the modes of the rectangular
waveguides.

References:
1. "Microwave Devices and Circuits", Third Edition, Edition, Samuel Y.Liao
2. "Field and Wave Electromagnetics", Second Edition, David K.Cheng
3. "Electromagnetic Waves and Radiating System", Edward C.Jordan, Keith G.Balmain
 Lab Manual
Experiment No. 2
Aim of Experiment:

Observe the transient phenomenon of terminated coaxial transmission lines in order to study their time domain
behavior.

Requirement:
You have to install a LabVIEW Run time Engine on your computer to run the exe file in order to perform the
experiment. The Run Time Engine can be downloaded free of cost from the following link:
http://joule.ni.com/nidu/cds/view/p/id/1101/lang/en

Knowledge Required for the Experiment:

 Transverse Electromagnetic wave.
 Transmission-Line.
 General Transmission-Line equations.
 Transmission-Line parameters.
 Reflection Coefficient.

Objective of Experiment:
The main objective of the experiment is to observe the transient phenomenon of terminated coaxial transmission
lines. The transmission line is considered as lossless and for such lines ( ), characteristic

impedance becomes characteristic resistance , and voltage and current waves propagate along the

line with a velocity . In this experiment a d-c voltage source is applied through a series (internal)
resistance at to the input terminals of a lossless line terminated in a load resistance . This experiment
shows the voltage and current wave travelling on the transmission line and total voltage and total current can
also be seen at any specified point on transmission line w.r.t. time.

Theory:
Transmission line: It is a device designed to guide the electrical energy from one point to another. It is used,
for example, to transfer the RF energy from source to antenna. For efficient point-to-point transmission of
power and information the source energy must be directed or guided. Transmission line that consists of two or
more conductors may support transverse electromagnetic (TEM) waves, characterized by the lack of
longitudinal field components. The TEM mode of guided waves is one in which E and H are perpendicular to
each other and both are transverse to the direction of propagation along the guiding line. TEM waves have
uniquely defined voltage, current, and characteristic impedance.

The three most common types of guiding structures that support TEM waves are:

1. Parallel-plate transmission line

2. Two-wire transmission line.
3. Coaxial transmission line.
Coaxial transmission line: This type of transmission line consists of an inner conductor and outer conductor
separated by a dielectric medium. This structure has the important advantage of confining the electric and
magnetic fields entirely within the dielectric region. No stray fields are usually generated inside a coaxial
transmission line, and little external interference is coupled into the line.

Fig 1: Coaxial cable

http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definitions/Coaxial%20Cable?cx=partner-pub-0939450753529744%3Av0qd01-tdlq&cof=FORID%3A9&ie=UTF-8&q=Coaxial%20Cable&sa=Search#922

General Transmission-Line Equation: A transmission line is a distributed-parameter network and must be

described by circuit parameters that are distributed throughout its length. Under matched conditions, standing
waves exit in a transmission line while, no standing wave exist in lumped-circuit elements in an ordinary
electric network.

Fig 2: Equivalent circuit of a differential length of a two-conductor transmission line.

Consider a differential length Δz of a transmission line that is described by the following four parameters:

R, resistance per unit length, in Ω/m.

L, inductance per unit length, in H/m.
G, conductance per unit length, in S/m.
C, capacitance per unit length, in F/m.

Note that R and L are series elements and G and C are shunt elements. Fig 2, shows the equivalent electric
circuit of such a line segment. The quantities v(z,t) and v(z+Δz, t) denote the instantaneous voltages at z and
z+Δz, respectively. Similarly, i(z,t) and i(z+Δz, t) denote the instantaneous currents at z and z+Δz, respectively.

Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law, we obtain

For , above equation becomes,

Similarly, applying Kirchhoff’s current law to the node N in Fig. 2, and in the limit as we have,

These equations are a pair of first-order partial differential equations in v(z,t) and i(z,t). They are the general
transmission-line equations.

Simplifying the transmission-line equations to ordinary differential equations we have,

These equations are time-harmonic transmission-line equations, which reduces to the equation (5) and (6) if
where is the propagation constant whose real and imaginary
parts, and are the attenuation constant (Np/m) and phase constant (rad/m) of the line, respectively.

The solutions of equations (5) and (6) are

(7)

(8)

(9)

(10)

where the plus and minus subscripts denote waves travelling in the +z and –z direction.

