PERSONALITY

Personality :- The sum of total ways in which a person reacts which others. It refers to the set of
traits and patterns of thoughts, behavior and feeling that makes you.
Determinants of Personality:

Biological Factors:
Heredity: It means the transmission of the qualities from ancestor to descendant. Physical
stature, facial attractiveness, sex, Temperament, muscle composition etc are inherited from
one’s parents.
Brain: There is a general feeling that the brain plays an important role in the development
of one’s personality.
Physical features: An individual’s external appearance like height, weight, color, face
features etc may have a tremendous effect on his personality.
Family and social factors: The status of family in society influences an individual’s
perception about self, others, work, money etc. The family and social factors shape a
person’s personality through the process of socialization and identification.
Situational factors: An individual’s personality may change in different situation. The
demands of different situation call for different aspects of one’s personality.
Other Factors:
Temperament: Temperament is the degree to which one responds emotionally.A
Interest:
Character primarily means honesty.
Schema: It is an individual’s belief, frame of reference, perception and attitude that the
individual possesses towards management.
Passivity means behavior is controlled by external environment but in Activity controls its
behavior by itself.
Cheris Argyris’ Immaturity-Maturity theory:-

Cheris Argyris argued that the personality of an individual develops along a continuum from
immaturity as an infant to maturity as an adult. He identified seven characteristics in the
continuum as given in the following exhibit.

Immaturity Characteristics Maturity Characteristics

Passivity Activity
Dependence Independence
Few ways of behaving Diverse behavior
Shallow interests Deep Interests
Short time perspective Long time Perspective
Subordinate position Superordinate position
Lack of self-awareness Self-awareness and control

The Big Five Traits Model

Openness to Experience: It addresses one’s range of interests. Extremely open people

are fascinated by novelty and innovation. They are willing to listen to new ideas and
change their own ideas, beliefs, and attitudes in response to new information. On other
hand, people with low levels of openness tend to be less receptive to new ideas and less
willing to change their minds. They also tend to have fewer and Narrow interests and to be
less curious and creative.
Conscientiousness: A highly conscientious person focuses on a single or a few goals at
one time. He is likely to be organized, systematic, careful, thorough, responsible, self -
disciplined and achievement-oriented.

Extroversion: It reflects a person’s comfort level with relationships. Extroverts are

sociable, talkative, assertive and open to establishing new relationships.

Agreeableness: It refers to a person’s ability to get along with others. High agreeableness
people value harmony more than they having their say or their way.

Emotional Stability: It focuses on an individual’s ability to cope with stress. The individual
with positive emotional stability tends to be calm, enthusiastic and secure.

Development of Personality:

Freudian State: 1. The ID 2. EGO 3. The Super EGO

The ID is what drives our needs and desires, and the superego strives for morality and
perfection. ID operates on an unconscious level. The EGO is the mediator between the
two that tries to fulfil the needs of ID. Superego while accounting for the demands of
reality.
The ID: It is guided by what Freud referred to as the pleasure principle. The pleasure
principle works to pursue the immediate gratification of any need or desire that person has.
The EGO (reality principle): Allow the ID’s desires to be expressed in a realistic and
acceptable way. Where the id’s demands are unconscious, unrealistic, or unacceptable,
the ego’s goal is to fulfil those desire in a way that accounts for reality. This means
assessing the situation and weighing the pros and cons of taking action. The EGO
considers social realities and norms, etiquette, and rules in deciding how to behave.
The Super EGO: It is part of personality for moral behavior. It is made up of all the
internalized belief, values, and morals that people learn from their parents and from their
society. It has two components, The conscience and the Ego deal. The conscience is the
part of the superego concerned with things that are considered bad, inappropriate or
immoral. The Ego deal is the idealized self that an individual aspires to. In other words, it is
what we believe we should be doing, how we feel that we should behave, and how we
think and how we treat others.

Libido: Sexual Drive

Sigmund Freud:
The Oral Stage: It extends throughout the first year of life. The mouth is the body zone
through which biological drives are sought to be satisfied, e.g., thumb sucking by an infant
or biting when teeth erupt. The Freud said oral stimulation could lead to an oral fixation in
later life.
The Anal Stage: This stage is primarily related to developing healthy toilet training habits.
It makes him tidy and punctual. According to Freud, inappropriate parental responses can
result in negative outcomes. If parents take an approach that is too lenient then he
suggested that an anal-expulsive personality could develop in which the individual has a
messy, wasteful, or destructive personality.
The Phallic Stage: In this stage, a child becomes aware of gender differences. He or she
adopts the characteristics of the same-sex parent.
The latency period: Between the ages of six and the onset of adolescence, there is a
latency period. During this period the child loses interest in sexual matters and seeks the
gratification of the libido from the external world, curiosity, knowledge and so on.

