COMMERCIAL DATABASE

 A commercial database is a key resource in various industries, designed to offer comprehensive, up-to-date
information to organizations for decision making, research, and analysis. These databases are typically managed
by professional firms that collect, organize, and maintain vast datasets, offering detailed insights and analytics
that are otherwise hard to compile manually.

TYPES OF A COMMERCIAL DATABASE

 Market Research Database - These databases offer in depth reports on industries, companies, market trends, and
consumer behavior.

 Financial Database - Provide data on company financials, stock prices, economic indicators, and corporate
performance metrics.

 Business Information Database - These databases store detailed profiles of companies, including revenue, key
personnel, industry ranking, and contact information.

 Healthcare Database - These databases are used for clinical research, drug information, healthcare trends, and
patient demographics.

 Legal and Regulatory Databases - Legal databases provide access to case law, statutes, regulations, and legal
news, while regulatory databases focus on compliance and governance requirements.

 Academic and Research Database - These databases store research papers, journals, books, and theses,
catering primarily to academics and researchers.

Key Features of Commercial Databases

 Search and Retrieval - Most commercial databases provide advanced search functionalities, allowing users to
filter, sort, and retrieve data based on specific criteria like industry, region, revenue, or other custom fields.

 Data Export and Integration - Users can often export data into spreadsheets, presentations, or databases for
further analysis.

 Data Analytics and Insights - Many commercial databases offer analytical tools, enabling users to generate
visualizations, forecasts, or trends based on the raw data.

 Regular Updates - These databases are constantly updated to reflect new data, ensuring that users have access
to the latest information.

 Customization and Alerts - Users can set up custom alerts for specific events, such as changes in stock prices,
new legal rulings, or updates on competitors.

WHY USE A COMMERCIAL DATABASE?

 TIME EFFICIENCY - Commercial databases save users the time and effort required to manually compile and verify
large datasets. They aggregate information from various sources into one platform.

 ACCURACY AND RELIABILITY - Since these databases are maintained by professionals, they offer high-quality
 data that is generally more reliable than freely available information.

 COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGE - Access to exclusive data on markets, competitors, and industries can give
businesses a competitive edge, enabling them to make informed decisions ahead of the market.

 RISK MANAGEMENT - Commercial databases often offer risk assessments, credit reports, and business analysis
that help organizations avoid risky partnerships or investment decisions.

Industries Relying on Commercial Databases

 FINANCE - Investors, banks, and financial analysts rely on databases like Bloomberg and Reuters for stock
market information, economic forecasts, and corporate financials.

 HEALTHCARE - Pharmaceutical companies and healthcare providers use databases for drug information, patient
demographics, and healthcare trends.

 MARKETING AND SALES - Business development teams use commercial databases to generate leads,
understand market dynamics, and create targeted marketing campaigns.

 LEGAL - Lawyers, legal researchers, and compliance officers use legal databases like Westlaw and LexisNexis to
access case law and ensure regulatory compliance.

 ACADEMIA - Researchers and scholars use academic databases to access journals, papers, and research
materials for their work.

CHALLENGES OF USING COMMERCIAL DATABASES

 Cost - Subscription fees can be expensive, especially for comprehensive databases that provide in-depth reports
or real-time data.

 Privacy and Compliance - Depending on the type of data accessed, users may need to be mindful of legal
considerations such as data privacy laws.

 Learning Curve - Some commercial databases can be complex, requiring users to invest time in learning how to
effectively search for and use the data.

 Data Overload - With the vast amount of data available, it can sometimes be overwhelming to find exactly what is
needed without a strong understanding of the database’s tools and features.

RELATIONAL DATABASE

A relational database is a type of database that organizes data into rows and columns, which collectively form a table
where the data points are related to each other.
ACID PROPERTIES

 ATOMICITY - All changes to data are performed as if they are a single operation. That is, all the changes are
performed, or none of them are.

 CONSISTENCY - Data remains in a consistent state from state to finish, reinforcing data integrity.

 ISOLATION - The intermediate state of a transaction is not visible to other transactions, and as a result,
transactions that run concurrently appear to be serialized.

 DURABILITY - After the successful completion of a transaction, changes to data persist and are not undone, even
in the event of a system failure. These properties enable reliable transaction processing.

Operational Database

 also known as an Online Transaction Processing (OLTP) system.

 optimized for handling transactional workloads and supporting day-to-day business operations.

 designed to process high volumes of data in real-time, ensuring rapid response times for various business
activities

 designed to allow users to easily define, modify, retrieve, and manage data in real-time.

FIVE KEY FEATURES OF OPERATIONAL DATABASE

 Real-time Processing - ideal for real-time or near-real-time data processing. They provide immediate responses to
user requests which makes them a great fit for applications that need quick access to transactional data.

