INTRODUCTION

Forest plays a crucial role in promoting the economic advancement and welfare of the people and it is
accepted as a veritable means of alleviating poverty among rural communities because of its role in
livelihood sustenance, food and environmental security (FAO, 1999)Humans use forest for many
purposes, the products derived from forests and their benefits are referred to as "forest goods and
services" (Okafor, 1991). Generally the services fall into four groups: supporting, provisioning, regulating
and cultural services. Although forest goods are the result of provisioning services, they are usually
mentioned separately, being more tangible than the other services. This value chain includes wood and
wood products such as fuel wood, paper, charcoal and wood structural products and non-wood
products (food and plant products) such as rattan, mushrooms, nuts and fruits, honey, bush meat,
rubber and biochemical (Babalola, 2009). Forest products are generally classified into two: timber which
has high industrial application and non- timber forest products.

Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPS) have become a topical issue that have attracted global interest in
recent years. Apart from timbers derived from the forest community, Nigeria forests houses numerous
Non-Timber Forests Products (NTFPs) which provides food, medicine, aesthetics and most importantly
income to sustain the livelihood for people living around and outside the forest communities. NTFPS
include fruits, mushrooms, wild games, nuts, seeds, oils, spices, resins, gums, medicinal plants, fibres,
etc. NTFPs sustain the livelihoods of hundreds of millions of people in forest-dependent and adjacent
communities and contribute significantly to their domestic energy, food and health-security needs
(Balgis et al., 2009). A large proportion of rural population earn their living from collection and sales of
NTFPs, thereby improving their quality of life and standard of living (Agbogidi et al., 2003). The
awareness of the benefits ofNTFPS has been on the increase due to the roles it plays within the micro-
level of the economy and high potential of the products to contribute to the livelihood of the people.
(Adepoju and Salau 2007).

Garcinia kola (Clusiaceae) is a Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) exclusively tropical in distribution. It
is a typical non-timber forest product that generates income for many people in rural and urban areas in
developing countries including Nigeria. It is endemic to the humid

lowland forest of west and central Africa sub regions. It is found in coastal areas and lowland plains up
to 300m above sea level with an average of 2000m - 2500m rainfall per annum and temperature ranges
from 32.150°c to 21.40°c and minimum relative humidity of 76.34% (Raven et al, 2005)Seed dispersal is
by animals. The fruits are harvested annually between July and October, which makes it a highly
seasonal product. Bitter kola fruits are smooth and elliptically shaped, with yellow pulp and brown seed
coat. Garcinia kola has economic value across West African countries.
Garcinia kola is among the few commercial NFTPs that have several uses, the most important being
chewing stick and medicinal uses include purgative, anti-parasitic and antimicrobial. (Mshana et al.,
2000)The seeds together with other parts of the plant are used in medicinal preparations. The seeds
when chewed have a bitter, astringent taste. Despite its bitter taste, G. kola nuts are commonly eaten as
snacks and used for their stimulant effects due to high caffeine content. G. kola has great economic
value across West Africa; and the seeds are of particular importance in the social-cultural lives of the
people in the tropics. According to (Chinyere et al., 2013) the plants bark, seeds and stem are
traditionally used in the treatment of throat infections, acute fever and inflammation of the respiratory
tract. The twigs support flourishing chewing stick industry. Its wood is termite proof and makes excellent
material for carving and tools handles (Oboho and Urughu, 2010).

An important constituent of Garcinia Kola is flavonoid having Anti-inflammatory properties

(Braide, 1993) and a natural antioxidant (Olatunde, et, al., 2002). Industrially, Garcinia Kola is being
investigated for possible hop substitution in beer production. The bitterness and microbial actions were
suspected to be as a result of the presence of some phonelic compounds (Aina, et, al., 1991). The
multipurpose nature of the Garcinia kola species has made the need for improvement and development
of better techniques for germinating the recalcitrant seed important. Some authors (Ebana et al., 1991:
Orie and Ekon, 1993: Iwu, 1993: Taiwo et al., 1999 and Akoachere et al., 2002) have suggested the
species could hold the solutions to highly infectious diseases such as Ebola fever. This is in addition to
many other ailments the species is

said to cure and its role in supporting rural livelihoods.

Dormancy is one of the greatest obstacles for the germplasm conservation of forest species,

which frequently produce dormant seeds (Gonc et al., 2011).iiSeveral authors have worked to

find solution to the seed dormancy associated with Garcinia kola seed and therefore improve
thedomestication, regeneration and cultivation of the species due to increasing evidence of dwindling
wild resources resulting from deforestation and overexploitation. Initially not much work was done on
the subject (Anegbeh, et, al., 2006). Unfortunately, farmers are reluctant to plant the species because it
is characterized iii by dormant seeds with non-uniform and low germination rate. Previous studies used
freshly collected seeds in Nigeria (Nzegbule and Mbakwe 2001; Kangneme and Omokolo 2008), Ivory
Coast (Kouakou et al2016) and Ghana (Agyili et,al, 2007)Pre-treatments methods used were
scarification, mechanical coat removal, hormone pre-treatments' and water pre-treatments to improve
G. kola germination

1.1 Justification

> The demand for bitter kola (Garcinia kola) is high in Nigeria market but the population of the species is
low both in the wild and home gardens.

> Rapid deforestation, heavy exploitation in the natural forest and difficulties associated

with its germination occasioned by seed dormancy have been blamed.iii > The major difficulty in
Garcinia kola propagation is related to its seed germination which

takes up to 18 months after sowing (Aduse-Poku et al2003)> It is therefore necessary to find out
adequate solutions to overcome the pronounced seed

dormancy.

The seeds need to be treated to enhance germination because it exhibits embryo dormancy (Anegbeh et
al., 2006)Hence, the needs to be treated with seed coat removal, nut-pricking and hydro-primingThis
will allow the nut to imbibe water which triggers hydrolysis of the food reserves into simple sugars
required for the emergence of the

plumule and radicle.