Genital Period: Adolescence child had mature feelings and experiences pleasures from
sexual relationship with others.
Criticisms:
1. Lack of Empirical Evidence: Freud’s psychosexual stages were primarily based on his
clinical observations and case studies, rather than rigorous empirical research.
2. Overemphasis on Sexuality: Freud’s theory places significant emphasis on sexual
development and libido as the primary driving force behind human behavior.
3. Ethical concerns: Freud’s theories, particularly his emphasis on the role of early
childhood experiences and unconscious desires, have been criticized for their potential to
blame victims on trauma and overlook social and environmental factors that contribute to
psychological development.
4. Age-centric approach: Freud’s stages are linear and rigidly tied to specific age ranges,
which critics argue may not accurately reflects the complexities of human development.
5. Limited focus on later development: Freud’s theory primarily concentrates only
childhood development, particularly up to the age of five or six. It provides limited sights.

Erikson Stages:
Erikson criticized the heavy emphasis given by Freud on the sexual and biological factors
in developing personality. He felt that relatively more attention should be given to social
factors. Erikson was interested in how social interaction and relationships played role in
the development and growth of human beings. If people successfully deal with the conflict,
they emerge from the stage with psychological strength that will serve them for their lives.
If they fail to deal effectively with these conflicts, they may not develop the essential skills
needed for a strong sense of self.

Infancy: During the first year of life, a child resolves the basic crisis of trust vs mistrust. An
infant who is cared for in an affectionate way learns to trust other people.
Early Childhood: In the second and third years of life, a child begins to assert
independence. If the child is allowed to control these aspects of life that the child is
capable of controlling, a sense of autonomy will develop.
Play age: the four and five year olds seek to discover just how much they can do. If a child
is encouraged to experiment and achieve reasonable goals, he will develop a sense of
initiative.
School Age: from ages 6 to 12, a child learns many new skills and develops social
abilities. If a child experiences real progress at a rate compatible with his abilities he or she
will develop a sense of enterprise.
Adolescence: The crisis of the teenage years is to gain a sense of identity rather than to
become confused about who you are.
Early adulthood: The young adult during the twenties faces the crisis of intimacy isolation.
The sense of identity developed during the teenage years allows the young adult to begin
developing deep and lasting relationship.
Adulthood: During this stage, the adult face the crisis of generativity versus self-
absorption. Self-absorbed person ever develop an ability to look beyond themselves.
Mature adulthood: The person is developed as a highly mature person. He has gained a
sense of wisdom and perspective that can really guide the younger generations.
 Socialization Theory: Person-Situation Interaction

Every situation is different and employees act or behave differently according to the
dominating situation. The differences may seem to a very small or the surface but when
filtered by person’s cognitive process, they can lead to quite large subjective difference
and diverse behavior outcomes. According to socialization theory, people are not static,
acting in the same way in all situation but instead are ever-changing and flexible.

Personality Traits influencing Behaviour

Self-esteem: The way a person views the world depends a great deal on the self-concept
or image he has about himself. It reflects an individual’s degree of liking or disliking of self.
People with high self-esteem believe that they possess the ability they need to be
successful in their jobs.
Locus of control: it refers to an individual’s belief that events are either within one’s
control or determined by forces under one’s control. The people who believe that they
control their destinies are called internal where those who see their lives is being
controlled by outside forces is externals.
Authoritarianism: It refers to a belief that there should be status and power differences
among people in organisations. It tends to place high moral values on their beliefs and are
strongly orientated towards conformity to rules and regulations. It is likely to prefer
autocratic or directive leadership and would exhibit high respect for individual in positions
of authority.
Machiavellianism: Machiavellianism is personality trait that denotes cunningness, the
ability to be manipulative and a drive to use whatever means necessary to gain power. It is
one of the traits that for the dark Triad, along with narcissism and psychopathy. People
with high Machiavellianism manipulate more win more, are persuaded less and persuades
others more than do people with low Machiavellian.
Introversion and Extroversion: extroversion are gregarious and social individuals while
introverts are shy quiet and retiring.

Type A and Type B personality: People who are impatient, aggressive and highly
competitive are termed type A personality. But those who easy doing laid-back and non-
competitive are termed type B personality.