 Normalized Data Structure - minimize data redundancy and maintain data integrity. This includes organizing data
into smaller, related tables and establishing relationships between them using keys (e.g., primary keys and foreign
keys)

 Concurrent Access - access by multiple users or processes. Multiple users can interact with the database
simultaneously and the database system ensures data consistency and integrity through mechanisms like locking
and transaction isolation levels

 High Transaction Volume - handle a high transaction. These transactions can include inserting, updating, deleting,
and retrieving individual records or small sets of records. They are optimized for rapid, short-duration transactions
and are capable of processing numerous transactions per second

 Data Consistency and ACID Compliance - adhere to the ACID (Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, Durability)
properties to maintain data integrity and reliability, even when the system fails. These properties guarantee that
database transactions are executed in a way that ensures data consistency and prevents data anomalies.

FIVE FUNCTIONS OF OPERATIONAL DATABASE

 Indexing and Cataloging - indexing divides data into primary, secondary and clustered indexes so that it can be
easily retrieved; cataloging assigns key attributes to files so that they can be recalled effectively.
  Query Processing - in an instant, queries input by the user are translated into simple instructions, then analyzed,
evaluated, and optimized; then relevant data is extracted from the database and presented to the user.

 Replication - copies and stores data at multiple locations to lower latency and provide resilience.

 File Storage and Structure - files are sorted and stored at relevant locations to help simplify complex use case.

 Transactions Support - ensures the operational database is working consistently in a steady-state, in a

WHY OPERATIONAL DATABASE IS USED?

 Support multiple users and applications

 Support real-time transactions and queries

 Store and manage transactional data

 Improve decision making

 Ensure data integrity and reliability

WHY IS AN OPERATIONAL DATABASE IS IMPORTANT

 Real-time Data Processing - Operational Databases process transactions in real-time, allowing businesses to
have up-to-date information and respond quickly to customer needs.

 High Performance - These databases are optimized for fast data retrieval and transaction processing, ensuring
low latency and high throughput.

 Scalability - Modern Operational Databases can scale horizontally by adding more servers to handle growing
workloads, ensuring that businesses can accommodate increasing data volumes and transaction rates.

 Integration with Application - Operational Databases seamlessly integrate with various applications, allowing
them to retrieve and update data in real-time.

 Data Integrity and Consistency - Operational Databases enforce data integrity rules, validation checks, and
concurrency control mechanisms to ensure the accuracy and consistency of the stored data.

ADVANTAGES OF OPERATIONAL DATABASE

 Real-time data and insights - Operational databases provide organizations with real-time data and insights, which
can be used to make informed business decisions and improve the overall efficiency of the organization.

 Improved data integrity and reliability - Operational databases are designed to be highly reliable and efficient,
with built-in mechanisms to ensure data integrity and accuracy. This ensures that the data stored in the database
is always accurate and up-to-date.

 Reduced data duplication and errors - Operational databases store and manage the transactional data of the
organization in a centralized and standardized way, which reduces data duplication and errors. This can help to
 improve the overall accuracy and reliability of the data.

 Increased operational efficiency - Operational databases support fast, realtime transactions and queries, which
help organizations to run their operations more efficiently and effectively.

 Enhanced collaboration and coordination - Operational databases are typically accessed by multiple users and
applications within the organization, which allows them to share data and collaborate on projects.

DISADVANTAGES OF OPERATIONAL DATABASES

 High maintenance and operational costs - Operational databases require regular maintenance and support,
which can be costly for organizations.

 Compatibility issues - Operational databases may not be compatible with other systems and applications, which
can limit their interoperability and integration with other systems.

 Limited scalability - Operational databases are designed to support fast, real-time transactions and queries,
which can limit their scalability and flexibility.

 Potential security risks - Operational databases store and manage sensitive transactional data, which can be
vulnerable to security risks if not properly protected.

 Complexity and expertise required - Operational databases are typically complex and require specialized
expertise to set up and maintain. This can be a challenge for organizations that do not have the necessary
resources and expertise in-house.

CENTRALIZED DATABASE
A Centralized Database is a structured collection of data that is stored and managed in a single location. This location is
typically a powerful server or a cluster of servers, and it serves as the central repository for all the data. In this model, all
operations related to the database, including storage, retrieval, and management, are performed at this central location.

WHAT ARE CENTRALIZED DATABASES USE FOR

Centralized databases are often used by organizations to store data that is shared by many users. These are used for
storing customer information, inventory data, financial records, and more.

They can be used by small businesses or large enterprises. When compared to other databases, they offer a number of
benefits over other types of databases.

Centralized database can be accessed by anyone with the proper permissions. This means that multiple people can work
on the same data at the same time, which can be a huge time-saver.

It also allows for better collaboration, as people can easily share data and ideas reliably.

This is because they are hosted on servers that are designed to be up and running all the time. This means that if one
server goes down, the others can still be accessed.
FUNCTIONS OF CENTRALIZED DATABASE

 Distributed query processing - The basic function of centralized database management system is to provide
facility and give access to all the connected computers which fulfill all requirements requested by any single node.