1.2 Objectives

➤ To determine the effects of nut-pricking on germination and seedling growth of Gkola

To determine the effects of duration of hydro-priming on germination and seedling growth of G. kola

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Origin and Diversity of Garcinia Kola

Garcinia kola Heckel otherwise called bitter kola belongs to the family Clusiaceae/Guttiferae mainly
believed to have it centers of origin and diversities in the tropical rain forest of Central and Western
Africa, especially Benin, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Cote d'Ivoire, Gabon, Ghana, Liberia,
Nigeria, Senegal and Sierra Leone (Esiegwu et al., 2014) it is predominant in the rainforest belt of
southern Nigeria (Agada et al, 2009). In Nigeria it trade is as important as cola nut (C. nitida and C.
acuminata) in major towns and cities in southern part of the country, where the tree is endemic. It
natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist lowland forestsGarcinia kola is well branched, evergreen
and grows as a medium-sized tree reaching 12m in height. The specie is one of the most important trees
valued in Nigeria for it medicinal seeds and it's exploitation in the natural forests has been very heavy
(Adegoke et al., 1998; Farombi et al., 2005)Due to the actual and or potential levels of exploitation, as
well as the rarity and slow growing nature of the seedling, the species is facing a high risk of extinction in
the wild in the medium term future. The status of Garcinia kola in the IUCN red list was re- assessed in
2004, as "Vulnerable". There is clearly an urgent need to domesticate this species and to preserve it
biodiversity

2.2

Taxonomy and Nomenclature of Garcinia Kola

Scientific Classification

Kingdom: Plantae
Division: Magnoliophyta

Class: Magnoliopsida

Order: Malpighiales

Family: Clusiaceae

Genus: Garcinia

Species: G. kola

Binomial name: Garcinia kola

Vernacular Name: Botanically known as Garcinia kola, commonly called bitter kola and belongs to the
family Guttiferae/ Clusiaceae. In Nigeria it is called oje in Bokyi; edun in Edo (Bini); adu in Edo (Esan);
efiari in Efik; efrie in Ejagham-ekin; cida goro or namijin goro in Hausa; efiat in Ibibio; emiale in Icheve;
igoligo in Idoma; akaan in Ijoizon; okain in Isekiri and orogbo in YorubaIn Ibo it is called by many names
such as aki-ilu, adu, agbuilu, akara-inu, ugugolu, aku ilu, akuruma, ugolo (Burkill, 1994)

2.3. Distribution and Ecology of Garcinia Kola

The natural habitat of the Garcinia kola species is subtropical or tropical evergreen moist lowland
forests, implying that G. kola is a moist forest tree species. However, the natural habitat of Gkola could
include wet and moist semi-deciduous forests as well as derived savannah, where it is sometimes
widespread. The trees of the species are found in densely populated areas of natural and secondary
forests where the predominant land use system is tree crop plantation farming (Aiyelaagbe and Adeola
1993)G. kola trees found growing in farmlands are either planted or conserved in arable crop farms as
well as in oil palm and cocoa plantations. However, only a few trees of the species are left in forest
reserves and private farms. Usually, people residing in or near forest reserves collect bitter kola fruits,
extract and process the seeds and market them. G. kola is known by various names such as bitter kola,
male kola (English names),orogbo (Yoruba), Aku ilu (Igbo) and Namijin goro (Hausa).

Daily temperatures usually vary between 21 °C to 31°Cwhereas the mean rainfall ranges from 1000 to
3000 mm per year in those areasThis is complemented by a relatively high air humidity of about 75%
(Babalola et al., 2010; Climate data for cities 2018)The species can withstand various types of soils with a
slight preference for sandy loams, whereas its fine roots were found

to harbor an arbuscular type of mycorrhiza (Beechem et al., 2014)

2.4 Botanical description of Garcinia kola

Garcinia kola is a medium-large tree naturally growing up to 30 m in height with amaximum of 100cm in
trunk diameter.According to (Anegbeh et., 2006), cultivated trees can reach 12 m in 12 years and usually
grow below 20 m of heightGkola has a compact dense

According to (Anegbeh et al2006), cultivated trees cancrown with erect, slightly drooping branches. The
trunk is straight and cylindrical with smooth bark, which is dark-brown outside and pinkish inside. When
wounded, the bark exudates sticky yellow water-proof latex, typical for the Clusiaceae family. Leaves are
simple, opposite, obovate-elliptic with short acuminate apex. They are usually glabrous, dark green and
can measure up to 20 x 6 cm. The inflorescence is a small terminal umbel with greenish/white flowers
(Matig et al., 2006; Eyog-Matig et al., 2007)The tree is predominantly dioecious, but some flowers were
reported to be bisexual. Flowering usually occurs once per year. Fruits are berries of globular,
sometimes slightly flattened shape with a diameter of approximately 6.5 cm and weight of about 130
gThe exocarp is velvety, reddish-yellow and the pulp is yellow/orange releasing a slightly apricot odor.
Even though the pulp is edible, its sour, resinous taste prevents it from being commonly consumed. In
one season, a single full-grown tree can yield 200-1000 fruit (Adebisi, 2004)One fruit contains about 2-4
seeds, which have a hypogeal type of germination (Anegbeh et al.2006; Eyog-Matig et al2007). The
pericarp of the seed is light brown-colored when fresh but darkens with drying or age. The kernel is
white with brownish-red branched lines producing red resinous globules (Onayade et al., 1998)viSeed
length and width are on average 3.0 x 1.5 cm, mean weight varies around 5.4 gIn West and Central
Africa, fruits are ready to be harvested from April to October (Babalola et al., 2010; Dosunmuviet al.,
1995) but the exact period varies within regions and climate zones. When fully ripe, the color of the fruit
changes from green to reddish-yellow

Importance of garcinia kola

Social and economic importance of garcinia kola Garcinia kola (bitter kola) serve as a source of living for
the rural and urban means of

livelihoodThey are not only the chief raw material for traders in various parts of the worldbut they also
have great social benefits as a source of livelihood for the people residing near the forest areas (Renuka,
2000)Besides the national markets, G. kola seeds represent a prospective commodity for international
trade (Termote et al2012)Exports are very often realized among neighboring countries, where such
supplies may compete with kernels harvested from local agro- ecosystems. As a result, seeds sold in the
Benin markets may originate from Nigeria, Togo, or GhanaThe import of bitter kola seeds from Nigeria
to Cameroon is also commercially important

(Dah-Nouvlessouno et al., 2016; Jusu et al., 2014; Pribyl et al2017)Exports outside Africa

for example to Europe or North America, have not yet been fully documented (Termote et al., 2012).

2.5.2. Cultural Importance of Garcinia Kola

Garcinia kola is widely used ceremonially and socially by the people of West and Central Africa. It holds a
high position of cultural importance among all the Nigerian tribes, particularly the Yoruba and Igbo
communities(Russelle, 1955) described cultural uses of bitter kola in Yoruba land of western Nigeria, he
reported that the seed is normally kept in the house and an offering of kola forms part of the greeting of
an honored guest. The Yoruba's use bitter Kola as an important component of the material used in
traditional naming and marriage ceremonies (Yakubu, etal, 2014)It is chewed extensively in Southern
Nigeria as a masticatory while among the Igbo tribe in Eastern Nigeria, it is used as a sign of peace and
acceptance of visitors and also in their traditional 'fetish' recipes. Traditional herbalist use bitter kola in
various pharmacopoeia

preparations for various ailments (Adjanohun, 1991).

Some of the specific cultural use of Garcinia kola among the various ethnic groups in the various
geopolitical zones of Nigeria include; naming ceremony, wedding ceremony, hospitality divinations,
traditional religious worships, spiritual invocations, traditional communication /messaging and initiation
into traditional /cultural societies, oath taking, prayers and curses

dispute settlement and traditional health care.