Perception

Perception is a belief or opinion often held by many people and based on how things seem.
Every person perceives the world and approaches life problems differently. The opinion
about ad the evaluation of a particular event differ from person to person. The reason is that
people behave on the basis of what they perceive reality to be and not necessarily as what
reality is. That is why perception is one of the most important psychological factors affecting
human behavior.
Nature of perception: Perception is the intellectual process though which a person selected
the data from the environment, originates it, and obtains meaning from it. Perception is a
basic cognitive psychological process. The manner in which a person perceives the
environment affects his behavior. Thus, people’s actions, emotions, feelings are triggered by
the perception of the surroundings.
Perception is a subjective process and different people may perceive the same
environmental event differently based on what particular aspects of the situation they choose
to absorb, how they organize this information and the manner in which they interpret it to
obtain an understanding of the situation.
Difference between Sensation and Perception
Sensation refers to the process of sensing our environment though touch, taste, sight, sound
and smell. As a result of the stimuli, we receive though these sensory organs from our
environment our sensory receptors get stimulated and send this information to our brain thus,
this process is known as sensation. After our five senses receives several stimuli that are
sent to our brain as nerve impulses, our brain interprets those impulses as a visual image,
sound, taste, odour, touch, or pain then perception creates in mind. Therefore, perception is
the indication of how and what a person thinks about his or her surroundings, and as a result
of how he or she understands and looks at the world.

Importance of Perception: 1. Interpersonal working relationship 2. Selection of new

employees 3. Performance Appraisal
1. Interpersonal working relationship: Organizations are intended to bring about integrated
behavior. Therefore, managers in the organization need to know whether or not members
share similar or at least compatible perceptions. If they do not, the problems of the
organization are greater and will require efforts to make perceptions more compatible.
Misperceptions usually lead to strained relations and may even result in open conflict among
people.

Perception Process:
Inputs: The perceiver comes across information, objects, events, people etc. in the
environment. These serve as the inputs of the perceptual process. Thus, perceptual inputs
encompass all stimuli that exist in the environment.
Perceptual Mechanisms: when the perceiver receives information, he tries to process it
though the sub-processes of selection, organization and interpretation.
Output: as a result of the perceptual process, the outputs that the individual gets are
changes in attitudes, beliefs, feelings, opinions etc.
Behavior: The perceiver’s behavior is shaped by the perceived output.

Factor affecting Perception:

Characteristics of the Perceiver: Needs and Motives of individuals. Self-Concept is how a
person views the world depends greatly on the self-concept or image he has about himself.
Beliefs: A perosn’s beliefs have a profound influence on his perception.
Past experience:
Current experience:
Size: The Bigger the size perceived stimulus, the higher the probability that it is
perceived.
Itensity:
Frequency:
Status:

Perceptual Error(Distortion in Perception)

Selective Perception: People tend to see what they want to see. On the basis of interest,
experience, attitudes.
Impression; First impression is the last impression. Judging the people on the basis of first
few seconds encounter. In this duration we form positive or negative opinions of others.
Halo effect: Perceiving total quality on the basis of perceiving few or more quality. One or
few traits are used to make overall judgement for the people.
Stereotyping: Judging or perceiving on the basis of some of the characteristics of the groups
from which an individual belongs. The person is not perceived as individual.
Projection: Judging or perceiving others on the basis of perceiver’s characteristics.
Inference: There is tendency on the part of some people to judge others on limited
information.
Perceptual set: Previously held beliefs about objects influence an individual’s perception of
similar objects.
Attribution: When we observe people, we attempt to explain to ourselves why they behave
in certain ways.

Distinctiveness: Under distinctiveness, we make a comparison with other actions of the

same individual in different situation. This is done to determine whether the individual is usual
or unusual. Low distinctiveness means that it is internal caused. High distinctiveness means
that his particular behavior is distinct and thus caused due to some external factor.
Consensus: we try to determine whether everyone facing the same situation reacted in the
some way. Low consensus means the other individuals did not react in the same way and
thus behavior was internally caused by the one individual being examined.
Consistency: Comparison of a person’s reaction with respect to time determines
consistency. If a person reacts in a similar manner all the time then its internally caused.

Perceptual Defence
It lays down an individual is likely to put a defence when confronted with some conflicting,
unacceptable or threating stimuli.
Outright denial: when the perceiver refuses the stimuli or information and sticks to his
perception.
Modification of data received: When the perceiver attaches another information to the
existing stimuli In order to give meaning to his existing perception or to justify his perception.

