Chapter 3

Engineering Mechanics - ME1102

Sunil Kumar Singh and Rishi Raj

Courtesy: TMH
Introduction
• Treatment of a body as a single particle is not always possible. In
general, the size of the body and the specific points of application of the
forces must be considered.

• Most bodies in elementary mechanics are assumed to be rigid, i.e., the

actual deformations are small and do not affect the conditions of
equilibrium or motion of the body.

• Current chapter describes the effect of forces exerted on a rigid body and
how to replace a given system of forces with a simpler equivalent system.
• moment of a force about a point
• moment of a force about an axis
• moment due to a couple

• Any system of forces acting on a rigid body can be replaced by an

equivalent system consisting of one force acting at a given point and one
couple.
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External and Internal Forces
• Forces acting on rigid bodies are
divided into two groups:
- External forces
- Internal forces

• External forces are shown in a

free-body diagram.

• If unopposed, each external force

can impart a motion of
translation or rotation, or both.

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Principle of Transmissibility:
Equivalent Forces
• Principle of Transmissibility -
Conditions of equilibrium or motion are
not affected by transmitting a force
along its line of action.
NOTE: F and F’ are equivalent forces.

• Moving the point of application of

the force F to the rear bumper
does not affect the motion or the
other forces acting on the truck.

• Principle of transmissibility may

not always apply in determining
internal forces and deformations.

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Vector Product of Two Vectors
• Concept of the moment of a force about a point is
more easily understood through applications of
the vector product or cross product.

• Vector product of two vectors P and Q is defined

as the vector V which satisfies the following
conditions:
1. Line of action of V is perpendicular to plane
containing P and Q.
2. Magnitude of V is V = PQ sin 
3. Direction of V is obtained from the right-hand
rule.

• Vector products:
- are not commutative, Q  P = −( P  Q )
- are distributive, P  (Q1 + Q2 ) = P  Q1 + P  Q2
- are not associative, ( P  Q )  S  P  (Q  S )
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Vector Products: Rectangular
Components
• Vector products of Cartesian unit vectors,
       
i i = 0 j  i = −k k  i = j
       
i j =k j j =0 k  j = −i
       
i k = − j j k = i k k = 0

• Vector products in terms of rectangular

coordinates
      
V = (Px i + Py j + Pz k ) (Qx i + Q y j + Qz k )
 
= (Py Q z − Pz Q y )i + ( Pz Q x − Px Q z ) j

+ (Px Q y − Py Q x )k
  
i j k
= Px Py Pz
Qx Q y Qz

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Moment of a Force About a Point
• A force vector is defined by its magnitude and
direction. Its effect on the rigid body also depends
on it point of application.
• The moment of F about O is defined as
MO = r  F
• The moment vector MO is perpendicular to the
plane containing O and the force F.
• Magnitude of MO measures the tendency of the force
to cause rotation of the body about an axis along MO.
M O = rF sin  = Fd
The sense of the moment may be determined by the
right-hand rule.
• Any force F’ that has the same magnitude and
direction as F, is equivalent if it also has the same line
of action and therefore, produces the same moment.
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Moment of a Force About a Point
• Two-dimensional structures have length and breadth but
negligible depth and are subjected to forces contained in
the plane of the structure.

• The plane of the structure contains the point O and the

force F. MO, the moment of the force about O is
perpendicular to the plane.

• If the force tends to rotate the structure counter

clockwise, the sense of the moment vector is out of the
plane of the structure and the magnitude of the moment
is positive.
• If the force tends to rotate the structure clockwise, the
sense of the moment vector is into the plane of the
structure and the magnitude of the moment is negative.

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Varignon’s Theorem
• The moment about a give point O of the
resultant of several concurrent forces is equal
to the sum of the moments of the various
moments about the same point O.
      
r  (F1 + F2 + ) = r  F1 + r  F2 + 
Distributive!
• Varigon’s Theorem makes it possible to
replace the direct determination of the
moment of a force F by the moments of two
or more component forces of F.