Nutritional Values
Even though G. kola is considered as a medicinal plant and most of the current research targets

characterization of its bioactivity, the seeds are usually eaten raw, in their crude formTherefore, it is also
important to focus on their nutritional value. Scientific literature provides quite confusing data on the
species dietary properties. The published results concerning the seedsalimentary composition vary as
follows: moisture: 7.2%-92.7%; ash: 0.33%-5.9%; crude protein: 0.58% -7.8%; crude fat: 0.19%-14.5%;
crude fibre: 1.23% -20.51%; NFE: 10.85%-91.35%. Overall, the studies agree on relatively high amounts
of moisture in the seedsaround 70%, which is a crucial aspect for kernel preservationCarbohydrates, also
described as nitrogen-free

preparations for various ailments (Adjanohun, 1991).

Some of the specific cultural use of Garcinia kola among the various ethnic groups in the various
geopolitical zones of Nigeria include; naming ceremony, wedding ceremony, hospitality divinations,
traditional religious worships, spiritual invocations, traditional communication /messaging and initiation
into traditional /cultural societies, oath taking, prayers and curses, dispute settlement and traditional
health care.

2.5.3. Nutritional Values

Even though G. kola is considered as a medicinal plant and most of the current research targets

hand, ash content, the result of complete sample

extracts (NFE)form the largest part of seed proximate composition varying around 65%. On theother
burning to inorganic substituents, is very low and in the range of only 1.5%. Mean value for crude
protein is 3.5%, crude fat varies around

Medicinal importance

The seeds of Garcinia kola is chewed as an aphrodisiac or used to cure coughs,dysentery or chest colds
(Irvinee, 1961). It could serve as raw material for pharmaceutical industries (Iwu, 1989). The raw stem
bark of Garcinia Kola is a purgative. The bark when soaked into water can be used as a treatment for
intestinal worms and to cure stomach pain. The powdered bark is applied to malignant tumors. The sap
is used for curing parasitic skin diseases. The latex or gum used internally against gonorrhea, and applied
externally on fresh woundsThe seeds prevent or relieve colic disorders or cure head or chest colds,
suppressed cough and is often used in the treatment of Cirrhosis and hepatitis (inflammation of the
liver) (Ogu, et, al.1995)Compounds from the plant have proved effective against some strains of flu, a
contagious respiratory disease commonly known as influenza, (Iwu, 1993)It has also been reported for
the treatment of jaundice, high fever, and as purgative (Iwu, 1989). In Sierra Leone, the roots and bark
are taken as a tonic for sexual dysfunction in menThe bark is also added into palm wine to improve its
potency (Iwu, et al., 1990). Traditional medicine practitioners in Nigeria, particularly in the Ogoni area
use a decoction of Garcinia kola stem bark for the treatment of dysmenorrhoea, fever,

inflammation and burns (Adesina et al., 1995). "Bitter kola is anti-poison and helps to detoxify the
system, it has the ability to repel evil men and spirits, it could sound superstitious but it works (Iwu,
1989).It is also popular among the people of Nigeria for nervous alertness and induction of
insomniaGarcinia kola is highly valued for medicinal useThis plant has been referred to as a,,wonder
plant" because every part of it has been found to be of medicinal importance (Dalziel, 1937)ixBitter kola
has been used as an antidote for cases of poisons or suspected poisons. When food is suspected to be
contaminated by bacteria, bitter kola is chewed to prevent the development of any infection or
poisoningThe plant products also contain chemical compounds that help in the breakdown of glycogen
in the liverThis is because the phenolic compounds present in bitter kola possess anti-inflammatory,
antimicrobialantidiabetic

Other uses of Garcinia

Apart from food and medical values, the seeds of Garcinia kola are gathered and sold by people mostly
in rural areas to generate income for sustainable livelihoodGarcinia kola has agroforestry potentials as
wind break because of its good canopy. In addition, its hard wood is suitable for timber, carving and
tools handle makingThe wood is excellent for fuel wood, its dense round crowns makes it an ideal tree
for shade around homes; the branches, stem and roots are used as chewing stick because of the
antibacterial activities of its extracts. Its commercialization in both the domestic and national market
raises the standard of living of those involved in its trading activities both in the rural and urban centre
(Adebisi, 2004). Garcinia kola enhances the flavor of some local beverages. The tree is also planted in
agroforestry and used as shade tree in cocoa plantations. When chewed they have a bitter, astringent
taste rather resembling that of the raw coffee bean, and followed by a slight sweetness. They are
chewed as adjuvant rather than as substitute for the true cola. The juice has a stimulating effect. x The
potential utilization of Garcinia kola as hop substitutes in beer brewing has been reported (Eleyinmi et
al., 2001). The bark contains an abundant sticky resinous gum that has water- proofing properties
(Burkill, 1985). It can be used to protect powder in the priming pans of flintlock guns from rain (Burkill,
1985). The gum in the bark is incendiary, the twigs burning brightly and therefore used as tapers (Burkill,
1985). The bark is used in tanning, and has at times been exported as a tanning material .The leaves
have a bitter taste and are used as a deterrent to fleas (Burkill, 1985).
2.6. Agronomy and production of Garcinia kola

2.6.1. Cultivation and propagation

To promote the cultivation of G. kola, most work has investigated seed germination (Agyili et al., 2006;
Eyog-Matig et al., 2007; Yakubu et al., 2014) aimed at the domestication of this species. In addition,
vegetative propagation studies have investigated the grafting of juvenile seedlings (Yakubu et, al., 2014),
but there has been little work on the rooting of stem and root cuttings in this species. According to
(Anegbeh et al., 2006) and (Matig et al., 2006), about 70% of bitter kola fruits in Nigeria are directly
taken from wild stands in forests. Contrary to this, the tree is said to be frequently cultivated by local
farmers and is rarely found scattered in the natural forest in Cameroon (Guedje et al., 2001). The tree is
sometimes intentionally preserved during forest clearing and thus introduced to farmers' compounds
(Matig et al., 2006). It is often grown in agroforestry systems together with cocoa, oil palm, and other
fruit trees (Adebisi, 2004)However, the natural regeneration of the species is said to be poor, and
seedlings are slow- growing (Gyimah, 2000)

10

2.6.2. Raising seedlings in the nursery

Bitter kola is generally propagated by seeds. The choice of healthy and viable seeds is essential for
proper growth and development of the seedlings. The rate of germination is usually influenced by
several environmental and cultural factors, such as nut condition, size of nut,

kola seedlings includes;

temperature and illumination (Opeke, 1992)Other factors that may affect the development of Sowing
media: The growing or sowing media influence root formation. The growth media in the

nursery can be rice husk, river sand, wood shaven, sawdust and fertile top soil. viability: seeds should be
healthy and viable. Nuts can be treated to promote germination
Seed rate and to overcome seed dormancy associated with bitter kola nuts. Planting depth: The planting
depth affects the rate of germination and seedling developmentThe

appropriate planting depth 3 to 5cm in the sowing media. Placement into the growing media: The way
the seeds are placed in the growing media affects

and influence the roots formation. Bitter kola seeds are placed horizontally in the growth media to
ensure higher number of seedling and straight roots formation.