In RF transmission, because of the impedance mismatch the power travelling on transmission line gets reflected
at its termination. This mismatch happens when the characteristic impedance of transmission line are not same
as source or load impedances. Normally the total voltage at any point of the transmission line is given by
equation (8) and the total current at any point of the transmission line is given by equation (10)
Consider a transmission line of length l having characteristic impedance and connected to a voltage
generator with internal impedance , and terminated with a load impedance . Reflection coefficient at
the generator end ( ) and at the load end ( ) are given by-

When first wave, reaches at Z=l , it is reflected because of impedance mismatch at load
end, resulting in a wave with a complex amplitude travelling the –z direction. As the
wave
returns to the generator at z=0,

+
V2
Zg

Zo
V1-
Vg

+
V1

z=0 z z’ = l - z
z= l
z’ =l z’ =0

Fig 3: Voltage wave propagation on transmission line

It is again reflected for ≠ , giving rise to second wave with a complex amplitude
travelling in the +z direction. This process continues indefinitely with reflections at both ends
and the resulting standing waves is the sum of all the waves travelling in both directions as shown in Fig.
2. When the line is terminated with a matched load = , only exists and it stops at the matched load with
no reflections. If ≠ but = (if the internal impedance of the generator is matched to the line), then ≠0
and 0. As a consequence both and exist, and and all higher order reflections vanish.

There are practical situations in which the sources and signals are not time-harmonic and the conditions are not
steady state such as digital signals in computer networks and so on. In such cases the transient behavior of
lossless transmission lines is considered.

LabVIEW PROGRAMMING:
As stated earlier, LabVIEW is a graphical programming environment used currently by millions of engineers to
develop sophisticated measurement, test, and control systems using intuitive graphical icons and wires that
resemble a flowchart. LabVIEW (VI file) can be useful in providing a better understanding of the transient
behavior of a transmission line. Behavior of the waves on the transmission lines for different parameters like
characteristic impedance , load impedance , generator resistance , length of the line and so on can be
visualized using LabVIEW.

Procedure:
Please download the files shown on the left to perform the actual experiment. It consists of three exe file one for
the resistive load, second file for inductive load and the third file is for capacitive load.
Step 1: Set the source voltage (Vs) in volts and generator resistance (Rg).
Step 2: Set the number of cycles, number of points in distance scale and location of point (in meter) at which
voltage has to be measured w.r.t. time.
Step 3: Enter the values of properties of transmission line i.e. length of transmission line(L) in meters,
characteristic Impedance of transmission line (Ro) and dielectric constant (epsilon).
Step 4: In the output you will see four plots, one showing variation for the voltage vs distance in transmission
line, second plot shows the variation for the current vs distance in transmission line, third plot shows the
variation for the total voltage vs time at a point on transmission line and the fourth plot shows the variation for
the total current vs time at a point on transmission line.
Step 5: Run the set up to see the results and if you wish to verify it for other parameters then click stop and
repeat steps 1-4 and again run the set up.

Task:
1. Observe the voltage and current wave travelling along the transmission line by changing the values of
source voltage, generator resistance and load resistance.
2. Observe the total voltage and total current at any point on the transmission line by varying the location
of point at which voltage or current has to be measured.
3. Observe the total voltage and total current at a point on the transmission line by varying the length of
transmission line and characteristic impedance.

Summary: This experiment shows the graphical construction of a reflection diagram. Both, the voltage
reflection and current reflection diagram for the transmission-line circuit has been shown here. Step-by-step
construction and calculation procedure of the voltage and current at a particular time and location on a
transmission line with arbitrary resistive terminations tends to be tedious and difficult to visualize when it is
necessary to consider many reflected waves. In such cases the graphical construction of a reflection diagram is
very helpful.

References:
1. "Microwave Engineering", Third Edition, David M. Pozer
2. "Microwave Devices and Circuits", Third Edition, Edition, Samuel Y.Liao
3. "Field and Wave Electromagnetics", Second Edition, David K.Cheng
4. "Electromagnetic Waves and Radiating System", Edward C.Jordan, Keith G.Balmain
Aim: Study of field patterns of various modes inside a rectangular cavity

This gives the basic idea of the field pattern; that is, electric and magnetic field patterns for various
modes inside a rectangular cavity resonator. One can observe the field patterns of various modes in xy,
xz and yz planes for different frequency bands. Surface current density can also be observed on the walls
of a rectangular cavity resonator.

Field Pattern for dominant mode (TE101) along xy plane

About the experiment:

This experiment provides the field patterns of various modes inside a rectangular cavity. The conducting
walls of the cavity confine the electromagnetic fields inside the structure and hence the cavity acts as a
resonator. A number of distinct field configurations or modes can exist in cavities. In rectangular cavity,
modes are designated as TEmnp or TMmnp , where m, n, p are the number of half wave variations in x, y, z
directions respectively. In this experiment, you can get better understanding of how the field patterns
vary with the parameters m, n and p for Transverse Electric (TE) and Transverse Magnetic (TM) modes in
xy, yz and xz planes for different frequency bands. The surface current density plot for the TE and TM
modes can also be observed on the walls of the rectangular cavity. The figure below shows the planes of
a rectangular cavity.

In this experiment, a rectangular cavity of dimension x=a, y =b and z=d has been considered. The
dimensions of the cavity depend on the frequency band in which we are observing the field pattern. For
example, in X Band (8-12GHz), the U.S. standard waveguide WR-90 has inner width of 2.286 cm('a'), an
inner height of 1.106 cm ('b') and the dimension in z direction, d is usually an odd multiple of the guide
wavelength (λg).