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Rectangular Components of the
Moment of a Force
The moment of F about O,
      
M O = r  F , r = xi + yj + zk
   
F = Fx i + Fy j + Fz k
   
M O = M xi + M y j + M z k

  
i j k
= x y z
Fx Fy Fz

  
= ( yFz − zFy )i + ( zFx − xFz ) j + (xFy − yFx )k

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Rectangular Components of the
Moment of a Force
The moment of F about B,
  
M B = rA / B  F

  
rA / B = rA − rB
  
= (x A − xB ) i + ( y A − y B ) j + (z A − z B ) k
   
F = Fx i + Fy j + Fz k

  
i j k

M B = (x A − xB ) ( y A − yB ) (z A − z B )
Fx Fy Fz

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Rectangular Components of the
Moment of a Force
For two-dimensional structures,
MO = (xFy − yFx )k
MO = M Z
= xFy − yFx

 
M B = ( x A − xB )Fy − ( y A − yB )Fx k
MB = MZ
= ( x A − xB )Fy − ( y A − yB )Fx

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Sample Problem 3.1
A 500-N vertical force is applied to the end of a lever
which is attached to a shaft (not shown) at O.
Determine:
0.6 m
a) the moment about O,
500 N
b) the horizontal force at A which creates the same
moment,
c) the smallest force at A which produces the same
moment,
d) the location for a 1200-N vertical force to
produce the same moment,
e) whether any of the forces from b, c, and d is
equivalent to the original force.

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Sample Problem 3.1
a) Moment about O is equal to the product of the
force and the perpendicular distance between the
line of action of the force and O. Since the force
0.6 m tends to rotate the lever clockwise, the moment
500 N vector is into the plane of the paper which, by our
sign convention, would be negative or
counterclockwise.

M O = Fd
d = (0.6 m )cos 60  = 0.3 m
M O = (500 N )(0.3 m ) = 150 N.m

MO = 150 N  m

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Sample Problem 3.1
b) Horizontal force at A that produces the same
moment,
d = (0.6 m )sin 60  = 0.52 m
0.6 m
M O = Fd
150 N  m = F (0.52 m )
150 N  m
F= F = 288.5 N
0.52 m

Why must the direction of this F be to the right?

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Sample Problem 3.1
F(min) ?
What is the smallest force at A which produces
the same moment? Think about it and discuss with
0.6 m a neighbor.
c) The smallest force at A to produce the same
moment occurs when the perpendicular distance is
a maximum or when F is perpendicular to OA.

M O = Fd
150 N  m = F (0.6 m )
150 N  m
F=
0.6 m
F = 250 N 30o

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Sample Problem 3.1
d) To determine the point of application of a 1200 N
force to produce the same moment,

M O = Fd
1200 N 150 N  m = (1200 N ) d
150 N  m
d= = 0.125 m
1200 N

d = OB cos 60 OB = 0.25 m

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Sample Problem 3.1
e) Although each of the forces in parts b), c), and d)
produces the same moment as the 500 N force, none
0.6 m are of the same magnitude and sense, or on the same
500 N line of action. None of the forces is equivalent to the
1200 N force.

0.6 m 0.6 m
1200 N

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Sample Problem 3.4

Solution
How do you find the moment? What is
the equation for this moment? Discuss
this with a neighbor and describe in
detail each variable in your equation,
including (a) how you would write it,
(b) what its units are, and (c) whether
or not there are any alternative
variables that could take its place.
The rectangular plate is supported by
The moment MA of the force F exerted
the brackets at A and B and by a wire
by the wire is obtained by evaluating
CD. Knowing that the tension in the
the vector product,
wire is 200 N, determine the moment
about A of the force exerted by the
wire at C. M A = rC A  F