Shade: Bitter kola seeds germinate and seedling growth better under shadeThe tree thrives well under
shades of forest trees and are usually planted in forested areas, in other for the forest trees to provide
overhead shade for young plants.

Seedling Growth

In southern Nigeria, seeds are sowed in boxes, polythene bags and cups filled with

topsoil and lined in equal parts with sand or sawdust or raised in nursery beds. Within a few days of
germination, the radicle reaches a depth of 12 - 15cm, at this time the Plumule starts to grow and after
some days the young seedling developed to height of 20-25cm, the stem carries many stipulate bracts
along its entire length and at the tip 3 - 4 normal leaves are formedAfter a short period of rest the
seedling continue to develop following a monopodial growth pattern (Bodard1962)If the main shoot
becomes damaged, shoots develop from axils of the cotyledonsgiving rise to a branched seedling. Over
watering should be avoided since the seedlings are liable to fungus and other pathogenic infections
(Oludemokun, 1979Opeke, 1992)

11

2.6.3. Transplanting seedlings

Garcinia kola seedlings are very slow growing and can take up to 10-12 months after emergence in the
nursery to reach transplantable height. Ideal time for transplanting young seedlings is during the raining
season when enough moisture and nutrients are available for plant growthThe plants then have the
longest possible period to settle prior to the subsequent dry season.

In West Africa, the suitable time for transplanting is April in the southern kola belt, and June in the
transitional zone (north kola belt). At transplanting, the seedlings should preferably be 40 to 50cm high
and carry 12 to 14 expanded leaves (Opeke, 1992)If the seedlings are smaller than 20cm and carry less
than 6 leaves, they are suitable for transplanting. 4-6 months old seedling still retain turgid cotyledons.
It's essential to take care that these are preserved on the plants because they served as food reserve for
the seedling. The presence of cotyledons on seedling of six month apparently helps the plants to endure
shock of transplanting especially when the seedlings are uprooted from the nursery beds and
transferred to shrivels and drop. The time of uprooting to transplanting to the field should be kept as
short as possible by preparing planting holes prior to uprooting seedling in the nursery. At the time of
transplanting, shade should be provided intercepting approximately one-third of the light. This will
prevent wilting and undue leaf drop (Eijnatten, 1996).

Harvesting and processing

Seed grown plants start bearing at the age 10-12years Grafts

propagation) starts bearing from the third year onwards and will attain the stage of full bearing at the
12-15 yearsIt attain maturity 4-5 months after pollination, flowering occurs in January - March and fruit
matures in July. There are reports of off season bearers, which bear two times a year ie January - July
and September - FebruarySporadic fruiting occur July/August, but the peak production is from October -
DecemberMature fruits which are orange yellow in color, either drop from the tree or are harvested
manually. It's harvested with a sharp cutlass but where the fruits are out reach (in case of tall trees),
they are harvested with poles, hooked knife, sickle or go-to-hell attached to a long bamboo. During the
harvesting period, the undergrowth beneath the bitter kola tree should be cleared to ensure that both
harvested and fallen fruits can be easily collected. Seeds are firmly attached to the fruit pulp, which
makes their removal a long-termed

laborious procedure. Therefore, farmers usually keep the harvested fruits in piles for 5-7 days so that
the pericarp and pulpy mesocarp ferment and become soft. Once softened, fruits are pressed to release
the kernels, which are then thoroughly washed and dried. Kernels are eaten fresh or stored for later
consumption and commercialization (Adebisi, 2004).xiiHowever, seeds easily lose moisture and shrink,
which negatively influences their germination rate and the market valueThe quick water loss leads to a
change in texture as well as in sensory and nutritional attributes of the seed (Dosunmu et al., 1995).
Ideally the harvesting should be carried before it falls to the ground to guard against infestation by kola
weevils.
2.8. Storage

One of the most popular and easiest ways to store the seeds is to air-dry them first and to continue to
store in a cool and dry place (Adebisi, 2004). Another possibility is to wrap the nuts in leaves and store
them in a wicker basket (Adebisi, 2004). Some farmers also store the kernels in between layers of soil or
in dust/ash piles (Dosunmu et al., 1995). In optimal conditions, seeds can be stored for about a year
(Manourova, 2017). The seeds do not exhibit orthodox storage behavior and should be treated as
carefully as recalcitrant seeds. The fleshy fruits have a moisture content of about 50% at harvest. The
species occurs naturally in evergreen moist forests where temperatures are uniformly 30 to 32°C and
the relative humidity ranges between 76 and 93%. Such moist and warm conditions can be
recommended for handling and short-term storage of the seeds. If the seeds are to be stored in short
term moist conditions, it is vital that they are ventilated frequently (Agyili et al., 2006).

2.9. Marketing and Economic potential Agricultural marketing in the tropics is one of the most important
sectors of the economy in which therefore, bitter kola marketing have a substantial impact on the
economy in which it operates. The importance of agricultural marketing cannot be overestimated since
it brings about specialized production for better skill and efficiency thereby providing opportunities for
exchange of goods and services (Ofor et al., 2004). xiii Commercialization of G. kola seeds is considered
as a profitable activity providing a substantial contribution to the livelihood of households, particularly
those living in rural areas (Adebisi, 2004; Termote et. al., 2012; Adedokun et al., 2018). More often than
not, after removing a small quantity for household consumption (including entertainment and medicinal
purposes), the processed bitter kola are sold.

13

The nuts selected for sale are usually the neatly processed ones without scratch in the nut coat. Fresh,
well air-dried and ambiently stored bitter kola commands the highest market price (Adebisi, 2004).
Besides the national markets, G. kola seeds represent a prospective commodity for international trade
(Termote et al.2012). Exports are very often realized among neighboring countries, where such supplies
may compete with kernels harvested from local agro-ecosystems. As a result, seeds sold in the Benin
markets may originate from Nigeria, Togo, or Ghana. The import of bitter kola seeds from Nigeria to
Cameroon is also commercially important (Dah Nouvlessounonxivet al., 2016; Jusu et al., 2014; Pribyl et
al., 2017). Exports outside Africa, for example to Europe or North America, have not yet been fully
documented (Termote et al., 2012).

