Chapter 1

Introduction to Signals and Systems

Input signal output signal

System
𝑥 𝑡 𝑦 𝑡

1
 Signals and Systems
• The concept and theory of signals and systems are needed in almost all engineering and scientific disciplines.
Examples of 1-D Signals

Speech Signal (oscillogram)

ECG signal f(t)

Examples of 2-D Signals

Gray-level Image Biomedical Image Color Image

• Intensity of the image at location (x, y) can be expressed as I x, 𝑦 . Two independent variables (x and y), the image
is a two-dimensional signal. 2
 Signals and Systems2
Speech signal from human voice
sound voice signal
vibrations

microphone

An electronic communications system

3
 Vision System

• The visual system includes both the eyes and the brain.

• Light (photons) enters the eye where it hits the retina area
and triggers light receptors.

• Then, electrical signals are sent through the optic nerve,

which travel to the back of the brain where the first stages of
visual perception take place.

• The brain then sends increasingly filtered signals forwards

through the brain until you can see them and take action.

4
 SIGNALS
• In electrical engineering, the fundamental quantity of representing some information is called a signal. Signals
may describe a wide variety of physical phenomena.

• Mathematically, a signal is a function 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑓(𝑡) that conveys some information. 𝑥 is the dependent variable
represented as a function of one or more independent variables (time 𝑡, space [𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧]).

Input signal output signal

System
𝑥 𝑡 𝑦 𝑡

𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑣𝑖 (𝑡) 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑣𝑜 (𝑡)

Electric circuit system

5
 CLASSIFICATION OF SIGNALS
1. Continuous-Time and Discrete-Time Signals
A continuous-time (CT) signal 𝑥 𝑡 is one that is present at all instants in
time or space.
A discrete-time (DT) signal 𝑥[𝑛] is only present at discrete points in time
or space (the signal between two successive samples does not exist). Continuous-Time Signal
Discrete-Time Signal
2. Analog and Digital Signals:
3. Real and Complex Signals: 𝒙 𝒕 = 𝒙𝟏 𝒕 + 𝒋 𝒙𝟐 (𝒕) where 𝒙𝟏 𝒕 and 𝒙𝟐 𝒕 are real signals and 𝑗 = −1
4. Deterministic and Random Signals:
• Deterministic signals have values completely specified for any given time and can be modeled by a known
function of time.
• Random signals take random values at any given time and must be characterized statistically.

5. Even and Odd Signals: 𝒙 −𝒕 is the reflected version of 𝒙 𝒕 even signals

Same when flipped
𝒙 𝒕 is even signal if 𝒙 −𝒕 = 𝒙 𝒕 (𝒙 −𝒏 = 𝒙[𝒏]) Or reflected, symmetric

𝒙 𝒕 is odd signal if 𝒙 −𝒕 = −𝒙 𝒕 (𝒙 −𝒏 = −𝒙[𝒏])

odd signal is identical to its time-reversed counterpart about the origin odd signals
reversed when flipped
A general signal can be written as
𝒙 𝒕 = 𝒙𝒆 𝒕 + 𝒙𝒐 (𝒕) 𝟏 𝟏
with 𝒙𝒆 𝒕 = [𝒙 𝒕 + 𝒙(−𝒕)] and 𝒙𝒐 𝒕 = [𝒙 𝒕 − 𝒙(−𝒕)]
𝒙 −𝒕 = 𝒙𝒆 𝒕 − 𝒙𝒐 (𝒕) 𝟐 𝟐 6
 CLASSIFICATION OF SIGNALS
Example: Decomposition a signal into Even and Odd parts