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Sample Problem 3.4
SOLUTION:
M A = rC A  F

rC A = AC = rC − rA = (0.3 m )i + (0.08 m )k

F = F λ = (200 N )
CD
CD
− (0.3 m )i + (0.24 m )j − (0.32 m )k
= (200 N )
0.5 m
= −(120 N ) i + (96 N )j − (128 N )k

i j k
M A = 0.3 0 0.08
− 120 96 − 128

M A = −(7.68 N  m )i + (28.8 N  m )j + (28.8 N  m)k

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Moment of a Force About a Given
Axis
• Moment MO of a force F applied at the point A
about a point O,
MO = r  F

• Scalar moment MOL about an axis OL is the

projection of the moment vector MO onto the
axis,
M OL = λ • MO = λ • (r  F)

• Moments of F about the coordinate axes,

M x = yFz − zFy
M y = zFx − xFz
M z = xFy − yFx

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Moment of a Force About a Given
Axis
• Moment of a force about an arbitrary axis,
M BL = λ • M B
(
= λ • rA B  F )
rA B = rA − rB

• The result is independent of the point B

along the given axis. That is, the same
result can be obtained using rA C , for
example.

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Moment of a Force
• About a point
• Measures the tendency of the force F to make
the rigid body rotate about a fixed axis Mo
passing from O.

• About an axis
• Measures the tendency of the force F to impart
to the rigid body a motion of rotation about the
fixed axis OL.

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Sample Problem 3.5

A cube is acted on by a force P as

shown. Determine the moment of P
a) about A,
b) about the edge AB and
c) about the diagonal AG of the cube.
d) Determine the perpendicular distance
between AG and FC.

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Sample Problem 3.5
• Moment of P about A,
M A = rF A  P
rF A = ai − a j = a(i − j)
( )
P = P 1 / 2 j − 1 / 2k = P / 2 ( j − k )
M A = a(i − j) P / 2 ( j − k )

( )
M A = aP / 2 (i + j + k )

• Moment of P about AB,

M AB = i • M A
( )
= i • aP / 2 (i + j + k )

M AB = aP / 2
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Sample Problem 3.5
• Moment of P about the diagonal AG,
M AG = λ • M A
AG ai − aj − ak
λ= = =
1
(i − j − k )
AG a 3 3
aP
MA = (i + j + k )
2
M AG =
1
(i − j − k ) • aP (i + j + k )
3 2
aP aP
= (1 − 1 − 1) M AG = −
6
6

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Sample Problem 3.5
• Perpendicular distance between AG and FC,
P
P•λ = (j − k ) • 1 (i − j − k ) = P (0 − 1 + 1)
2 3 6
= 0 (since by definition P • λ = P  1  cos )
Therefore, P is perpendicular to AG.
aP
M AG = = Pd
6
a
d=
6

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Sample Problem 3.5
• Two vectors can be either
• Parallel
• and hence non-intersecting
• a plane can contain both
• Non-parallel and intersecting
• Either orthogonal or non-orthogonal
• In both cases, a plane can contain them
• Non-parallel and non-intersecting
• Then they are always orthogonal
• Can’t find a plane containing both
• If two non-parallel vectors are also non-intersecting,
they are orthogonal/perpendicular to each other
• Hence, cos(θ) =0, i.e., one does not have
component along other
• However, if two vectors are orthogonal to each other,
it does not mean they are non-intersecting
• They can intersect (e.g. vectors i and j)
• Or they can also not intersect like the case in
this problem
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Moment of a Couple
• Two forces F and -F having the same magnitude,
parallel lines of action, and opposite sense are said
to form a couple.
You can again draw r from any
• Moment of the couple, point on F to any point on -F

M = rA  F + rB  (− F )
= (rA − rB )  F
= r F
M = rF sin  = Fd

• The moment vector of the couple is

independent of the choice of the origin of the
coordinate axes, i.e., it is a free vector that can
be applied at any point with the same effect.

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Moment of a Couple
Two couples will have equal moments if

• F1d1 = F2 d 2

• the two couples lie in parallel planes, and

• the two couples have the same sense or

the tendency to cause rotation in the same
direction.

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Couples Can Be Represented by
Vectors

• A couple can be represented by a vector with magnitude

and direction equal to the moment of the couple.

• Couple vectors obey the law of addition of vectors.