Seed dormancy and germination problem of bitter kola

According to Bewley, (1997), seed dormancy is the failure of an intact viable seed to complete
germination under favourable conditions. The delay to embryonic growth in many seeds is overcome by
subjecting the seeds to an appropriate environmental requirement. The major environmental conditions
necessary are access to moisture and air, a suitable range of temperature, freedom from high
concentration of inorganic salts, poisons and inhibitors; and for some seeds, exposure to a proper
sequence of light and dark (Noggle and Fritz, 1986)There is however, there are more numerous group of
plants whose seeds do not readily germinate even though they are placed under favourable conditions
of moisture, air, temperature and light. Germination may be delayed for days, weeks, months or even
years. The seeds of such plants are said to be dormant (Noggle and Fritz, 1986). Dormancy should not
just be accompanied with interruption of germination, rather it is a feature of the seed that determines
the condition required for germination. When dormancy is considered this way, any environmental
factor that alters the conditions required for germination is by definition altering dormancy and by
extension, when the seed no longer requires specific environmental factors, it is non-dormant
(Vleeshouwers et al., 1995; Thompson, 2000; Fenner and Thompson, 2005). Generally, there are two
types of seed dormancy: exogenous and endogenous. Seeds with exogenous dormancy usually have
pericarp and/or seed coat impermeable to oxygen and/or water. Sometime, germination is inhibited by
chemicals in epidermis or adjacent interior membranes (Bradford, 1995) with regard to endogenous or
physiology dormancy,seeds concerned have underdeveloped embryos, but simply need time to grow
and germinate (Baskin and Baskin, 2004; Finch-Savage and Leubner-Metzger, 2006). These authors also
reported that dormancy can only

be measured by the absence of germination and that a dormant seed does not have the capacity to
germinate in a specified period of time under any combination of normal physical environmental factors
that are otherwise favourable for its germination, that is, after the seeds becomes non- dormant. The
major difficulty in G. kola cultivation, as for several species in genus Garcinia, is to seed germination and
embryo dormancy (Kanmegne et al., 2008). This dormancy characteristic affords the seed a long period
of time before germination which is up to 28 months (Hammed, 2014). Various researchers confirm that
the seeds are difficult to germinate (Anegbeh et al, 2006; Nzegbule et al., 2001; Gyimah, 2000;
Kanmegne et al., 2008). In that context, it is rather tricky to prescribe a standard procedure for
enhancing the germination. Seeds of G. kola are recalcitrant, hence very sensitive to desiccation which
may influence their viability. (Eyog

- Matigxvet al., 2007) revealed that the speciesgermination rate decreases with lowering seed moisture
content. Therefore, the authors suggested dormancy-breaking through seed coat removal and soaking
in cold water. (Nzegbule et al., 2001) proposed another method of pre- treatment of freshly harvested
seeds with cold water followed by incubation in a transparent polyethylene bag. (Anegbeh et al., 2006)
suggested mechanical seeds scarification (nicking) before sowing as the most successful, cheapest and
easiest way to enhance the germination. (Kanmegne et al., 2008) tried to break embryo dormancy by
pre-treatment of seeds with auxins, cytokinins, and gibberelins, but none of the phytohormones
significantly increased germination rate, nor did they reduce the dormancy period. On the other hand,
the authors revealed regeneration potential for in vitro cultures. A treatment by NAA, BAP, and 2,4-D
induced the formation of multiple roots, shoots, and callus. Also, their results showed a significant
difference in seed germination rate among six studied collections, indicating that the trait may vary with
accession of the species. Pests and diseases attack Garcinia kola seed and pod by reducing its quality,
market value and

2.11.

Pest and disease

nutrient. The pests affect the seeds through piercing and sucking and method. They affect the

pod when it is harvested late or when there are wounds or bruises on the pod. They cause

microbial deterioration of the fruits when the fruits are not properly harvested: such as when the

fallen fruits are left till when it rots or fly larvae affects it; then it will cause soil borne

pathogenic fungi.

15

Some pests that affect bitter kola are:

(1) Weevils: This is the major pest of kola which affects the fruit and the seed either during harvesting or
storage. Examples of weevils include: Sphororhinus divareti, S. quadricristalus, S. simiarum,
Balanogastric kolae, etc. The weevil penetrates through wound or damaged fruits. They lay eggs in the
seeds. The weevil attack cause serious losses up to 50-70% (31). The weevils are controlled by removing
the initial attack and thorough inspection of the seeds then
removal of all infested seeds before storage. (ii) Caratitis kolae: This pest attacks the kola in the mature
stage. It causes burrowing which create hole easy for penetration of weevils.

(iii) Aphids (Pseuducoccus citra)

(iv) Scale insects (Planococcoides njalesis)

Diseases of Garcinia kola are:

a) Fungal root (Fusarium sp): These disease attacks the plants suddenly on the leavesIt leads to plant
deathThe roots of the plants are covered with brown rhizomorphs and fruiting bodies may be formed at
the base of the truckThese diseases can be prevented and controlled by removing the logs, stumps and
roots of the infected ones. b) Leaf spot diseaseThey attack only immature leaves, mainly on the later
part of the rainy

seasonThe symptoms are brown angular spots, especially on the tips of the leaf, bushy appearance of
the plantThe fungus responsible is the Pestolatia sp and Glomerella spc) Penicillin spp, Diplodia
macnopyrens, Fusarium moniliform var Subblutinans, Fusarium solanietc are fungi disease resulting
from fruit and nut.

Fusarium spp and Penicillin spp are common infection of nuts which can be prevented when the nuts
are allowed to attain their restive stage and transpiration prior to storage

REFERENCES
Adebisi, A. A. (2004) A case study of Garcinia kola nut production-to-consumption system in 14 area of
Omo forest reserve, South-west Nigeria. Pp 115-132 in Sunderland Tand Ndoye O. (Eds) Forest products,
livelihoods and conservation, case studies of non-timber forest product systems. Volume 2 Africa, CIFOR
ISBN 979-3361-25-5.

Adebisi, A.A.(2004) Bitter cola: The African wonder nut. In Riches of the Forest: For Health, Life and Spirit
in Africa; Binnqüist, C.L., Ed.; CIFOR: Bogor, Indonesia; pp. 18–20.

Adedokun, M.; Ojo, T.; Oyelakin, F(2018). Socio-economic Contributions and Marketing of Garcinia kola
(bitter kola) in Ijebu- Ode Ogun State, Nigeria. Int. J. Afr. Asian Stud. 42, 45–52.

Adegoke, G.O., Kumar MV, Sambaiah K, Lokesh BR (1998). Inhibitory effect of Garcinia kola on lipid
peroxidation in rat liver homogenate. Indian J. Exp. Biol., 36: 907-910.

Adesina, SK, Gbile, ZO. and Odukoya, OA(1995) Survey of indigenous plants of West Africa with special
emphasis on medicinal plants and issues associated with management. The United Nations Programme
on Natural Resources in Africa; 2nd edition. 84-5.