Theory

Electromagnetic waves propagating in open space travel out in all directions. As we know the waveguide
operates by confining the electromagnetic wave inside a metallic structure so that it does not spread
out, and losses resulting from this effect are eliminated. By definition, a resonant cavity is any space
completely enclosed by conducting walls that can contain oscillating electromagnetic fields and possess
resonant properties. Signals propagate within the confines of the metallic walls that act as boundaries.
The signal is confined by total internal reflection from the walls of the cavity. Resonant cavities have a
very high Q and can be built to handle relatively large amounts of power. They are used principally at
frequencies in the microwave range and can act as a resonator above a certain frequency, known as the
cut-off frequency. This cut-off frequency of the cavity depends upon its dimensions.

Rectangular Cavity
A rectangular cavity is a hollow metallic tube with a rectangular cross section. It can be simply described
as a rectangular waveguide which is shorted at both ends. The conducting walls of the waveguide
confine the electromagnetic fields and hence standing waves are created which leads to resonant
phenomenon. The rectangular cavity is basically characterized by its dimensions i.e., length d, breadth a
and height b.

Modes: Like waveguides, cavities are also analyzed by solving Maxwell's equations, or their reduced
form, the electromagnetic wave equation, with boundary conditions determined by the properties of
the materials and their interfaces. These equations have multiple solutions, or modes, which are eigen-
functions of the equation system. Each mode is therefore characterized by an eigen-value, which
corresponds to a cutoff frequency below which the mode cannot exist in the guide.

These resonant modes depend on the operating wavelength and the shape and size of the cavity. The
modes of the cavity are typically classified into following types:

TE modes (Transverse Electric) have no electric field component in the direction of propagation.

TM modes (Transverse Magnetic) have no magnetic field component in the direction of propagation.

Field Theory

As we know, an electromagnetic field is comprised of electric and magnetic fields which are
perpendicular to each other. These fields have different patterns for each mode. These patterns depend
upon the mode numbers (m, n and p) and the dimensions (a, b and d) of the cavity. The electric field and
magnetic field pattern are different for various modes in different cavities .The electric field component
of an EM wave is characterized by Ex, Ey and Ez components of the wave.

Similarly the magnetic field component of an EM wave is characterized by Hx, Hy and Hz components of
the wave.

For TEmnp mode, the field equations for a rectangular cavity are:
 𝐸𝑥 = �𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜇 � �𝑛𝜋 � 𝐻0 cos(𝑚𝜋 𝑥) sin(𝑛𝜋 𝑦) sin(𝑝𝜋 𝑧)
ℎ2 𝑏 𝑎 𝑏 𝑑

𝐸𝑦 = − �𝑗𝑗𝜔𝜇 � �𝑚𝜋 � 𝐻0 sin(𝑚𝜋 𝑥) cos(𝑛 𝜋 𝑦) sin(𝑝𝜋 𝑧)

ℎ2 𝑎 𝑎 𝑏 𝑑

𝐸𝑧 =
0

𝐻𝑥 = −( 1 ) �𝑚𝜋 � �𝑝𝜋 � 𝐻0 sin(𝑚𝜋 𝑥) cos(𝑛𝜋 𝑦) cos(𝑝𝜋 𝑧)

ℎ2 𝑎 𝑑 𝑎 𝑏 𝑑

𝐻𝑦 = − � 1 � �𝑛𝜋 � �𝑝𝜋 � 𝐻0 cos(𝑚𝜋 𝑥) sin �𝑛𝜋 𝑦� cos(𝑝𝜋 𝑧)

ℎ2 𝑏 𝑑 𝑎 𝑏 𝑑

𝐻𝑧 = 𝐻0 cos(𝑚𝜋 𝑥) cos(𝑛𝜋 𝑦) sin(𝑝𝜋 𝑧)

𝑎 𝑏 𝑑

Where m=0,1,2…, n=0,1,2…., p=1,2,3… and m=n ≠0 and ℎ2 = �𝑚𝜋

2
𝑛𝜋 2
� +� �
𝑎 𝑏

For TMmnp mode, the field equations for a rectangular cavity are:

𝐸𝑥 = −( 1 ) �𝑚𝜋 � �𝑝𝜋 � 𝐸0 cos(𝑚𝜋 𝑥) sin(𝑛𝜋 𝑦) sin(𝑝𝜋 𝑧)

ℎ2 𝑎 𝑑 𝑎 𝑏 𝑑

𝐸𝑦 = − � 1 � �𝑛𝜋 � �𝑝𝜋 � 𝐸0 sin(𝑚𝜋 𝑥) cos �𝑛𝜋 𝑦� sin(𝑝𝜋 𝑧)

ℎ2 𝑏 𝑑 𝑎 𝑏 𝑑

𝐸𝑧 = 𝐸0 sin(𝑚𝜋 𝑥) sin(𝑛𝜋 𝑦) cos(𝑝𝜋 𝑧)