𝟏 𝟏
𝒙[𝒏] 𝒙[−𝒏]
𝟐 𝟐
0.5 0.5

𝟎 𝟎

𝟏 𝟏
𝒙 𝒏 = 𝒙𝒆 𝒏 + 𝒙𝒐 𝒏 𝒙𝒆 𝒏 = [𝒙 𝒏 + 𝒙 −𝒏 ] 𝒙𝒐 𝒏 = [𝒙 𝒏 − 𝒙 −𝒏 ]
𝟐 𝟐

= +

7
Matlab Decomposition a signal into Even and Odd parts

8
 sin
CLASSIFICATION OF SIGNALS2
cos
6. Periodic and Non-periodic Signals:
Continuous Discrete
𝒙 𝒕 (or 𝒙[𝒏]) is periodic with period T (or N) if
The fundamental period T of 𝒙 𝒕 is the smallest
positive value of T such that 𝒙 𝒕 + 𝒎𝑻 = 𝒙 𝒕 ⋮
𝒙 𝒕+𝑻 =𝒙 𝒕 𝑻>𝟎
1
The frequency: 𝑓 = 𝑇 𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 = 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑧 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠/𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝒙 𝒏 + 𝑵 = 𝒙[𝒏] with N must be integer
2𝜋 2𝜋
𝐸𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒: 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑇 = 0.1𝑠 ⇒ 𝑓 = 10 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑧 10 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠/𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 = 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 =
𝑇 𝑁
Examples: Determine whether each of the following signals are periodic:
1. 𝑥 𝑡 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑡 + 𝜋ൗ5 3 𝑚
2.𝑥 𝑛 = cos(3𝑛) → 𝜔 = 3 = 2𝜋 = 2𝜋 → 𝑁 = 2𝜋
2𝜋 𝑁
This signal is a CT sinusoid, so it is periodic. Its Not a Rational number
fundamental angular frequency is 2 rad/sec and 2
Since 𝜋 is irrational ∄ 𝑚 ∈ ℤ 𝑠. 𝑡. 3 𝑚𝜋 ∈ ℤ+
hence its fundamental period is
1
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑 with 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 = 2𝜋 𝑇 Therefore, 𝑥 𝑛 is not periodic.
2𝜋 2𝜋 5𝜋 5𝜋 (5) 𝑚
𝑇= = =𝜋 𝑇=𝜋 3. 𝑥 𝑛 = cos
5𝜋
𝑛 → 𝜔= = 2𝜋 = 2𝜋 = 2𝜋
𝜔 2 31 31 31 2𝜋 62 𝑁
Are Related and have
cos 𝜔𝑛 , sin 𝜔𝑛 , 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑛
same frequency 𝜔 → 𝑁 = 62 therefore, 𝑥 𝑛 is periodic. 9
𝑒 𝑗𝜃 = cos 𝜃 + 𝑗 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
 CLASSIFICATION OF SIGNALS3
7. Energy and Power Signals:
Continuous Discrete
∞
Total Energy: 𝐸∞of 𝒙 𝒕 : 𝐸∞ = ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑥(𝑡) 2 𝑑𝑡 (𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠) ∞

𝐸∞ = ෍ 𝑥[𝑛] 2
1 𝑇
Total averaged Power: 𝑃∞ of 𝒙 𝒕 : 𝑃∞ = lim ‫׬‬ 𝑥(𝑡) 2 𝑑𝑡 (𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠) 𝑛=−∞
𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 −𝑇
𝐸∞ 𝑁
𝒙 𝒕 is an energy signal if 0 < 𝐸∞ < ∞ then 𝑃∞ = lim =0 Signals with finite total energy 1
𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 2
𝑃∞ = lim ෍ 𝑥[𝑛]
𝑁→∞ 2𝑁 + 1
𝒙 𝒕 is a power signal if 0 < 𝑃∞ < ∞ then 𝐸∞ = ∞ Signals with finite average power 𝑛=−𝑁

𝒙 𝒕 can be with neither 𝐸∞ nor 𝑃∞ finite.