Adepoju, A.A., and Salau, A.S. (2007): Economic valuation of Non-Timber forest products MPRA. Paper
No. 2689.Available online at http://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/2689/. Accessed on August 08, 2007.

Adjanohoun, E, Ahiyi, M.R.A., Ake, Assi L, Dramane, K., Elewude, J. A, Fadoju, S.O., Gbile, Z. O, Goudote,
E, Johnson, C.L.A and Keita, A. (1991). Traditional medicine and pharmacopoeia: contribution to
ethnobotanical and floristic studies in western Nigeria. 0AU/STRC. 19-303xxix

Aduse-Poku, K.,Nyinaku, F., Atiase, V. Y., Awuah, R., Mensah, E. O., Nyantakyi, D., Owusu, H. K. and
Agyenim-Boateng, B. (2003)Improving rural livelihoods within the context of sustainable development:
case study of Goaso forest district. Tropenbos International Ghana, University of Amsterdam and
Institute of Renewable Natural Resources, 50 pp.
Agada PO and Braide VB (2009): Effect of dietary Garcinia kola seed on selected serum electrolytes and
trace metals in male albino rats. Nigerian Journal of Physiological Sciences: 53- .

Agbogidi, O.Mand Okonta, B.C. Role of women in community forestry and environmental conservation
In: Akindele, S.O. and Poola, L. (eds) (2003). Proceedings of the 29th annual conference of the Forestry
Association of Nigeria (FAN) held in Calabar, Cross Rivers State, Nigeria. Pp 159-164.

Agyili, J., Sacande, M., andKouame, C. (2006)Garcinia kola Heckel. Seed Leaflet, (113). Agyili, J.; Sacande,
M.; Koffi, E (2007).; Peprah, T. Improving the collection and germination of West African Garcinia kola
Heckel seeds. New For. 34, 269–279.

Aina JO, Uko EE (1991) Preliminary Studies on tropical Hop substitutes. Tropical Science. 31 379-385.xxix

Aiyelaagbe, IO. and Adeola, A. O. (1993)Fruit Trees for Future Agro forestry initiation in the humid Zone
of Nigeria. The Farmer Priority list. Paper Presented at the ICRAF Meeting on Prioritization of MPTs for
humid lowlands of West Africa. 24-25 June. IITA, Ibadan, Nigeria

Akoachere, JF., Ndip RN., Chenwi E. B., Ndip L. M., Njock T. E. and Anong, DN. (2002)Antibacterial effect
of Zingiber officinale and Garcinia kola on respiratory tract pathogensEast

AfrMed J79(11):588-592

Altemimi, A., N. Lakhssassi, A. Baharlouei, D.G. Watson, and D.A. Lightfoot.(2017). Phytochemicals:
extraction, isolation, and identification of bioactive compounds from plant extracts. Plants 6(4):42. doi:
10.3390/plants6040042.

Anegbeh PO, Iruka C, Nkirika C(2006). Enhancing germination of bitter kola (Garcinia kola)

Heckel, prospects for Agroforestry farmers in the Niger delta. Sci. Africana, 1: 25-29

Arogba, S.S(2000)Comparative Analyses of the Moisture Isotherms, Proximate Compositions, Physical

and Functional Properties of Dried Cola nitida and Garcinia kola kernels. J. Food

Compos. Anal. 13, 139-148

Babalola, F.D. (2009): Prospects and Challenges of Production and Marketing of Non-timber Forest
Products (NTFPS) by Rural Farmers in Southwest Nigeria. Academic Journal of Plant Sciences 2 (4): ISSN
1995-8986 pp 222-230.

Babalola, F.D.; Agbeja, B.O. (2010) Marketing and distribution of Garcinia kola (Bitter kola) in southwest
Nigeria: Opportunity for development of a biological product. Egypt. J. Biol12, 12-

Balgis, O. E., John, P., Neil, A., Maria, B., Carol, J. P. C., Brent, S., Talaat, D., Linda, A. J., Johnson, N. and
Carmenza, R. (2009). Future Socio- Economic Impacts and Vulnerabilities. In:RistoSeppälä, Alexander
Buck and PiaKatila. (eds). Adaptation of Forests and People to Change. A Global Assessment Report.
IUFRO World Series Volume 22. Helsinki.,pp:

Climate

101-122.

Baskin, J.M. and Baskin, C.C.(2004). A classification 50-ha Korup Forest Dynamic Plot ; Fon, B.T.(2014) A
Survey of Mycorrhizal Colonization in the

Research 14: 1-16.

Bechem, E.E.T.; Chuyong, G.B.

systemfor seed dormancy. Seed Science in Cameroon. Am. J. Plant

Sci. 1403-1415.xxx Data for Cities Worldwide-Climate-Data.org. Available online: https://en.climate-

Climate data.org/ (accessed on 9 December 2018).

Bewley, J. D. (1997), Seed germination and dormancy. Plant cell. Volume 9. Pp. 1055-108. Bewlyey,
J.D. (1982): Viability, Dormancy and Environmental Control. - In: Physiology and Biochemistry of Seed,
pp. 62-65.

Bodard, M. (1962) Contribution al étudesystematique du genre C. nitida en Afriqueoccidentale Annals

de la Facute des sciences (Dakar). Vol. 7, p. 17-24. Bradford, K.J. (1995). Water relations in seed
germination. In Seed Development and

Germination;

Braide VB

Kigel J and Galili G, Eds., Marcel Dekker, New York, pp. 351-396.

Kola fitoterapia LXIV: 433-36.

(1993) Anti-inflavnmatory effect of Kolaviron; a bioflavonoid extract of Garcinia

Burkill, H. M. (1985). The Useful Plants of West Tropical Africa 1: Families A-D. London: Royal Botanic
Gardens, Kew

Burkill, H. M. (1994).The Useful Plants of West Tropical Africa 2: Families E-1. London: Royal Botanic
Gardens, Kew.

Chinyere, C. E. and Ebakota, O. D. (2013). Antibacterial activity of Garcinia kola seed and leaf extract on
some selected clinical isolates. Science Journal of Microbiology; Vol. 9: Pp 1-8.

Dalziel , JM.(1937) The Useful Plants of West Tropical Africa. Crown Agents for the Colonies, London.xxxi
Dosunmu,

M.I.; Johnson, E.C.(1995) Chemical evaluation of the nutritive value and changes in ascorbic acid content
during

storage of the fruit of "bitter kola" (Garcinia kola). Food Chem.54,

67-71.xxxi

Dah-Nouvlessounon, D.; Adoukonou-Sagbadja, H.; Nafan, D.; Adjanohoun, A.; Noumavo, P.A.; .; Daouda,
B.O.; Baba-Moussa, L.(2016) Morpho-agronomic variability of three kola trees accessions [Cola nitida
(Vent.) Schott et Endl., Cola acuminata (P. Beauv.) Schott et Endl., and Garcinia kola Heckel] from
Southern Benin. Genet. Resour. Crop Evol. 63, 561-579.