MOTIVATION
Motivation is the willingness of a person to make intense and persistent efforts to achieve
desired goals. Any idea, need or emotion that prompts a man into action. It can be known by
studying his needs and desire. It explains how and why human behavior is caused.
Nature of Motivation
Motivation is a personal and internal feeling. Motivation is a psychological phenomenon
which generates within an individual. Motives are the energetic forces within a person that
drives him to action.
Motivation produces goal directed behavior. It is a behavior concept that directs human
behavior towards certain goals.
Motivation is continuous process. Human needs are unlimited. Therefore, motivation is an
ongoing process.
Motivation is complex. Individuals differ in their motivation. Different people seek different
things or they work for different reasons. Moreover, goal-directed behavior does not always
lead to need satisfaction.
Motivation is system oriented. A person cannot be partly motivated. Motivation can be either
positive or negative. Motivation is different from job satisfaction.
Important of motivation
Higher Efficiency, Low absenteeism and turnover, Facilitates change, Human relations,
Corporate Image
Approaches of Motivation:
(1) Cognitive Models: (a) Content theories (b) Process Theories
(2) Non-Cognitive or Reinforcement Model

Cognitive Model: focus on internal states and mental processes. It is important to

understand the internal states and process of individuals – needs, desires, drives, values,
and expectations.

Content Theories: What motivates people?. The focus is on human needs and desires that
are internalized and give impetus to individual behavior. They suggest that manager
recognize the pattern of needs of individuals and then encourage behavior that results in
satisfying those needs. The unsatisfied needs of individuals are the starting point of
motivation. These theories are Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory, ERG Theory, Herzberg’s
Two Factors Theory, McClelland’s Theory of needs.

Process Theory : How be people motivated. Process theories of motivation provides an

opportunities to understand the thought process that influence behavior. They examine
individual behavior in terms of satisfaction related to perceived rewards that initiate behavior.
These theories are Equity theory, Expectancy Theory, Goal-Setting Theory, Reinforcement
Theory, Vroom Expectancy Model, Porter and Lawler Model.

Non-Cognitive Model: This approach concentrates on operant conditioning i.e behavior is a

result of its consequences. In other words, behavior is caused by external forces.

Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Model:

Physiological<Safety<Social<Esteem<Self actualization.
The urge to fulfil needs is a prime factor in the motivation people at work. Human needs are
multiple, complex and interrelated. Human needs form a particular structure or hierarchy.
Lower level needs must be at least partially satisfied before high level needs. As soon as one
need is satisfied, another need emerges. This process of need satisfaction continues from
birth to death. Man is a wanting animal.
Basic physiological Needs: These need are related to the survival and maintenance of
human life. Hunger, thirst, shelter and sleep are examples of these needs at the individual
level. The organization satisfy these needs by giving basic salary to the employees.
Safety/Security Needs: These needs provide security and protection from physical and
emotional harm. The organization satisfies these needs by providing job security, stability of
income, pension, plans etc.
Social/Affiliation/Belongingness Needs: These needs include affection, acceptance,
friendship, a sense of belongingness etc. The organization satisfies these needs through
informal organization and cordial relation among employees.
Esteem Needs: Esteem needs refers to those needs satisfaction which leads to self-
confidence and prestige. These needs include the need for self-respect, prestige, autonomy,
status etc. the Organisation satisfies these needs by giving job titles, recognition etc.
Self-Actualisation needs: These needs include growth and self-fulfilment. They are
concerned with becoming what a person is capable of becoming. The organization satisfies
these needs by allowing the employees to take initiative to become what they are capable of
becoming.
Maslow’s theory focuses on the needs as the basis for motivation. It helps managers to
realise that the need level of employees should be identified to provide motivation to them.
For example, a manager can use incentives e.g pay and allowances, bonuses to satisfy the
basic physiological needs of lower-level employees. But, to satisfy the social and esteem
needs of higher level employees, non-financial incentives play an important role.

Appraisal of Need Hierarchy Theory:

Limitations of Need Hierarchy Theory: Every individual may have a different need
hierarchy which may not follow the sequence suggested by Maslow. For instance, an
individual may have social or egoistic needs even though his safety need is not satisfied as
yet. It is wrong to presume that only one need is satisfied at one time. Man’s behavior at any
time is mostly guided by a multiplicity of motives. However, one or two motives in any
situation may be prominent. Money can act as a motivator only for physiological and social
needs, not for satisfying level needs. Employees are enthusiastically motivated by what they
are seeking, more than by what they already have. There are always some people for whom
the need for self-esteem seems more prominent than that for love. There are also creative
people with whom the drive for creativity seems more important. It is doubtful that once a
need is satisfied it loses its motivating force. It is also doubtful that satisfaction of one need
automatically activates the next need in the hierarchy.