𝑢 𝑡 𝜋 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝛼 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛼 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛼
Example: 𝑥 𝑡 =𝑒 −2𝑡
𝑢 𝑡
1 Example: 𝑥 𝑛 = cos 𝑛 1 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛼 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛼
𝑡 4
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ 𝜋
1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≥ 0 −2𝑡 𝑒 −2𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≥ 0 𝜋 2 𝜋 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛
2
𝑢 𝑡 =ቊ 𝑒 𝑢 𝑡 =ቊ 𝐸∞ = ෍ 𝑥[𝑛] 2
= ෍ cos 𝑛 = ෍ cos 2 𝑛 = ෍
0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 < 0 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 < 0 𝑛=−∞ 𝑛=−∞
4
𝑛=−∞
4 2
𝑛=−∞
∞ 𝜋 ∞ ∞
1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛 1
∞ ∞ ∞
1 −4𝑡 ∞ 1 𝐸∞ = ෍ + ෍ 2 =∞ ෍ =∞
2
𝐸∞ = න 𝑥(𝑡) 2 𝑑𝑡 = න 𝑒 −2𝑡 𝑢(𝑡) 2
𝑑𝑡 = න 𝑒 −4𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑒 ቚ = 2 2 𝑛=−∞
−∞ −∞ 0 −4 0 4 𝑛=−∞ 𝑛=−∞
𝑁 𝑁 𝜋
1 1 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛
1 𝑇 1 −4𝑡 𝑇 1 𝑃∞ = lim ෍ 𝑥[𝑛] 2
= lim ෍ 2
𝑃∞ = lim න 𝑥(𝑡) 2 𝑑𝑡 = lim 𝑒 ቚ = lim 𝑒 −4𝑇 − 𝑒 0 = 0 𝑁→∞ 2𝑁 + 1 𝑁→∞ 2𝑁 + 1 2
𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 −𝑇 𝑇→∞ −8𝑇 0 𝑇→∞ −8𝑇 𝑛=−𝑁 𝑛=−𝑁
𝑁 𝑁 𝜋 Sum of cos on a period is zero
1 1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛 1
𝑃∞ = lim ෍ + ෍ 2 = 𝑁
𝐸 1 𝑁 1 𝑁 2𝑁 + 1
or 𝑃∞ = lim ∞ =0 𝑃∞ is zero, because 𝐸∞ < ∞ 𝑁→∞ 2𝑁 + 1 2 2
𝑛=−𝑁 𝑛=−𝑁
2 ෍ = + + =
2 2 2 2 2
𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 𝑛=−𝑁
Energy signal Power signal 10
 Transformation of the independent Variable
A general form of transformation of independent variable is 𝒙(𝒂𝒕 + 𝒃), where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are given numbers.
1 Time shift (𝐚 = 1, 𝐛 ≠ 0): 𝒙(𝒕 + 𝒃), 2 Time reversal (Reflection) 𝐚 = −𝟏 3 Time Scaling
The original and the shifted signals are The time-scaled signal 𝑥(𝑎𝑡) is
The reflected signal 𝑥(−𝑡) or obtained from the signal 𝑥(𝑡) by
identical in shape, but they are displaced
𝑥[−𝑛] is obtained from the multiplying the time variable by a
or shifted relative to each other (delayed
signal 𝑥(𝑡) or 𝑥[𝑛]by a constant 𝑎
or advanced).
reflection about 𝑡 = 0 or 𝑛 = 0
𝑏 > 0 𝑥 𝑡 = ቊ1 𝑡 ≥ 0 𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙
0 𝑡<0

𝑥[𝑛] 𝑥[−𝑛]
1 𝑡+𝑏 ≥0 1 𝑡 ≥ −𝑏
𝑥 𝑡+𝑏 =ቊ
0 𝑡+𝑏 <0
=ቊ
0 𝑡 < −𝑏 𝑎𝑑𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑑

1 𝑡−𝑏 ≥0 1 𝑡≥𝑏
𝑥 𝑡−𝑏 =ቊ =ቊ 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑦𝑒𝑑
0 𝑡−𝑏 <0 0 𝑡<𝑏