Sina, H

R. U., Madunagu, B. E., Ekpe, E. D. and Otung, I. N. (1991). Microbiological exploitation of cardiac
glycosides and alkaloids from Garcinia kola, Borreria ocymoides, Kola and Citrus aurantifolia. J Appl
Bacteriol.. 71(5):398-401.xxxi

Ebana,

nitida

Eleyinmi, A. F. and Oloyo, R.A. (2001): Pilot scale brewing trials using formulated blends of selected local
vegetables as hop substitute," Journal of Food Science and Technology, 38(6): 609-611.xxxi

Eleyinmi, A.F.; Bressler, D.C.; Amoo, I.A.; Spoms, P.; Oshodi, A.A.(2006) Chemical composition of bitter
cola (Garcinia kola) seed
and hulls. Pol. J. Food Nutr. Sci. 15, 395. 1969), Kola, it's botany and cultivation. Communication No. 59.
Roy. Trop. Inst. Amsterdam. Pp:100.

Eijnatten Van, C. L.. M. (

Esiegwu AC, Okoli IC, Emenalom putraceutical 00, Esonu BO and Udedibie ABI (2014): The Emerging

Animal

benefits of the African wonder nut (Garcinia kola): A Review. Global Journal of Scientific Research; 2(2):
170-183.

31

dormancy-breaking. Applied ecology and environmental research 5(1): 63-71. http://www.ecology.uni-

corvinus.hu ISSN 1589 1623 2007, Penkala Bt., Budapest, Hungary. Farombi EO.

Adepoju BF, Ola-Davies OE, Emerole GO (2005). Chemoprevention of aflatoxin B1- induced genotoxicity
and hepatic oxidative damage in rats by kolaviron, a natural Garcinia kola seeds. Eur. Cancer J. Prev., 14:
207-214.

bioflavonoid of Fenner, M. and Thompson, K. (2005). The ecology of seeds. Cambridge University Press.

Finch-Savage, W.E. and Leubner-Metzger, G. (2006). Seed dormancy and the control of germination,
New Phytologist 171: 501-$23, DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2006.01787.x

Food and Agricultural Organization (1999). The Role of Wood Energy in Africa. Wood Energy Today for
Tomorrow Regional studies. Working Paper FOPW. 99/3 FAO, Rome. July
Gyimah, A. (2000). Effect of pre-treatment methods on germination of Garcinia kola Heckel.

Gone,alves EP, Soares FSJ, dos Santos Silva S, de Souza Tavares D, Silva Viana J, Cardoso B. (2011).
Dormancy breaking in Ormosia arborea Seeds. Int J Agron. 2011:1.xxxii

Guedje, N.M.; Fankap, R.(2001) Traditional utilisation of Garcinia lucida and Garcinia kola

(Clusiaceae) in Cameroon. Syst. Geogr. Plants, 71, 747-758xxxii Hammed, L. A. (2014). Breaking
dormancy in Bitter Kola (Garcinia kola, Heckel)

Nuts Nigerian Journal of Horticultural Science. Vol. 19 (2014) pp. 27-36 ljomone, O.M.; Nwoha, P.U.:
Olaibi, O.K.; Obi, A.U.; Alese, M.O.(2015): Neuroprotective Effects of Kolaviron, a Biflavonoid Complex of
Garcinia kola, on Rats Hippocampus against Methamphetamine-Induced Neurotoxicity. Maced. J. Med.
Sci. 5, 10-16.xxxii

Irvin, E. R. ( 1961). Woody plants of Ghana with special reference to their uses. Oxford Universitypress,
London pp. 9, 20.

Iwa, M. M. (1989).

Food for medicine, Ed M Iwu in Dietary plants and masticator as sources of

biologically active substances. University of Ife, Ife press pp 303-310.

Iwu, M.M. (1993). Handbook of African Medicinal Plants, CRC press, Boca Raton, EL. Pp 183- 184.
Iw. M.M., Igboko, O.A., Okunji, C.O. and Tempesta, M.S. (1990). Antidiabetic and Aldose reductase
activities of Biflavanones of Garcinia kola J. Pharmacol., 42: 290-292.

Jusu, A.; Sanchez, A.C.(2014) Medicinal Plant Trade in Sierra Leone: Threats and Opportunities for
Conservation. Econ. Bot. 68, 16-29. xxxii

Kagho, H.D.; Ejebe, D.E.(2010) Phytochemistry and preliminary toxicity studies of the methanol extract
of the stem bark of Garcinia kola (Heckel). Internet J. Toxicol 7, 1-18.

32

Mshana, N. R., Abbiw, D. K., Adjaouhun E., Ahuyi, M. R. A., Ekpere, J. A., Enow-Orock, E. G., Gbile, Z. O.,
Noamesi, G. K., Odei, M. A., Odunlami, H., Oteng-Yeboah, A. A., Sarpong, K., Sofowora, A. and Tackie, A.
N. (2000). Traditional medicine and pharmacopoeia: Contribution to the revision of enthobotanical and
floristic studies in Ghana. OAU/SIRE Institute for Scientific and technological Information, Accra. Vol. 2:
Pp. 56-77.

Tchimene, K.M.; Anaga, A.O.; Ugwoke, C.E.C.; Ezugwu, C.O.; Okunji, C.O.; Iwu, M.M.(2015) Bio-
flavonoids and Garcinoic Acid from Garcinia kola seeds with Promising Anti-Inflammatory Potentials.
Pharmacogn. J. 8, 56-58.

Ibironke, G.F.; Fasanmade, A.A. (2015);Analgesic and central nervous system depressant activities of
kolaviron (A Garcinia kola biflavonoid complex). Afr. J. Biomed. Res. 18, 217- 223.xxxiii

Kanmegne, G. and Omokolo, N. D. (2008). Germination of Garcinia kola (Heckel) seeds in response to
different hormone treatment. Fruits, vol. 63 (3), 155-161,

Konziase, B.(2015) Protective activity of biflavanones from Garcinia kola against Plasmodium infection. J.
Ethnopharmacol.172, 214-218.xxxiii
Kolakou,K. L., Koukou, C., Koffi, K. K., Dao, J., Beugré, M. M., Baudoin, J. and Zoro Bi, L. A. (2016). Effect
of mechanical scarification and gibberellins (GA3) on seed germination and growth of Garcinia kola
(Heckel). Journal of Applied Biosciences 103:9811-9818 ISSN 1997- 5902

Matig, O.E.; Ndoye, O.; Kengue, J.; Awono, A.(2006) Les Fruitiers Forestiers Comestibles du Cameroun;
Bioversity International: Rome, Italy.