𝑎 𝑏 𝑑

𝐻𝑥 = �𝑗𝑗𝜔𝑗𝑗 � �𝑛𝜋 � 𝐸0 sin(𝑚𝜋 𝑥) cos(𝑛𝜋 𝑦) cos(𝑝𝜋 𝑧)

ℎ2 𝑏 𝑎 𝑏 𝑑

𝐻𝑦 = − �𝑗𝑗𝜔𝑗𝑗 � �𝑚𝜋 � 𝐸0 cos(𝑚𝜋 𝑥) sin(𝑛𝜋 𝑦) cos(𝑝𝜋 𝑧)

ℎ2 𝑎 𝑎 𝑏 𝑑

𝐻𝑧 =
0
Where m=1,2…, n=1,2…., p=0,1,2,3… and ℎ2 = �𝑚𝜋
2
𝑛𝜋 2

� +� �
𝑎 𝑏

(𝑓𝑓 )
The resonant frequency for TEmnp and TMmnp modes is same and is given by

1 𝑚𝜋 𝑛𝜋 𝑝𝜋 2
=
2 2

+� +� �
��
𝑟 𝑚𝑛𝑝 2𝜋√𝜇 𝑎
� �
𝑏 𝑑
𝑗𝑗

Procedure
Please download the file shown on the left to perform the actual experiment.
Step 1: Select the frequency band in which you wish to see the field pattern.

Enter the frequency in GHz

Step 2: Select the type of mode, i.e., either Tranverse Electric (TE) or Transverse Magnetic (TM).

Select Mode (TE/TM)

Step 3: Select Pattern:

i) Electric Field: Select this to view the electric field pattern of the given mode.

ii) Magnetic Field : Select this to view the magnetic field pattern of the given mode.

iii) Surface Current: Select this option to view the surface current density for TE10 mode.

Select pattern
Step 4: Enter the values of m, n and p to obtain the field pattern, where m stands for no. of half waves
of electric or magnetic intensity in the X- direction, n stands for number of half waves in the y direction
and p stands for number of half waves in the z direction.

Step 5: Run the VI up to see the desired field pattern in XY, YZ and XZ planes. In case, you wish to see the
other field pattern then click stop and repeat steps 1-4 before running the program again.

You may see the following example for your reference, where appropriate buttons are selected in order
to observe the electric field pattern of TE101 mode in X-band:

View the pattern

XY plane

YZ plane
XZ plane
 Lab Manual
Experiment No. 4
Aim of Experiment:

Study the behavior of terminated coaxial transmission lines in frequency domain.

Requirement:
You have to install a LabVIEW Run time Engine on your computer to run the exe file in order to perform the
experiment. The Run Time Engine can be downloaded free of cost from the following link:
http://joule.ni.com/nidu/cds/view/p/id/1101/lang/en

Knowledge Required for the Experiment:

 Transverse Electromagnetic wave.
 Transmission-Line.
 General Transmission-Line equations.
 Transmission-Line parameters.
 Reflection Coefficient.

Objective of Experiment:
This experiment gives the vision by which we can see the voltage wave travelling toward the load, voltage
reflected wave from the load end and the voltage standing wave, by which we can understand the concept
behind the transmission of analog signal in the lossless transmission line. In a transmission-line operating at
high frequency, due to impedance mismatch between the source, transmission-line, and load there is a loss of
energy transfer from source to load. The effects due to mismatch of the load and characteristic impedance can
be studied here in frequency domain. This can be done by sending a wave on the line with its load mismatched
and watching the reflected wave along with voltage standing wave over transmission line. By varying various
parameters of transmission line their effects can be visualized accordingly.

Theory:
Transmission line: It is a device designed to guide the electrical energy from one point to another. It is used,
for example, to transfer the RF energy from source to antenna. For efficient point-to-point transmission of
power and information the source energy must be directed or guided. Transmission line that consists of two or
more conductors may support transverse electromagnetic (TEM) waves, characterized by the lack of
longitudinal field components. The TEM mode of guided waves is one in which E and H are perpendicular to
each other and both are transverse to the direction of propagation along the guiding line. TEM waves have
uniquely defined voltage, current, and characteristic impedance.

The three most common types of guiding structures that support TEM waves are:

1. Parallel-plate transmission line

2. Two-wire transmission line.
3. Coaxial transmission line.
Coaxial transmission line: This type of transmission line consists of an inner conductor and outer conductor
separated by a dielectric medium. This structure has the important advantage of confining the electric and
magnetic fields entirely within the dielectric region. No stray fields are usually generated inside a coaxial
transmission line, and little external interference is coupled into the line.