Herzberg’s Motivation – Hygiene Model

After the analysis he revealed that feelings of unhappiness or dissatisfaction were related to
the environment in which people were working. Feeling of happiness or satisfaction were
related to their job. Herzberg classified all factors affecting motivation into two categories.
1. Maintenance or Hygiene Factors. 2. Motivational Factors
Maintenance or Hygiene factors(disatisfiers): Necessary to maintain a reasonable level of
satisfaction among employees. Their presence does not provide satisfaction to the
employees, but their absence will dissatisfy them. They are not intrinsic parts of a job but
they are related to condition under which a job is performed.
Motivational Factors (satisfiers): Any increase in these factors will satisfy the employees and
help to improve performance. But a decrease in these factors creates dissatisfaction among
employees.
Motivational factors, on the other hand are essential for increasing the productivity of the
employees. They are also known as satisfiers and include such factors as recognition a
feeling of accomplishment and achievement, opportunity for advancement and potential for
personal growth, responsibility and sense of job and individual importance, new experience
and challenging work etc. Hygiene factors include things such as wages, fringe benefits,
physical condition and overall company policy and administration. The presence of these
factors at satisfactory level prevents job dissatisfaction, but they do not provide motivation to
the employees. So they are not considered motivational factors.

Criticism of Herzberg’s Model:

Limited experiment
In Herzberg’s study, the interviewers were asked to report exceptionally good or
exceptionally bad moments. This methodology is defective because there is a common bias
among human-being to take more credit for good things and put the blame on other or bad
things.
 In the theory focuses much attention on satisfaction rather than on performance level. There
is not direct link between satisfaction, motivation and performance.
The distinction between maintenance factors and motivating factors is not fixed. What is
maintenance factors for a worker in the united States may very much be a motivator for an
indian worker.
Maslow Herzberg
In terms of needs In terms of rewards or incentives
Hierarchical or sequential No such arrangement
Unsatisfied needs motivate individuals and Gratified needs regulate behavior
performance
Any needs can be a motivator if it is Only higher order need serve motivators
relatively unsatisfied
Take a general view of the motivational Take a micro views and deals with work
problem of all workers oriented Motivational problems of
professional workers

McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y

Theory X : It represents old stereotyped and authoritarian management style of motivation.
The average human being is basically lazy and has an inherent dislike of work. He avoids
work if she can. Most people lack ambition. They are not interested in achievement. They like
to be directed. Most people have little capacity for creativity in solving organizational problem.
Most people are indifferent to the organizational goal. Most people must be closely controlled
and often threatened to achieve the organizational goals. The Motivation of average human
beings occurs at the physiological and safety levels. Thus the carrot and stick approach to
motivation is followed. Theory X suggests that threats of punishment and strict control are the
main tool to manage people.
Theory Y: This theory assumes that people are not unrealizable and lazy by nature. If they
are properly motivated, they could really be creative. The main task of the management is to
unleash potential in the employees. Work is as natural as play if the conditions are favorable.
The average person does not inherently dislike work. Self-control is often indispensable in
achieving organizational goals. Commitment to an objective is a function of the rewards
associated with their achievement. The average human being learns under proper conditions,
not only to accept but also to seek responsibility. The capacity to excerise a relativey high
degree of imagination, ingenuity and creativity in the solution of the organizational problem is
wide not narrowly, distributed in the population. The intellectual potentialities of the average
human beings are only partially utilized under the conditions of modern industrial life.

Based on the assumption that people Based on the assumption that people
are basically lazy and so shirk work like work as children like play
People do not take initiative. They like to People like to take initiative. They seek
be directed. self- direction.
People avoid responsibility whenever People assume responsibility gladly if
possible condition are favourable
For getting things done, people must be People do not require close and strict
supervised closely and strictly supervision for performing their jobs.
Autocratic style of leadership is likely to be Democratic or participative style of
more effective. leadership is likely to more effective
Applicable to illiterate, unskilled and lower Applicable to educated and skilled
level workers employee who occupy higher position in
the organization
 Believe in mental sickness and so negative Believes in mental health and so positive
motivation of employees and intrinsic motivation of employees
Ouchi’s theory Z:
William Ouchi developed theory Z after making a comparative study of Japanese and
American management practices. A type Z organization has three major features: Trust,
Subtlety, Intimacy. Mutual trust between members of an organization reduces conflict and
leads to teamwork. Subtlety requires sensitivity towards others and yields higher productivity.
Intimacy implies concern, support, and disciplined unselfishness.
Mutual trust: mutual trust between employees, supervisors, work groups, unions and
management. A strong bond between organization and employees. Employees involvement.
Integrated organization:
Coordination:
Informal control system:
Human resource development:
Criticism of Ourchi’s Theory: Provision of lifetime employment to employees to develop a
strong bond between the organization and employees may fail to motivate employees with
higher-level needs. It merely provides job security and may fail to develop loyalty among
employees. Participation of employees in the decision making process is very difficult.
Managers may dislike participation as it may hurt their ego and freedom. It suggests that an
organization without any structure. It may not be possible to develop a common culture in the
organization. Theory Z is based on Japanese model of management practices.