• Couple vectors are free vectors, i.e., there is no point of

application – it simply acts on the body.

• Couple vectors may be resolved into component vectors.

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Resolution of a Force Into a Force at
O and a Couple

• Force vector F cannot be simply moved to O without modifying its

action on the body.

• Attaching equal and opposite force vectors at O produces no net

effect on the body.

• The three forces may be replaced by an equivalent force vector and

couple vector, i.e., a force-couple system.

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Sample Problem 3.6

Determine the components of the

single couple equivalent to the
couples shown.

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Sample Problem 3.6
• Attach equal and opposite 100 N forces
in the ±x direction at A

• The three couples may be represented by

three couple vectors,
M x = −(150 N )(0.46 m ) = −69 N  m
M y = +(100 N )(0.3 m ) = +30 N  m
M z = +(100 N )(0.23 m ) = +23 N  m

M = −(69 N  m ) i + (30 N  m )j
+ (23 N  m )k

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Sample Problem 3.6
• Alternatively, compute the sum of the
moments of the four forces about any
point (D).
• Only the forces at C and E contribute to
the moment about D.
M = M D = (0.46 m )j  (− 150 N )k
+ (0.23 m )j − (0.3 m )k  (− 100 N ) i

M = −(69 N  m ) i + (30 N  m )j
+ (23 N  m )k

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Reduction of a System of Forces to One Force and One Couple

• A system of forces may be replaced by a collection of

force-couple systems acting at a given point O.
• The force and couple vectors may be combined into a
resultant force vector and a resultant couple vector,
R = F M OR =  M O =  (r  F )
• The force-couple system at O may be moved to O’
with the addition of the moment of R about O’ ,
M OR ' = M OR + s  R

• Two systems of forces are equivalent if they can

be reduced to the same force-couple system.
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Further Reduction of a System of
Forces
• If the resultant force and couple at O are mutually
perpendicular, they can be replaced by a single force acting
along a new line of action.

• The resultant force-couple system for a system of forces

will be mutually perpendicular if:
1) the forces are concurrent,
• Concurrent forces are applied at the same point and
can therefore always be added to directly obtain a
resultant R.
2) the forces are coplanar, or
3) the forces are parallel.

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Further Reduction of a System of
Forces
• System of coplanar forces is reduced to a
force-couple system R and M OR that is
mutually perpendicular.

• System can be reduced to a single force

by moving the line of action of R until
its moment about O becomes M OR .

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Further Reduction of a System of
Forces
• The resultant force-couple system for a system of forces will be
mutually perpendicular if:
3) the forces are parallel.
• If the forces are parallel (parallel to y-axis), each of their moments
will be perpendicular to the forces (x-z plane), i.e. also
perpendicular to the resultant R

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Sample Problem 3.8

For the beam, reduce the system of

forces shown to (a) an equivalent
force-couple system at A, (b) an
equivalent force couple system at B,
and (c) a single force or resultant.
Note: Since the support reactions are
not included, the given system will
not maintain the beam in equilibrium.

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Sample Problem 3.8
SOLUTION:
a) Compute the resultant force and the
resultant couple at A.
R = F
= (150 N )j − (600 N )j + (100 N )j − (250 N )j

R = −(600 N )j

M RA =  (r  F)
= (1.6 i )  (− 600j) + (2.8 i )  (100j)
+ (4.8 i )  (− 250j)

M RA = −(1880 N  m )k

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Sample Problem 3.8
b) Find an equivalent force-couple system at B
based on the force-couple system at A.
The force is unchanged by the movement of the
force-couple system from A to B.
R = −(600 N)j

The couple at B is equal to the moment about B

of the force-couple system found at A.

M RB = M RA + rA B  R
= −(1880 N  m )k + (− 4.8 m )i  (− 600 N )j
= −(1880 N  m )k + (2880 N  m )k

M RB = +(1000 N . m) k

Moment of a couple is a free vector!

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Sample Problem 3.8
c) Determine the point of application for the
resultant force such that its moment about A
is equal to the resultant couple at A.