Fig 1: Coaxial cable

http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definitions/Coaxial%20Cable?cx=partner-pub-0939450753529744%3Av0qd01-tdlq&cof=FORID%3A9&ie=UTF-8&q=Coaxial%20Cable&sa=Search#922

In this experiment at the generator terminal we have AC voltage source, and transmission line is considered
as lossless i.e. . Therefore the characteristic impedance becomes pure resistance ( ).
Since we know that the general solution for the transmission lines are:

(1)

(2)

Where,

A transmission-line of finite length having characteristic impedance terminated in arbitrary load impedance
as shown in the Fig. 2, the length of the line is l. A sinusoidal voltage with internal impedance is
connected to the line at .

Fig 2: Finite transmission line terminated with load impedance .

The incident voltage travels down the line +z direction. When the finite transmission line is terminated with
its own characteristic impedance (when a finite transmission line is matched), there is no reflected wave thus,
we get 0 voltage reflection in the reflected voltage plot.
When the transmission line is terminated with impedance other than its characteristic impedance there is a
reflected wave generated from the load end of the transmission line due to mismatch. This process continues
indefinitely with reflection at the both ends, and the resulting standing wave is the sum of all the waves
travelling in both directions.

Standing wave ratio (SWR): Standing wave ratio (SWR) is defined as the ratio of the maximum to the
minimum voltages along a finite, terminated transmission-line.

When the load is mismatched the presence of a reflected wave leads to standing waves where the magnitude of
the voltage on the line is not constant. And, the voltage magnitude oscillates with position z along the line. The
maximum value occurs when the phase term , and is given by . The
minimum value occurs when the phase term , and is given by . As
increases, the ratio of to increases, so a measure of the mismatch of a line, called the standing wave
ratio (SWR), can be defined as

This quantity is also known as the voltage standing wave ratio, and is sometimes identified as VSWR. From
equation (4) it is seen that SWR is a real number such that , where implies a matched
load.

LabVIEW Programming:
In the LabVIEW programming of the experiment incident voltage is plotted. Incident voltage wave is given
as . As, soon this incident voltage reaches at the load end, if the load is not matched to the
characteristic impedance of the transmission-line, the voltage wave gets reflected. The reflected voltage wave is
given by . Presence of reflected wave leads to standing waves where the magnitude of the voltage on
the line is not constant. In the third plot of vi standing wave has been plotted, the value of it can be seen in the
column of output parameter at the front panel.

Procedure:
Please download the files shown on the left to perform the actual experiment. The exe file is the LabVIEW file
that will run on Lab VIEW Run time Engine
Step 1: Set the incident voltage ( ) in volts and frequency (f) of incident wave in GHz.
Step 2: Set the number of cycles, number of points in distance scale and location of point (in meter) at
which voltage has to be measured w.r.t. time.
Step 3: Enter the values of properties of transmission-line i.e. length of transmission line (l) in meter,
characteristic impedance of transmission line ( ) in Ohm and relative dielectric constant (epsilon) of
transmission line.
Step 4: Enter the value of load resistance ( ) in Ohm.
Step 5: In the output you will see three plots first one showing the incident voltage travelling along transmission
line, second plot shows the reflected voltage wave travelling along transmission line and the third plot shows
the voltage standing wave along the transmission line.
Step 6: Run the VI to see the results. In case, you wish to see the result for different values then click STOP
and repeat steps 1 – 5 before running the program again.

Task:
1. By specifying source and load values and giving the properties of transmission line, observe the
travelling wave, reflected voltage wave and standing wave ratio.
2. Observe the waves in case of matched and mismatched impedance.
3. Observe the waves for short circuited and open circuited transmission line by specifying “0” value to
load reactance and for load resistance specify the value “0” for short circuited and “inf” for open
circuited transmission line.

Summary: This experiment gives a vision to see the high frequency voltage wave travelling in the
transmission-line. This experiment helps in building concept of waves travelling in transmission line, reflected
waves from the load end and the standing wave generated in case of impedance mismatch.

References:
1. "Microwave Engineering", Third Edition, David M. Pozer
2. "Microwave Devices and Circuits", Third Edition, Edition, Samuel Y.Liao
3. "Field and Wave Electromagnetics", Second Edition, David K.Cheng
4. "Electromagnetic Waves and Radiating System", Edward C.Jordan, Keith G.Balmain
 Lab Manual
Aim of Experiment:
Find the change in characteristics impedance and reflection coefficients of the
transmission line by changing the dielectric properties of materials embedded between
two conductors.

Requirement:
You have to install a LabVIEW Run time Engine on your computer to run the exe file in
order to perform the experiment. The Run Time Engine can be downloaded free of cost
from the following link: http://joule.ni.com/nidu/cds/view/p/id/1101/lang/en

Knowledge Required for the Experiment:

 Transmission Lines
 Reflection Coefficient (Г)
 Coaxial Transmission Lines
 Parallel Plate Transmission Lines
 Strip Lines
 Microstrip Lines

Objective of Experiment:
This experiment will make you familiar to the design of the various transmission lines
and the differences in their geometry. Here, one can get the brief description of the
transmission line parameters as well. This experiment shows the change in the
dielectric property of the material effects the characteristic impedance (Z o) and the
reflection coefficients (Г) of the transmission lines. In this experiment, one can see the
variation of the reflection coefficient magnitude (|Г|) and the phase with the frequency.
Here, you can get well acquainted with the geometry of the various transmission lines
and the difference between them.