𝑥(𝑡 − 𝑏)
𝑥(𝑡)
𝑥(𝑡 + 𝑏) 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑥(−𝑡)
0 0 𝑡 0 𝑏 𝑡
−𝑏
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑑𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑦𝑒𝑑

Such signals arise in applications such radar, if 𝑎 > 1 : Compressing in time

sonar and seismic signal processing. Shifted
signal due to the transmission time. if 𝑎 < 1 : Stretching in time 11
 Transformation of the independent Variable2

Example1: Time Shift The signal 𝑥(𝑡 + 1) can be obtained by shifting 𝑥 𝑡 to the left by one unit

Example2: Time reversal The signal 𝑥(−𝑡 + 1) can be obtained from 𝑥 𝑡 using the mathematical definition
0 𝑡<0
1 0≤𝑡<1
𝑥 𝑡 =
2−𝑡 1≤𝑡<2
0 𝑡≥2

0 −𝑡+1<0
1 0 ≤ −𝑡 + 1 < 1
𝑥 −𝑡 + 1 =
2 − (−𝑡 + 1) 1 < −𝑡 + 1 < 2
0 −𝑡+1≥2

0 𝑡>1
1 0≤𝑡<1 First plot 𝑥(𝑡 + 1), then reflect.
𝑥 −𝑡 + 1 =
1+𝑡 −1≤𝑡 <0
0 𝑡 ≤ −1
12
 Transformation of the independent Variable3
3 3 1 2
Example3: Time Compression Find 𝑥( 𝑡) ( 𝑎 = > 1 linear compression by a factor of = 3)
2 2 (3Τ2)

Matlab

13
 BASIC SIGNALS 𝒖 𝒏−𝟏
⋯
1. The Unit Step signal (Heaviside unit function ): 𝒖[𝒏]
𝒖 𝒕
𝟏 𝒕>𝟎 𝟏 𝒏≥𝟎
𝒖 𝒕 =ቊ 𝒖[𝒏] = ቊ
𝟎 𝒕<𝟎 𝟎 𝒏<𝟎

2. The Unit Impulse signal (Dirac delta function): 𝜹[𝒏]

∞ 𝒕=𝟎 𝜹 𝒕
𝜹 𝒕 =ቊ 𝟏 𝒏=𝟎
𝟎 𝒕≠𝟎 Amplitude infinite
and area one 𝜹[𝒏] = ቊ
0+ → 𝟎 𝒏≠𝟎
න 𝜹 𝒕 𝑑𝑡 = 1
0− 𝒕

properties of 𝜹 𝒕 𝒙 𝒏 𝜹[𝒏] = 𝒙[𝟎]𝜹[𝒏] 𝒙 𝒏 𝜹[𝒏 − 𝒌] = 𝒙[𝒌]𝜹[𝒏 − 𝒌]

𝜹 −𝒕 = 𝜹 𝒕 𝜹 𝒏 = 𝒖 𝒏 − 𝒖[𝒏 − 𝟏] ⋯
∞ Difference Equation
𝑡
𝟏 𝒕>𝟎 𝒖 𝒏 = ෍ 𝜹[𝒏 − 𝒌]
𝑢 𝑡 = න 𝜹 𝒕 𝑑𝑡 = ቊ
−∞ 𝟎 𝒕<𝟎 𝒌=𝟎 any sequence 𝒙 𝒏 can be expressed
∞
𝒅𝒖(𝒕) 𝒖 𝒏 = 𝜹 𝒏 +𝜹 𝒏−𝟏 +𝜹 𝒏−𝟐 +⋯
→ 𝜹 𝒕 = 𝒙 𝒏 = ෍ 𝒙 𝒌14𝜹[𝒏 − 𝒌]
𝒅𝒕 𝒌=−∞
3. Sinusoidal Signals:
BASIC SIGNALS3 𝒙 𝒕
Angular Frequency Phase
2𝜋
period 𝑇0 = Amplitude
(pulsation)
time
𝜔0
𝒙 𝒕 has a 1
fundamental frequency 𝑓0 = 𝑇 𝒙 𝒕 = 𝑨 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒐 𝒕 + 𝜽 𝒕
0

angular frequency 𝜔0 = 2𝜋𝑓0

Sinusoidal Sequences: 𝒙 𝒏 = 𝑨 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝛀𝒐 𝒏 + 𝜽