Resultant of given system of forces is equal

to R, and its point of application must be
such that the moment of R about A is
equal to M RA .
r  R = M RA
x i  (− 600 N )j = −(1800 N . m )k
− x(− 600 N )k = −(1800 N . m )k

R = −(600 N )j x = 3.13m

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Summary: Chapter 3
• Principle of transmissibility
• Moment of a force about a point
• Vector product of the r (vector from point about which moment is to be
calculated to any point along the line of action of the force) and F
• Moment of a force about an axis
• Dot product of the moment of the force (about any point on the axis)
and the unit vector along the axis
• Two forces having same magnitude, line of action but opposite sense form
couple
• Any force F acting at a point A on a body can be replaced by a force-couple
system at an arbitrary point O
• Two systems of forces are equivalent if they can be reduced to the same
force-couple system.
• If the resultant force and couple at O are mutually perpendicular, they can
be replaced by a single force acting along a new line of action
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Suggested Problems for Practice

• 3.4, 3.11, 3.17, 3.24, 3.26, 3.39, 3.47, 3.55,

3.59, 3.64, 3.74, 3.76, 3.86, 3.88, 3.91, 3.96,
3.101, 3.102, 3.116, 3.120, 3.127, 3.155

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 Chapter 3
RIGID BODIES: EQUIVALENT FORCE
SYSTEMS

F
The forces acting on a
rigid body can be
F’
separated into two
groups: (1) external
forces (representing the
action of other rigid
bodies on the rigid body
under consideration)
and (2) internal forces (representing the forces which hold
together particles forming the rigid body.

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 F

F’

According to the principal of transmissibility, the effect of an

external force on a rigid body remains unchanged if that force
is moved along its line of action. Two forces acting on the rigid
body at two different points have the same effect on that body if
they have the same magnitude, same direction, and same line of
action. Two such forces are said to be equivalent.

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 The vector product of two
V =PxQ vectors is defined as
Q V = Px Q
q
P
The vector product of P and
Q forms a vector which is
perpendicular to both P and Q, of magnitude

V = PQ sin 
This vector is directed in such a way that a person located at the
tip of V observes as counterclockwise the rotation through 
which brings vector P in line with vector Q. The three vectors P,
Q, and V - taken in that order - form a right-hand triad. It
follows that
Q x P = - (P x Q)
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 j It follows from the definition of the vector
product of two vectors that the vector
k i products of unit vectors i, j, and k are
ixi=jxj=kxk=0
ixj=k , jxk=i, kxi=j , ixk=-j , jxi=-k, kxj=-i

The rectangular components of the vector product V of two

vectors P and Q are determined as follows: Given

P = Px i + Py j + Pz k Q = Qx i + Qy j + Qz k
The determinant containing each component of P and Q is
expanded to define the vector V, as well as its scalar
components

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 P = Px i + Py j + Pz k Q = Q x i + Qy j + Q z k

i j k
V = P x Q = Px Py Pz = Vx i + Vy j + Vz k
Qx Q y Qz

where

Vx = Py Qz - Pz Qy
Vy = Pz Qx - Px Qz
Vz = Px Qy - Py Qx

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 Mo The moment of force F
about point O is defined
as the vector product

MO = r x F
F
where r is the position
O r  vector drawn from point O
d A to the point of application
of the force F. The angle
between the lines of action
of r and F is .
The magnitude of the moment of F about O can be expressed as
MO = rF sin  = Fd
where d is the perpendicular distance from O to the line of action
of F.
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 y
Fy j A (x , y, z )
yj
The rectangular
Fx i components of the
r
moment Mo of a
Fz k force F are
O xi
determined by
x
zk expanding the
determinant of r x F.
z
i j k
Mo = r x F = x y z = Mx i + My j + Mzk
Fx Fy Fz
where Mx = y Fz - z Fy My = zFx - x Fz
Mz = x Fy - y Fx
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 y
Fy j A (x A, yA, z A)