Alderfer’s Existence-Relatedness-Growth Model:

1. Existence Needs: these include all forms of material and physiological and safety needs,
i.e Maslow’s first two level needs.
2. Relatedness needs: These include all needs that involve relationships with other people
we care about. Relatedness needs cover maslow’s social needs and that part of esteem
needs are derived from other people (external esteem).
3.Growth needs: These needs involve persons making efforts to achieve the potential in the
existing environment. It is like maslow’s last level of need for self acutalisation.

McClelland’s Three Needs of Motivation:

1. Need for achievement(growth)
2. Need for power (Influence, Power)
3. Need for Affiliation (Relations to the other people)
Need for achievement: a drive to excel, advance and grow. Strive for personal achievement.
They have a desire to do something better or more efficiently than it has been done before.
McCelland found that high achievers differentiate themselves from others by their desire to
do thigs better. They seek situations where they can attain personal responsibility for finding
solutions to problems, and where they Achievem ent motive is differ from
culture to culture.
Need for Power: The need for power is a drive to have an impact, be influential, and control
others. Individuals high in power motive enjoy being in charge strive for influene over others,
prefer to be placed into competitive and status oriented situations, and tend to be more
concerned with gaining influence over others and prestige than with effective performance.
Power motivated people wish to create an impact on their organization and are willing to take
risks to do so. Such individuals generally seek positions of leadership they involve in
conversation they are forceful, outspoken, hard-headed and demanding.
Need for affiliation: The need for affiliation can be viewed as the desire to be liked and
accepted by others. Individuals with a high affiliation motive strive for friendship, prefer
cooperative situations rather than competitive ones, and desire relationships involving a high
degree of mutual understanding. High need for affiliation individuals tends to take job
satisfaction from socializing with people. They play important integrative roles in our group or
inter-group activities. But their overemphasis on social relationships may interface with the
process of accomplishing the tasks.

Vroom Expectancy Theory: According to Vroom, people will be motivated to do things to

the extent they expect certain actions will help them to achieve their goals. Vroom’s theory is
built around the concept of Valance, Instrumentality and expectancy.
Valance: It is expression of the value he places on goal (outcome or reward). The value
attached to a goal or reward is subjective as it varies from person to person. For instance, if a
young and dynamic employee wants a promotion, the promotion has high valence or strength
for that employee. Similarly, a retiring employee may have high value for re-employment.
Expectancy ( Effort-Performance Probability): it refers to the extent to which the person
perceives or believes that his efforts should lead to the completion of a task. If the individuals
feels that the chances of achieving an outcome are zero, he can not even try. On the other
hand, if expectancy is higher, the individual would put more effort to achieve the desired
outcome.
Ranges from 0 to 1. Employees are generally motivated to exert effort if they believe their
efforts will lead to high performance.
Instrumentality (Performance-reward probability): it refers to the probability to which the
performance (first level outcome) would lead to the desired results (second level outcome).
For instance, an individual wants a promotion and feels that superior performance is very
important in achieving promotion. Superior performance is the first level outcome and
promotion is the second level outcome. Instrumentality is the belief that a person will receive
a reward if performance expectation is met.
Expectancy theory suggests: Determine what rewards employee value. Determine each
employee’s desired performance standard. Ensure that performance standards are
attainable. Guarantee rewards tied to performance. Be certain that employees consider the
reward adequate.

Equity Theory: The equity theory of motivation was formulated by J.S. Adams.
Assumptions: Employees of the organization experience strong expectations of justice,
balance, and fairness in treatment by the organization. Adverse effects on the person’s
motivation and performance on the job.

The equity theory of motivation helps in understanding both the causes and the likely
consequences of feelings of inequitable treatment among organization members.
Inputs: inputs are the efforts and skill that a member of an organization perceives that he
puts into his job.
Output: outputs are the rewards that the member receives from the organization and her job.
It is both financial and non-financial.
If input and output is equal there is no problem in the employees of the organization.
If the input and output ratios are in balance, the individual experiences positive feelings of
equity, fairness and justice. If they are not in balance feelings of inequity are generated in the
individual. If the ratio is less there is angry, hostile and frustrated among employees. When
ratio is more, a feeling of guilt in the individual.
There are four referent comparisons made by an employee.
Self-inside: An employee may compare his present position to a different position inside the
same organization.
Self-outside: an employee may compare his present position to a situation or position outside
the employee’s oragnisation.
Other inside: comparison with another individual inside the organization.
Other outside: Comparison with another individual outside the organization.
Six choices made in reference to any of the four situations are:
Changing inputs: The person may change his inputs to match his outcomes by lowering his
inputs (in the case of underpaid equity) or by increasing his inputs (in the case of overpaid
inequity).
Changing outputs: A person may attempt to change his outcomes by requesting a salary
raise or asking for a bigger office or a personal secretary.
Changing perceptions of inputs and outputs: a person who at first was feeling overpaid
in return for his input to the company could re-establish equity by distorting upward his own
inputs.
Changing the inputs or outcomes of others: the person may try to re-establish equity by
persuading the other persons to change their inputs or by changing his perception about the
inputs/outputs relationships of others.
Changing the comparison person: if comparing oneself with a specific person creates
feelings of equity, choosing someone else for comparison may result in avoid uncomfortable
feelings.
Leaving the situation: if a person perceives that he can’t get justice, she may seek transfer
to another department or location. In extreme cases, she may even leave the organisation.