4. Complex Exponential Signals: the general form is 𝒙 𝒕 = 𝑪 𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒔 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒍 < 𝟎 𝒔 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒍 > 𝟎

Using Euler's formula (𝒆𝒋𝜽 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 + 𝒋 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝜽) )

Envelop Sinusoid 𝒙 𝒕 = 𝑪 𝒆𝒔𝒕 = 𝑪 𝒆 𝝈+𝒋𝝎 𝒕

= 𝑪𝒆𝝈𝒕 𝒆𝒋𝝎𝒕
𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆𝒙 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉
𝒙 𝒕 = 𝑪𝒆(𝝈+𝒋𝝎)𝒕 = 𝑪𝒆𝝈𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒕 + 𝒋 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝝎𝒕) is a complex signal 𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆𝒙 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕 > 𝟎
2𝜋 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕 < 𝟎
𝒙 𝒕 is periodic with fundamental period 𝑇 = 𝜔
Complex Exponential Sequences Positive integer
2𝜋
𝒙 𝒏 = 𝑪𝒆𝝈𝒏 𝒆𝒋𝛀𝒐 𝒏 = 𝑪𝒆𝝈𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝛀𝒐 𝒏 + 𝒋 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝛀𝒐 𝒏) Period 𝑁 = 𝑚
𝛀 𝒐
Fundamental Period and Frequency
2𝜋
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑤𝑜 𝑡 + 𝜃 with 𝑤𝑜 = 2𝜋𝐹0 =
𝑇0

16
Signal plot

17
 SYSTEMS
• A system is a mathematical model of a physical process (an interconnection of components,
devices, or subsystems) that transforms an input signal (excitation, single or multiple) into an
output signal (response, single or multiple).
SISO MIMO
input signal Output signal

The general from of causal LTI system of order N

System with single input and output signals System with multiple input and output signals

Example 1: RC circuit Example 2: An automobile

System
An automobile with mass 𝑚 responding to an applied force 𝑓(𝑡)
(input) from the engine and to a retarding frictional force 𝑓𝜌 = 𝜌𝑣(𝑡)
𝒙 𝒕 𝒗𝑹 𝒕 𝒊 𝒕 𝒚 𝒕 = 𝒗𝒄 (𝒕)
proportional to the automobile's velocity 𝑣 𝑡 (Output).
𝑑𝑣(𝑡)
input signal 𝒗𝒄 𝒕
output signal ෍ 𝐹Ԧ = 𝑚 𝑥ሷ 𝑡 = 𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑣(𝑡)
output signal
𝑑𝑡 input signal
𝒅𝒗(𝒕) 𝒙 𝒕 =𝒇 𝒕 System 𝒚 𝒕 = 𝒗 𝒕
→ 𝒎 = 𝒇 𝒕 − 𝑓𝜌 (𝒕) 𝑚
𝟏 𝒅𝒗𝒄 𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝒚 𝒕 = 𝒗𝒄 𝒕 = න 𝒊 𝒕 𝒅𝒕 → 𝒊 𝒕 = 𝑪
𝑪 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒗(𝒕) 𝜌 1
𝒅𝒚 𝒕 → + 𝑣 𝒕 = 𝒇 𝒕
𝒙 𝒕 = 𝑹 𝒊 𝒕 + 𝒚 𝒕 = 𝑹𝑪 + 𝒚(𝒕) 𝒅𝒕 𝒎 𝒎
𝒅𝒕
differential equation
𝒅𝒚(𝒕) 𝜌 1 describing the relationship
𝒅𝒚(𝒕) 𝟏 𝟏 differential equation → + 𝑦 𝒕 = 𝒙 𝒕 between 𝒇(𝒕) and 𝒗(𝒕)
→ + 𝒚 𝒕 = 𝒙(𝒕) describing the relationship 𝒅𝒕 𝒎 𝒎 18
𝒅𝒕 𝑹𝑪 𝑹𝑪 between 𝒙(𝒕) and 𝒚(𝒕)
 CLASSIFICATION OF SYSTEMS
1. Continuous-Time and Discrete-Time Systems:
If the input and output signals are continuous-time signals, then the system is called a Discrete System with single input and output signals
continuous-time system. If the input and output signals are discrete-time signals or sequences,
then the system is called a discrete-time system.
2. Systems with Memory and without Memory
A system is memoryless (instantaneous system) if its output at any time depends Continuous System with single input and output signals