B (x B, yB, z B) In the more general

r Fx i case of the moment
about an arbitrary
Fz k point B of a force F
applied at A, we have
O x
z
i j k
MB = rA/B x F = xA/B yA/B zA/B
Fx Fy Fz
where rA/B = xA/B i + yA/B j + zA/B k
and xA/B = xA- xB yA/B = yA- yB zA/B = zA- zB
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 y Fy j F
In the case of
problems involving
rA/B A Fx i only two dimensions,
(yA - yB ) j
the force F can be
B assumed to lie in the
xy plane. Its moment
O (xA - xB ) i
about point B is
x perpendicular to that
z MB = M B k plane. It can be
completely defined by
the scalar
MB = (xA- xB )Fy + (yA- yB ) Fx

The right-hand rule is useful for defining the direction of the

moment as either into or out of the plane (positive or negative
k direction).
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 The scalar product of two
Q vectors P and Q is denoted
as P Q ,and is defined as

P Q = PQ cos 
where  is the angle between
P the two vectors

The scalar product of P and Q is expressed in terms of the

rectangular components of the two vectors as

P Q = Px Qx + Py Qy + Pz Qz

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 y
L
The projection of a vector
y A P on an axis OL can be
obtained by forming the
 scalar product of P and the
O x P x unit vector  along OL.
z
z POL = P 

Using rectangular components,

POL = Px cos x + Py cos y + Pz cos z

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 The mixed triple product of three vectors S, P, and Q is

Sx Sy Sz
S (P x Q ) = Px Py Pz
Qx Qy Qz

The elements of the determinant are the rectangular

components of the three vectors.

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 y L
MO

C F The moment of a force F

 about an axis OL is the
projection OC on OL of the
A (x, y, z) moment MO of the force F.
r This can be written as a
O x mixed triple product.
z
x y z
MOL =  MO =  (r x F) = x y z
Fx Fy Fz

x, y , z = direction cosines of axis OL

x, y , z = components of r
Fx, Fy , Fz = components of F
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 M
-F

d
F

Two forces F and -F having the same magnitude,

parallel lines of action, and opposite sense are said
to form a couple.

The moment of a couple is independent of the point

about which it is computed; it is a vector M perpendicular
to the plane of the couple and equal in magnitude to the
product Fd.

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 M
y
y -F y
(M = Fd) My M
d
F O Mx
O O
z x z x x
z Mz

Two couples having the same moment M are equivalent

(they have the same effect on a given rigid body).

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 F
F
MO
r A A

O O

Any force F acting at a point A of a rigid body can be replaced

by a force-couple system at an arbitrary point O, consisting
of the force F applied at O and a couple of moment MO equal to
the moment about point O of the force F in its original position.
The force vector F and the couple vector MO are always
perpendicular to each other.

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 F3
F1
F3 F1 R
A3 M1
r3 r1 A1
r2 A O
2 O M2
O M3
F2
F2
R
Any system of forces can be reduced to a force-couple
MO
system at a given point O. First, each of the forces of the
system is replaced by an equivalent force-couple system at O.
Then all of the forces are added to obtain a resultant force R,
and all of couples are added to obtain a resultant couple vector
R R
MO. In general, the resultant force R and the couple vector MO
will not be perpendicular to each other.
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 F3
F1
A3 R

r3 r1 A1
r2 A O
2
O

F2
R
MO
As far as rigid bodies are concerned, two systems of forces,
F1, F2, F3 . . . , and F’1, F’2, F’3 . . . , are equivalent if, and
only if,
 F =  F’
and
 Mo =  Mo’
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 F3
F1
A3 R
If the resultant force R and
r1 A1
the resultant couple vector
R
r2 A O MO are perpendicular to
2
each other, the force-couple
O
system at O can be further
R reduced to a single resultant
F2 MO force.

This is the case for systems consisting of either

(a) concurrent forces,
(b) coplanar forces, or
(c) parallel forces.

Conversely, if the resultant force and couple are directed along

the same line, the force-couple system is termed a wrench.

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