Manourova, A. (2017) Diversity and Nutritional Characterization of Garcinia kola Heckel in Southwest
Cameroon, Master's Thesis, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Prague, Czech Republic.xxxiii

Nzegbule, E. and Mbakwe, R. (2001). Effect of pre-sowing and incubation treatment on germination of
Garcinia kola (Heckel) seeds. Fruits, vol. 56, p. 437-442© 2001 Cirad/EDP Sciences.

Noggle, G.R. and Fritz, G.J. (1986). Introduction to Plant Physiology, 2nd Ed. Prentice-Hall of India Private
Limited, New Delhi-110001.

Nworu, C.S.; Akah, P.A.; Esimone, C.O.; Okoli, C.O.; Okoye, F.B.C.(2008) Immunomodulatory Activities of
Kolaviron, a Mixture of Three Related Biflavonoids of Garcinia kola Heckel. Immunopharmacol.
Immunotoxicol.30, 317-332.xxxiii

Oboho, E. G. and Urughu, J. A. (2010), Effects of pre-germination treatments on the germination and
early growth of Garcinia kola (Heckel). African Journal of General Agriculture Vol. 6, No. 42 December
31, 2010.

33

Renuka, C. (2000): Status of rattan resources and uses in South Asia. In Non-wood forest product FAO 14
Rattan publ. J. D ransified, Tesoro, E. O., and Manokaran, N. (Eds). Pp 101- 114.

Taiwo, O., Xu, H. X. and Lee, S. E. (1999). Antibacterial activities of extracts from Nigerian chewing sticks.
Phytoter Res. 13(8): 675-679.
Thompson, K. (2000). The functional ecology of soil seed banks. In: Fenner M, ed. Seeds: the ecology of
regeneration in plant communities. Wallinford, UK: CAB International, 215- 235.

Termote, C.; Everaert, G.; Bwama Meyi, M.; Dhed'a Djailo, B.; Van Damme, P. (2012) Wild Edible Plant
Markets in Kisangani, Democratic Republic of Congo. Hum. Ecol. 40, 269- 285.xxxv

Pribyl, O.; Verner, V.; Degrande, A.; Foundjem-Tita, D.; Manourova, A.; Van Damme, P.. (2017); Market
survey of Garcinia kola (bitter kola) in Yaoundé city, Cameroon. In Proceedings of the Future Agriculture:
Socio-Ecological Transitions and Bio-Cultural Shifts, Bonn, Germany, 20-22 September 2017; p. 447.

Uko OJA, Usman A and Ataja AM (2001): Some biological activities of Garcinia kola in growing rats.
Veterinarski Arhiv 71: 287-297

Vleeshouwers, L. M., Bouwmeester, H. J. and Karssen, C. M. (1995). Redefining seed dormancy: An

attempt to integrate physiology and ecology. J. Ecol. 83. 1031-1037.

Russell, T. A. (1955). The kola of Nigeria and the Cameroons Tropical Agric., Trin., 32: 210- 240

Yakubu, F.B., Adejoh, O.P., Ogunade, J.O. and Igboanugo, A.B.I. (2014). Vegetative Propagation of
Garcinia kola(Heckel). World Journal of Agricultural Sciences 10 (3): 85-90, ISSN 1817-3047.

Yakubu, F.B., Bolanle-Ojo, O.T., Ogunade, O.J. and Yahaya, D.K. (2014). Effects of Water Soaking and
Light on the Dormancy Of Garcinia Kola (Heckel) Seeds. European Journal of Agriculture and Forestry
Research Vol.2, No.2, pp. 17-26, June 2014. ISSN 2054-6319 (Print), ISSN 2054-6327(online).

Ofor, M.O., Ngobili, C.A. and Nwufor, M.I. (2004): Ethno-botanical uses and trade characteristics of
Garcinia kola in Imo State, Nigeria. International Journal of Agricultural Rural Development, Vol. 5, 140-
144xxxiv
Ogu, E.O. and Agu, R.C. (1995). A comparison of some chemical properties of Garcinia kola and hops for
assessment of Garcinia brewing value, Bioresource Technol. 54 (1995) 1-4.

Okafor, J.C. (1991): Improving edible species of forest products. Unasylvia, vol. 42, no. 165, pp. 17-
22.xxxiv

Okwu, D.E.(2005) Phytochemicals, vitamins and mineral contents of two Nigerian medicinal

plants. Int. J. Mol. Med. Adv. Sci. 2005, 1, 375-381.

Olatunde FE, Akannni 00, Emerole GO (2002) Antioxidant and Scavenging Activities of Flavonoid Extract
(Kolaviron) of Garcinia Kola seeds. Phamaceut Biol 40:107-116.xxxiv

Orie, N. N. and Ekon, E. U. (1993). The bronchodilator effect of Garcinia kola. East Afr Med J. 70(3):143-
145.

Oludemokun, A. A. and McDonald, D. (1979). A survey of fungi associated with diseased trees and stored
nut of kola, Cola nitida (Vent). Schott and Endlicher, in the northern state of Nigeria. Nigeria Agricultural
Journal 16: 77-81.

Oluyemi KA, Omotuyi 10, Jimoh OR, Adesanya Olamide A, Saalu CL, Josiah SJ (2007). Erythropoietic and
anti-obesity effects of Garcinia cambogia (bitter kola) in Wistar rats. Biotechnol. Appl. Biochem. 46: 69-
72.

@nayade, O.A.; Looman, A.M.G.; Scheffer, J.J.: Gbile, Z.O.(1998) Lavender lactone and other velatile
constituents of the oleoresin from seeds of Garcinia kola Heckel. Flavour Fragr. J.13, 409-412.

Onasanwo, S.A.; Rotu, R.A.(2016) Antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory potentials of kolaviron:

Mechanisms of action. J. Basic Clin. Physiol. Pharmacol.27, 363-370.
Opeke, L. K. (1992). "Tropical tree crops, "Spectrum Books Ltd., Ibadan

Nachujor, C.O.; Udegbunam, R.I.: Ode, J.O.; Udegbunam, S.O. (2015) Analgesic anti- inflammatory anti-
pyretic activities of Garcinia hydroxybiflavanonol (GB1) from Garcinia kola. J. Korean Soc. Appl. Biol.
Chem. 58, 91–96.xxxiv

Olude

Onyekwelu, J.C.; Oyewale, O.; Stimm, B.; Mosandl, R.(2015) Antioxidant, nutritional and anti- nutritional
composition of Garcinia kola and Chrysophyllum albidum from rainforest ecosystem of Ondo State,
Nigeria. J. For. Res. 26, 417-424.

Raven, P.H., Ray, F. E., Susan, E. (2005) Biology of plants. 7th edditon. New York: W.H. freeman and
company publishers. Pp. 504-508

34