Theory:
Transmission Lines: The transmission lines are used as wave-guiding structures for
transferring power and information from one point to another. Transmission line is often
schematically represented as a two wire line, since transmission lines always have at
least two conductors. A maximum transfer of power from a given voltage source occurs
under "matched conditions". A line is matched when the load impedance is equal to the
characteristic impedance of the line.
Fig.1 Transmission line terminated with a load impedance ZL
For a finite transmission line having characteristic impedance Z o terminated by a load
impedance of ZL, and the length of line isℓ"." A sinusoidal voltage source Vg with an
internal impedance Zg is connected to the line at z=0. In such a case, total voltage on
the line can be written as the sum of incident and reflected waves.

Similarly, the total current on the line is described as:

The total voltage and current at the load are related by the load impedance, so at z=0 we
must have

Solving for V - gives

o

The amplitude of the reflected voltage wave normalized to the amplitude of the incident
voltage wave
is defined as the voltage reflection coefficient, Г

From the above relation, we can see that only when Г = 0, there is no reflected wave.

Coaxial Transmission Lines: This consists of an inner conductor and a coaxial outer
conducting sheath separated by a dielectric medium. This structure has an important
advantage of confining the electric and magnetic fields entirely within the dielectric
region. No stray fields are generated by a coaxial transmission line, and little external
interference is coupled into the line. Examples are telephone and TV cables and the
input cables to high - frequency precision measuring instruments.

(a) (b)

Fig 2.(a) Geometry of coaxial line (b) Layered structure of Coaxial line
Characteristic Impedance, Zo can be given as:

Parallel Plate Transmission Line This type of transmission line consists of two parallel
conducting plates separated by a dielectric slab of a uniform thickness. It is the simplest
type of the transmission lines.

Fig.3 Geometry of parallel Plate Transmission Line

For a parallel plate transmission line with perfectly conducting plates of width 'w' and
separated by a lossless dielectric slab of thickness d, the characteristic impedance, Zo
is d/w times the intrinsic impedance η of the dielectric medium.
Characteristic Impedance, Zo of the parallel plate transmission line can be obtained from
the relation:

Strip Lines: This is a planar type of transmission line that lends itself well to microwave
integrated circuitry and photolithographic fabrication. A thin conducting strip of width 'W'
is centered between two wide conducting ground planes of separation 'H', thickness of
strip is 'T' and the entire region between the ground planes is filled with dielectric, ε r .
Since strip line has two conductors and a homogeneous dielectric, it can support a TEM
wave, and this is the usual mode of operation.

Fig.4 Geometry of strip lines

The phase velocity of a TEM mode is given by, where ‘c’ is the speed of light in vaccum.
The characteristic impedance is given by:

Where we is the effective width of the center conductor given by:

Microstrip Lines: The microstrip line is one of the most popular types of planar
transmission lines, because it can be fabricated by photolithographic processes and is
easily integrated with other passive and active microwave devices. The geometry of a
microstrip line is shown in the figure below. A conductor of width 'W' is printed on a thin,
grounded dielectric substrate of thickness 'h' and relative permittivity εr.

Fig.5 Geometry of microstrip lines

The presence of the dielectric, and particularly the fact that the dielectric does not fill the
air region above the strip, complicates the behavior of microstrip line. The microstrip has
some (usually most) of its field lines in the dielectric region, concentrated between the
strip conductor and the ground plane, and some fraction in the air region above the
substrate. For this reason the microstrip line cannot support a pure TEM wave, since the
phase velocity of TEM fields in the dielectric region would be c/√εr, but the phase velocity
of TEM fields in the air region would be c. Thus, a phase mismatch occurs at the
dielectric- air interface.

Microstrip lines support quasi-TEM mode. Since some of the field lines are in dielectric
region and some are in air, the effective dielectric constant satisfies the relation:

1 < ε e < εr and is dependent on the substrate thickness, h, and the conductor width, W.
The effective dielectric constant of a microstrip line is given approximately by

For given dimensions of the microstrip line, the characteristic impedance can be
calculated as:

For given characteristic impedance Zo and dielectric constant εr, the W/h ratio can be
found as:

where A = (Zo/60)√(εr + 1)/2 + {(εr - 1)/(εr + 1)}*(0.23

+ 0.11/εr) B = 377π / (2Zo√εr)

Procedure:
Please download the files to perform the actual experiment. The exe file is the LabView
file that will run on Lab VIEW Run time Engine.

Step 1: Set the maximum frequency range between 5-10 GHz.