Reinforcement Theory: Reinforce means to support or to strength the behavior.

Reinforcement theory argues that the behavior of people is largely determined by its
consequence.
The reinforcement theory suggests that managers should try to structure the contingencies of
rewards and punishments on the job in such a way that the consequence of effective job
behavior are positive while the consequences of ineffective work behavior are negative or
unpleasant. The focus of this approach is on changing or modifying the behavior of people on
the job.
OB model uses four strategies to systematically reinforce desirable behavior while
discouraging undesirable behavior.
Positive reinforcement: It entails the use of rewards (or other positive consequences) that
stimulate desired behavior and strengths the probability of repeating such behavior in the
future. Positive reinforcement can be money, praise, promotion, recognition etc.
Negative reinforcement: This strategy is called ‘avoidance learning”. It implies the use of
unpleasant consequences to condition individuals avoid behaving in an undesirable way.
Extinction: There is a withdrawal of all forms of reinforcement to remove or extinguish
undesirable behavior.
Punishment: This tool is used when an unpleasant or undesirable behavior needs to be
reduced or eliminated. For example, a worker’s wages may be deducted if the quality of
goods produced is of standard quality.

LEADERSHIP
Leadership is the process of influencing the behavior of others to work willingly and
enthusiastically for achieving predetermined goals.it is the ability to induce subordinates to
work with confidence and zeal. It is the driving force which gets things done by others. A
leader interprets the objective of the people working under him and guides them towards the
achievement of those objectives. He also creates and sustains enthusiasm among them for
achieving organizational objectives.
Characteristics of Leadership
Leadership is a process of influence.
Leadership is related to a situation.
It is a function of stimulation.
Leadership gives an experience of helping attain the common objectives
A leader must have followers.
Leadership is working relationship between the leader and his followers.
A leader influences his followers willingly not by the force or coercion.
Importance of Leadership:
Setting goals in the organization.
Motivating employees.
Building Morale.
Creating Confidence.
Discipline.
Developing teamwork.
Facilitates Changes.
Manager VS Leader
Manager Leader
He drives and orders He coaches and advices
He depends on his authority He depends on his confidence and
goodwill
He engenders fear He inspires enthusiasm
He fixes blames and find faults He solves problem
He knows all the answers He consultant and seek advice
The work the work drudgery He makes the work a game
He believes “I”. He Belives in “we and you”

Formal Leader:
Formal leadership is a circumstance in which an individual is the officially recognized head of
a group or organization. The CEO of a corporation is an example of a formal leader. They
help to achieve organizational goals

Informal Leadership:
Informal leadership is when an individual does not have official status as a group’s leader,
but other group member see them as and consider them to be a leading force. Informal
leaders tend to be experienced and knowledgeable, so they’re the ones people seek for
answers and guidance. Often, they’ve earned the status of an informal leader by developing
strong relationships with the people around them and proving themselves, though actions to
be reliable and trustworthy. They help to satisfy individual goals with organizational goals.