 Single central unit - All the data and information are stored in single centralized database management system.
The computer system which fulfills the requirements of all the connected computers is known as server and other
computers are known as clients.

 Transparency - All the queries are processed in a single computer system also known as server. There is no
duplication or irrelevant data stored in this management system. All connected computer has the access to
central computer for their query processing and requirement.

 Scalable - No of computers can be added in this centralized database management system. These computers are
connected to the system through a network.

ADVANTAGE OF CENTRALIZED DATABASE SYSTEM

 DATA INTEGRITY - Data is more unified as it stored in single computer system and managed. It is easier to
communicate and coordinate to get more reliable and meaningful data.

 DATA REDUNDANCY - Data is centralized and stored in one location only. There is no duplication of data and
irrelevancy in data.

 DATA SECURITY - Due to storage of data in centralized computer system, the security of data needs to be
stronger. Centralized database management system is more secure and more efficient.

 SCALABILITY AND LOCALIZATION - New computer systems can be added or removed in centralized database
management system more easily.

 DATA PORTABILITY - Data can be easily transferred from one computer to another computer because it is stored
in centralized database management system.

 LESSER COST AND MAINTENANCE - The centralized database system is cheaper in installation and maintenance
than other database management systems and it required single storage system and data can be accessed by all
the connected computers.

DISADVANTAGE OF CENTRALIZED DATABASE SYSTEM

 SLOW PROCESSING - In centralized database management system, data is stored in one location and it access
and processing speed is lesser than other management system. It requires more time to access the data from
one location.

 LESS EFFICIENCY - If the multiple users try to access and process query toward server simultaneously then it
creates problem. The processing speed of the central computer turns into low. These problems may reduce the
efficiency.

 LOSS OF DATA - In centralized database management system, if any system failure occurs orг any data is lost,
then it is not recovered
CHARACTERISTICS OF CENTRALIZED DATABASES

 SINGLE POINT OF CONTROL - The entire database is managed and controlled from a central location. This
means that all updates, access controls, and maintenance tasks are performed centrally.

 REDUCED DATA REDUNDANCY - Unlike distributed databases, where data may be replicated across multiple
locations, a centralized database eliminates redundancy by consolidating all data in one place.

 EFFICIENT MAINTENANCE - Since all data management tasks are centralized, maintenance becomes more
streamlined. Updates, backups, and security measures can be applied uniformly.

 SIMPLIFIED ACCESS CONTROL - Controlling access to the database is more straightforward in a centralized
model. Security measures can be implemented at the central point, ensuring a unified approach to data protection.

 CONSISTENCY IN DATA - With a single source of truth, ensuring data consistency becomes more manageable.
Updates are applied uniformly across the entire dataset.

OPEN-SOURCE DATABASES
Open-source means that the software code is publicly available, and anyone can view, modify, or distribute it for free (i.e
users are not required to pay any licensing fees to use the software).

Open-source databases are typically developed and maintained by a community of contributors, rather than a single
organization. This community-driven approach allows for ongoing improvements and updates, making open- source
databases highly adaptable to changing needs and technologies.

OPEN-SOURCE BENEFITS

 Cost Reduction - Many companies prefer open-source databases due to the lack of licensing fees, resulting in
lower total costs. This is a significant driver, especially during economic downturns.

 Scalability - Databases like Apache Cassandra and Redis offer massive scalability, handling huge datasets and
providing high availability.

 Flexibility and Customization - Open-source databases allow users to modify and optimize the code to meet
specific needs, making them ideal for various industries and use cases.

TYPES OF OPEN-SOURCE DATABASES

 PostgreSQL

 Redis

 MySQL

 Apache

 Cassandra

 MonggoDB
BASIC ELEMENTS

 Storage Engine - The storage engine is responsible for managing the storage and retrieval of data.

 Replication - Replication allows multiple instances of the database to be synchronized and kept up to date with
each other.

 Indexing - Indexing is used to improve query performance by creating indexes on columns or fields that are
frequently searched or used in joins.

 Query Engine - The query engine is responsible for processing queries and returning results

 Sharding - Sharding allows data to be distributed across multiple nodes, allowing for horizontal scaling and
improved performance.

 Security - Open-source databases provide various security features such as authentication, authorization, and
encryption to protect sensitive data and prevent unauthorized access.

USE OF OPEN SOURCE

 Web Applications - Open-source databases are widely used for web applications, ranging from small personal
blogs to large e-commerce websites.

 Big Data - Open-source databases are often used for big data applications that require processing and analyzing
large volumes of data.

 Healthcare Applications - Open-source databases are used for storing and managing patient data for healthcare
applications,

 IoT (Internet of Things) - Open-source databases are used for storing and analyzing data from lot devices.

 Mobile Applications - Open-source (databases are used for storing data for mobile applications

 Data Analytics - Open-source databases are used for storing and analyzing data for data analytics applications.

 Financial Applications - Open-source-databases are used for storing and processing financial data.

 Content Management Systems - Open-source databases are used for storing and managing content for content
management systems (CMS).