Step 2: Select the type of transmission line from the drop down menu.
Step 3: Now select the sample material for which you wish to find the change in
characteristic impedance and reflection coefficient of the transmission line.
Step 4: Run the VI to see the characteristic impedance (Zo), the |Г| vs. frequency curve
and the
reflection coefficient phase angle vs. frequency curve.
Step 5: In case, you wish to see the characteristic impedance (Z o), the |Г| vs. frequency
curve and the reflection coefficient phase angle vs. frequency curve for other sample
materials, then click stop and repeat steps 1, 2 and 3 before running the exe file again.

Task:
1. Compare the reflection coefficient magnitude and phase variation with frequency
for dielectric material Teflon and Alumina in case of microstrip transmission line
and note down the observations.
 2. Explain the change in characteristic impedance and reflection coefficient
magnitude and phase for coaxial transmission line. Plot the reflection coefficient
magnitude and phase vs. frequency graph for parallel plate transmission line for
dielectric material resin.

Summary: The experiment shows the change in dielectric properties of a material

embedded between the two conductors change the characteristic impedance and
reflection coefficients. This experiment provides the better understanding of geometry of
transmission lines. Here one can observe the reflection coefficient magnitude and phase
variation with frequency.

References:
1. "Microwave Engineering", Third Edition, David M. Pozer
2. "Microwave Devices and Circuits", Third Edition, Edition, Samuel Y.Liao
3. "Field and Wave Electromagnetics", Second Edition, David K.Cheng
4. "Electromagnetic Waves and Radiating System", Edward C.Jordan, Keith G.Balmain
5. Computer Simulation Technology (CST), Darmstadt, Germany, 1998-
2003.[online]. Available:http://www.cst.com
6. Agilent Application Note - 11949698, "Basics of Measuring The Dielectric
Properties of Materials"
 Lab Manual
Experiment No. 6
Aim of Experiment:

Study the behavior of impedance matching for passive networks using Smith chart.

Requirement:
You have to install a LabVIEW Run time Engine on your computer to run the exe file in order to perform the
experiment. The Run Time Engine can be downloaded free of cost from the following link:
http://joule.ni.com/nidu/cds/view/p/id/1101/lang/en

Knowledge Required for the Experiment:

 Transmission line calculations
 Smith chart
 Resistance and Reactance Circle on Smith Chart.
 Circle on Smith chart.
 Transmission line Impedance matching

Objective of Experiment:
In this experiment we discuss methods for impedance-matching on lossless transmission lines. The impedance-
matching can be performed as:

 Impedance matching by single-stub

 Impedance matching by double-stub

Objective of the experiment is to make student familiar to the application of Smith chart for impedance-
matching on lossless transmission line. The two important method used for impedance matching, single-stub
and double-stub, so that, when performed on the real equipment they should be able to judge the position of
stub on transmission line hence, probability of mistake will be decreased upto some extent.

Theory:
In discussing the use of the Smith chart for transmission-line calculations in the previous experiment
(Experiment 5), we have assumed the line to be lossless. The lossless assumption enables us to say that the
magnitude of the term does not change with line length z' and that we can find from , and vice
versa, by moving along the -circle by an angle equal to 2βz'.

Matching the source and load to the transmission line or waveguide in a general microwave network is
necessary to deliver maximum power from the source to the load. Here we have used two types of impedance
matching, single-stub and double-stub. In single-stub method for impedance matching we place a short-
circuited stub in parallel with the transmission line having characteristic impedance R 0. In some instances, the
distance determined for the single stub tuner may not be convenient for implementation. In those cases, a
double stub tuner may be required as shown in figure,
 B do A
yB
yi yL
lA
R0
ysB ZL
B’ A’ysA

yA ySA yL R0
R0
yi ySB yB lB

Fig 1: Impedance matching with double stub.

A double-stub transmission line impedance matching network is composed of two short ciruited sections of
transmission line, separated by a length of transmission line, placed along the main signal line. The short
cicuited sections provide an equivalent shunt susceptance. The short circuited sections are attached
perpendicular to the main line as shown in the figure 1. The construction of the short circuited section is similar
to the main line.

The load impedance is typically dependent on the frequency of operation. The distance, d2 can be moved back
and forth to get a wide range of susceptance values. The distance d1 and d2 can be found in terms of fractions of
wavelength of the signal being transmitted using a Smith Chart.

Transmission line impedance matching:

Transmission lines are used for the transmission of power and information. For radio frequency power
transmission it is highly desirable that as much power as possible is transmitted from the generator to the load
and as little power as possible is lost on the line itself. This will require that the load be matched to the
characteristic impedance of the line so that the standing-wave ratio on the line is as close to unity as possible.
For information transmission it is essential that the lines be matched because reflections from mismatched loads
and junctions will result in echoes and will distort the information-carrying signal. In this section we discuss
several methods for impedance-matching on lossless transmission lines. We note parenthetically that the
methods we develop will be of little consequence to power transmission by 60(Hz) lines inasmuch as these lines
are generally very short in comparison to the 5(Mm) wavelength and the line losses are appreciable. Sixty-hertz
power-line circuits are usually analyzed.
Impedance matching by single-stub :

We will now look into the problem of matching a load impedance ZL to a lossless line that has a characteristic
impedance R0 by placing a single short-circuited stub in parallel with the line, as shown in fig 2.