only at that same time. Otherwise, the system is said to have memory.
𝒙 𝒕
Memoryless system: A resistor R with a current as input 𝒙 𝒕 𝒚 𝒕 = 𝒗𝑪 𝒕
𝒙(𝒕)and a voltage as output 𝒚(𝒕) 𝒚 𝒕 = 𝒗𝑹 𝒕

𝒚 𝒏 = 𝟐 𝒙 𝒏 − 𝒙𝟐 [𝒏] Memoryless system

system with memory: a capacitor C with the current as 𝟏 𝒕
𝒚 𝒕 = 𝑹 𝒙(𝒕) 𝒚 𝒕 = න 𝒙(𝝉)dτ
input 𝒙(𝒕) and voltage as output 𝒚(𝒕) 𝑪 −∞
Needs only actual time input
𝒏 Needs actual and past time inputs
the accumulator 𝒚 𝒏 = ෍ 𝒙 𝒌 = 𝒚 𝒏 − 𝟏 + 𝒙[𝒏] Non-causal systems
𝒌=−∞ 𝒚[𝒏] = 𝒙[𝒏 + 𝟐] 𝒚[𝒏] = 𝒙[−𝒏]
3. Causal and Non-causal Systems: 𝒚 𝒕 = 𝒙(𝒕 + 𝟏)

A system is causal if the output at any time depends causal systems the current value of the input x(t) influences the
current value of the output y(t)
only on values of the input at the present time and in 𝒚 𝒕 = 𝒙 𝒕 + 𝒙(𝒕 − 𝟏)
the past (non-anticipative of future values of the input). 𝒚 𝒕 = 𝒙 𝒕 ∙ 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝒕 + 𝟏)
19
All memoryless systems are causal, but not vice versa. 𝒚[𝒏] = 𝒙[𝒏 − 𝟐]
 CLASSIFICATION OF SYSTEMS2
4. lnvertibility and Inverse Systems:
A system is said to be invertible if distinct inputs lead to distinct outputs.
Examples:
• an invertible continuous-time system is 𝒚 𝒕 = 𝒌 𝒙 𝒕
𝟏
𝒚 𝒕 = 𝒌 𝒙 𝒕 → 𝒘 𝒕 = 𝒙 𝒕 = 𝒚(𝒕) 𝟏
𝒌 𝒚 𝒕 = 𝒙(𝒕)
• a Non-invertible continuous-time system is 𝒚 𝒕 = 𝒙𝟐 𝒕 𝒌
we cannot determine the sign of the input from knowledge of the output.

• the accumulator (invertible)

• Non-invertible 𝒚 𝒕 = 𝟎 For different inputs 𝒙 𝒕 the output 𝒚 𝒕 is zero

5. Linear Systems and Nonlinear Systems:

A system is linear if it possesses the property of superposition (Homogeneity and additivity)

𝒚𝟏 𝒕
𝒙𝟏 𝒕
System 𝒚𝟐 𝒕
𝒙𝟐 𝒕
𝒂 𝒚𝟏 𝒕 + 𝒃𝒚𝟐 𝒕
𝒂 𝒙𝟏 𝒕 + 𝒃𝒙𝟐 𝒕
20
 CLASSIFICATION OF SYSTEMS3
6. Time-Invariant and Time-Varying Systems:
A system is called time-invariant if a time shift (delay or advance) in the input signal causes the same time shift in the output
signal (behavior and characteristics of the system are fixed over time).