B d

yB
yi yL

R0
ys ZL
B’

R0

Fig 2: Impedance matching with single stub

This is the single-stub method for impedance matching. We need to determine the length of the stub, l, and the
distance from the load, d, such that the impedance of the parallel combination to the right of points B-B' equals
R0. Short-circuited stubs are usually used in preference to open-circuited stubs because an infinite terminating
impedance is more difficult to realize than a zero terminating impedance for reasons of radiation from an open
end and coupling effects with neighboring objects. Moreover, a short-circuited stub of an adjustable length and
a constant characteristic resistance is much easier to construct than an open-circuited one. Of course, the
difference in the required length for an open-circuited stub and that for a short-circuited stub is an odd multiple
of a quarter-wavelength.

The parallel combination of a line terminated in Z L and a stub at points B-B' in the above figure suggest that it is
advantageous to analyze the matching requirements in terms of admittances. The basic requirement is

In terms of normalized admittances, the above equation becomes, ,

where is for the load section and is for the short-circuited stub. However, since the
input admittance of a short-circuited stub is purely susceptive, s purely imaginary.

Using the Smith chart as an admittance chart, we proceed as follows for single-stub matching:

 Enter the point representing the normalized load admittance .

 Draw the circle for , which will intersect the circle at two points. At these points,
and Both are possible solutions.
 Determine load-section lengths d1 and d2 from the angles between the point representing and the
points representing and
  Determine stub lengths and from the angles between the short-circuit point on the extreme right
of the chart to the points representing and , respectively.

Impedance matching by double-stub

The method of impedance matching by means of a single stub described in the previous section can be used to
match any arbitrary, nonzero, finite load impedance to the characteristic resistance of a line. However, the
single-stub method requires that the stub be attached to the main line at a specific point, which varies as the load
impedance or the operating frequency is changed. This requirement often presents practical difficulties because
the specified junction point may occur at an undesirable location from a mechanical viewpoint. Furthermore, it
is very difficult to build a variable-length coaxial line with constant characteristic impedance. In such cases an
alternative method for impedance-matching is to use two short-circuited stubs attached to the main line at fixed
positions, as shown in the figure,

B do A
yB
yi yL
lA
R0
ysB ZL
B’ A’ysA

yA ySA yL R0
R0
yi ySB yB lB

Fig 3: Impedance matching with double stub.

Here, distance d0 is fixed and arbitrarily chosen and the lengths of the two stub tuners are adjusted to match a
given load impedance ZL to the main line. This scheme is the double-stub method.

In the above figure a stub of length is connected directly in parallel with the load impedance ZL at
terminals A-A' , and a second stub of lengthis attached at terminals B-B', at a fixed distance d0 away. For
impedance matching with a main line that has a characteristic resistance R0 , we demand the total input
admittance at terminals B-B', looking toward the load, to equal the characteristic conductance of the line; that

is,

In terms of normalized admittances, the above equation becomes,

Now, since the input admittance of a short-circuited stub is purely imaginary, the above equation can be
satisfied only if,

Note that these requirements are exactly the same as those for single-stub matching.
On the smith admittance chart the point representing must lie on the circle. This requirement must be
translated by a distance "wavelength toward load". The procedure for solving a double stub matching
problem on the Smith admittance chart is as follows.

 Draw the circle. This is where the point representing should be located.
 Rotate this circle in the counterclockwise direction by "wavelengths toward load." This is where the point
representing should be located.
 Enter the point.
 Draw the circle, intersecting the rotated circle at one or two points where
 Mark the corresponding points on the circle:
 Determine stub length from the angle between the point representing and the point representing .
 Determine stub length from the angle between the point representing - and on the extreme right.

Procedure:
Please download the files shown on the left to perform the actual experiment.
Step 1: Enter the values of Resistive and Reactive part of load impedance.
Step 2: Enter the value of characteristic impedance.
Step 3: Length of stub (in terms of wavelength) and location of stub from the load end (in terms of wavelength)
can be varied from the vertical bars provided.
Step 4: Run the VI to see the desired plot in Smith chart. The output can also be seen to the right of smith chart
from numeric indicators.
In case, you wish to see the other plot then click stop and repeat steps 1-3 before running the program again.

Summary: This experiment make student familiar to the application of Smith chart for impedance-matching
on lossless transmission line. The two important method discussed in the experiment are single-stub and double-
stub matching. This experiment will help in minimizing the probability of mistake when experiment performed
on real equipment.

References:
1. "Microwave Engineering", Third Edition, David M. Pozer
2. "Microwave Devices and Circuits", Third Edition, Edition, Samuel Y. Liao
3. "Field and Wave Electromagnetics", Second Edition, David K. Cheng
4. "Electromagnetic Waves and Radiating System", Edward C. Jordan, Keith G. Balmain