𝒙 𝒕−𝝉 System 𝒚 𝒕−𝝉

If the system is linear and time-invariant, then it is called a Linear Time-Invariant system (LTI system).

7. Stability
A system is bounded-input/bounded-output (BIBO) stable if for any bounded input 𝒙 ( 𝒙 ≤ 𝑘1 ) the corresponding output y is
also bounded ( y ≤ 𝑘2 ). A stable system is one in which small inputs lead to responses that do not diverge.
Examples: unstable. stable.

𝒚 𝒕 = 𝒕 𝒙(𝒕) 𝒚 𝒕 = 𝒆𝒙(𝒕)

For bounded input (𝒙 𝒕 = 𝟏) the output For bounded input 𝒙(𝒕) < 𝑩 the output 𝒆−𝑩 < 𝒚(𝒕) < 𝒆𝑩
𝒚 𝒕 = 𝒕 unbounded. bounded.

21
 Example 6 (Time Invariance)
1. 𝑇 𝑥[𝑛] = 5𝑥[𝑛 − 10]
5𝑥[𝑛 − 10]
𝑥[𝑛] T 𝑦𝐴 𝑛 = 5𝑥 𝑛 − 10 − 𝑛0
𝑆ℎ𝑖𝑓𝑡
𝑥[𝑛 − 𝑛0 ]
𝑆ℎ𝑖𝑓𝑡 T 𝑦𝐵 𝑛 = 5𝑥 𝑛 − 𝑛0 − 10

𝑦𝐴 𝑛 = 𝑦𝐵 𝑛 ∀ 𝑛 ⇔ 𝑇 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑡

𝑥[𝑛]ൗ The system divide the input by n

2. 𝑇 𝑥[𝑛] = 𝑛
𝑥 𝑛 /𝑛
𝑥[𝑛] T 𝑦𝐴 𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛 − 𝑛0 /(𝑛 − 𝑛0 )
𝑆ℎ𝑖𝑓𝑡
𝑥[𝑛 − 𝑛0 ]
𝑆ℎ𝑖𝑓𝑡 T 𝑦𝐵 𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛 − 𝑛0 /𝑛 The system divide the input by n

𝑦𝐴 𝑛 ≠ 𝑦𝐵 𝑛 ⟹ 𝑇 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑡

CEN352 Dr. Nassim Ammour King Saud University 22

 Example 5 (Linearity)
1. 𝑇 𝑥[𝑛] = 5𝑥[𝑛 − 10]
5𝑥1 [𝑛 − 10]
𝑥1 [𝑛] 𝑎1 5𝑥1 [𝑛 − 10]
T 𝑎1
5𝑥2 [𝑛 − 10] Σ 𝑦𝐴 𝑛 = 𝑎1 5𝑥1 𝑛 − 10 + 𝑎2 5𝑥2 [𝑛 − 10]
𝑥2 [𝑛] T 𝑎2
𝑎2 5𝑥2 [𝑛 − 10]
𝑦𝐴 𝑛 = 𝑦𝐵 𝑛 ∀ 𝑛 ⇔ 𝑇 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
𝑎1 𝑥1 [𝑛]
𝑎1
Σ T 𝑦𝐵 𝑛 = 5(𝑎1 𝑥1 𝑛 − 10 + 𝑎2 𝑥2 𝑛 − 10 )
𝑎1 𝑥1 𝑛 + 𝑎2 𝑥2 [𝑛]
𝑎2
𝑎2 𝑥2 [𝑛]

2. 𝑇 𝑥[𝑛] = 𝑥[𝑛] 2 𝑥1 [𝑛] 2

𝑥1 [𝑛] 𝑎1 𝑥1 [𝑛] 2
T 𝑎1
𝑦𝐴 𝑛 = 𝑎1 𝑥1 [𝑛] 2 + 𝑎2 𝑥2 [𝑛] 2
𝑥2 [𝑛] 2 Σ
𝑥2 [𝑛] T 𝑎2
𝑎2 𝑥2 [𝑛] 2
𝑦𝐴 𝑛 ≠ 𝑦𝐵 𝑛 ⟹ 𝑇 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟
𝑎1 𝑥1 [𝑛]
𝑎1
Σ T 𝑦𝐵 𝑛 = 𝑎1 𝑥1 𝑛 + 𝑎2 𝑥2 [𝑛] 2
𝑎1 𝑥1 𝑛 + 𝑎2 𝑥2 [𝑛] = 𝑎1 2 𝑥1 𝑛 2 + 𝑎2 2 𝑥2 𝑛 2 + 2𝑎1 𝑎2 . 𝑥1 𝑛 . 𝑥2 [𝑛]
𝑎2
𝑎2 𝑥2 [𝑛] 23
CEN352 Dr. Nassim Ammour King Saud University
 Interconnections of Systems
• Many real systems are built as interconnections of several subsystems.

Interconnection of two systems parallel interconnection

series (cascade) interconnection

Feedback interconnection
series-parallel interconnection

24
 Background on complex numbers

• Cartesian (rectangular) Form: 𝑧 =𝑥+𝑗𝑦 𝑗 = −1

𝑟=𝑧 = 𝑥2 + 𝑦2

𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
Magnitude of z

• Polar form: 𝑧 = 𝑟 𝑒 𝑗𝜃 𝜃 = atan(𝑦/𝑥) Phase (argument) of z

𝑟 cos 𝜃

𝑧 = 2𝑒 𝑗𝜋Τ4 = 𝑧 𝑒 𝑗𝜃 = 2 cos 𝜋Τ4 + 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜋Τ4 =1+𝑗

• Examples:
𝑧 =1+𝑗 = 12 + 12 𝑒 𝑗 atan(1/1) = 2𝑒 𝑗𝜋Τ4 = 2 cos 𝜋Τ4 + 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜋Τ4

• Euler formula: 𝑒 𝑗𝜃 = cos 𝜃 + 𝑗 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃)

Polar form is more convenient for multiplication and divisions

Cartesian form is more convenient for addition ad subtraction
25
Taylor series: approximation of 𝑓 𝑥 = σ∞ 𝑛 2
𝑛=0 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 + ⋯

𝑓′′ 0 𝑓(3) 0 𝑓(4) 0 𝑓 (𝑛) 0

with 𝑎0 = 𝑓 0 , 𝑎1 = 𝑓 ′ 0 , 𝑎2 = , 𝑎3 = , 𝑎4 = ,… 𝑎𝑛 =
2 2×3 2×3×4 𝑛!
Examples
cos(0)
𝑓 𝑥 = sin 𝑥 : 𝑎0 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 0 = 0, 𝑎1 = =1
1!
−𝑠𝑖𝑛(0) −cos(0) −1
𝑎2 = = 0, 𝑎3 = =
2! 3! 3! 𝑎2𝑛 = 0
𝑠𝑖𝑛(0) cos(0) 1 ൞ (−1)𝑛
𝑎4 = = 0, 𝑎5 = = 𝑎2𝑛+1 =
4! 3! 5! (2𝑛 + 1)!
∞
𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥7
(−1)𝑛 2𝑛+1
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑥 − + − +⋯=෍ 𝑥
3! 5! 7! 2𝑛 + 1 !
𝑛=0

The Euler’s formula: can be easily derived using the Taylor series

𝑥2 𝑥4 𝑥3 𝑥5
𝑒 𝑖𝑥 = 1− + −⋯ +𝑖 𝑥− + −⋯
2! 4! 3! 5!