Styles of Leadership:
It refers to a leader’s behavior. Behavioural patterns which the leaders reflect in his role as a
leader is often described as the style of leadership.
(a)Autocratic or authoritarian leader: The leader gives orders which must be obeyed by
the subordinates. He determines policies for the group without consulting them and does not
give detailed information about future plans, but simply tells the group what immediate steps
they must take. He gives personal praise or criticism to each member on his own initiative
and remains aloof from the group for the major part of the time. Thus, under this style, all
decision-making power is centralized in the leader, He does not give subordinated the
freedom to influence his behavior.
(b)Participative or Democratic leadership: This style is also called democratic,
consultative or ideographic. A demographic leader is one who gives instructions only after
consulting the group. He sees to it that policies are worked out in group discussions and with
the acceptance of the group. A participative manager decentralizes his decision-making
process. Instead of taking a unilateral decision, he emphasizes consultation and participation
of his subordinates.
Some advantage of participative LeadershiP: It increases the acceptance of
management’s ideas. It improves the attitude of employees towards their jobs and the
organization. It increase the cooperation between management and employees. It leads to a
reduction in the number of complaints and grievances. It increases the morale of the
employees.
Free Rein or Laissez Faire Leader: This type of leadership means giving complete
freedom to subordinates. In this style, the manager once determined the policy, programs
and limitations for actions and the entire process is left to subordinates group members
perform everything. This mode of direction can produce good and quick results if the
subordinates are highly educated and brilliant people who have a sincere desire to go ahead
and perform their responsibility.
Paternalistic Leadership: Under this, the leader assumes that his function is paternal or
fatherly. His attitude is that of treating the relationship between the leader and his group as
that of a family with the leader as the head of the completely. He works to help, guide,
protect, and keep his followers happily working together as members of a family. He provides
them with good working conditions fringe benefits and employee services.
Likert’s Management systems and Leadership: Linkert developed a four level of
leadership effectiveness. Exploitative authoritative < Benevolent authoritative< Consultative <
Participative Democratic.
(a) Exploitative authoritative: Managers make work their decision and order their
subordinates to carry them order. The communication is highly formal. The subordinates
have absolutely no say in any matter in the organization. Such managers are highly
autocratic and believe in threats and punishments to get things done. They follow strict
supervision over their subordinates.
(b) Benevolent Authoritative: it is also autocratic but they are not exploitative.
Subordinates who meet or exceed their goals may be rewarded. Thus, managers adopt a
patronizing or paternalistic attitude towards obedient and faithful subordinates. They are
very harsh with the subordinates who do not carry out their tasks. In other words,
motivation is governed by the carrot and stick policy under this system.
(c) Consultative Authoritative: Under this system, the managers set goals and issue
general order after discussing them with the subordinates. They take only major decisions
and leave the routine decision to be taken by the subordinates. Subordinates are free to
discuss work-related matters with their superiors. Thus, there exists two-way
communication in the organization. More emphasis is placed on rewards than on
punishments to motivate the subordinates.
(d) Participative (Democratic): The relations between the managers and subordinates
are cordial and friendly. The communication system is completely open. The goals are set
 and work-related decisions are taken by the subordinates. The group approach is adopted
in supervision and control. The managers are very supportive in their attitude towards the
subordinates. They not only use economic rewards but also try to give their subordinates a
feeling of worth and importance.

Leadership Continuum:
The manager makes a decision and announces it.
The manager sells the decision.
The manager presents ideas and invites questions.
Management presents tentative decisions subject to change.
The manager presents problems, gets suggestions and take decisions.
The manager defines the limits and asks the group to make a decision.
Manager permits subordinates to function within the limits defined by him.

Choices of a leadership style:

Forces in the Manger: These include the manger’s personality, experience and value
system, his confidence in subordinates, leadership inclination, a feeling of security in an
uncertain situation etc.
Forces in the Subordination: These include the readiness of subordinates to assume
responsibility for making decisions, the need of subordinates for independence, interest in
the problem in hand, knowledge to deal with the problem etc.
Forces in the situation: These include complexities of the problem to the organization
nature and objective of the groups, the pressure of time, group cohesion etc.
Great Man Theory of leadership: “leaders are born, not made”. According to the great man
theory of leadership, leadership calls for certain qualities like commanding personality,
charm, courage, intelligence, persuasiveness and aggressiveness. These qualities are of
such a nature that they can’t be taught or learnt in a formal sense. One either has or does not
have any of these qualities.
The Implications:
(a) Leaders in general and great leaders, in particular, are born and not made. They have
certain inborn leadership qualities which are bestowed on them by the divine power.
(b) The inborn leadership qualities alone are necessary and sufficient for a leader to be
successful.
(c) Ordinary persons cannot aspire to become leaders and attain greatness.
(d) Leadership qualities cannot be acquired through formal education.
(e) Leadership qualities and effectiveness are independent variable.
Trait Theory of Leadership: It suggests that an individual who has traits relevant to
leadership emerges as an effective leader.
Behavioural Theories of Leaderships:
It is based on the premise that effective leadership is the result of effective role behavior.
Success in leadership depends more on what the leader does than on his traits. A leader
influences the behavior of others by conceptual skills, Human skills, Technical skills. It
proposed that specific behaviours differentiate leaders form non-leaders.
Michigan Studies:

Production centered leadership Employee centered leadership

Employee considered as tools to get work Employees considered as humans to get
done. work done
Rigid rules and works standards Concern for employees, needs,
Welfare.
Focus on technical aspect of job Focus on participation, respect & trust.

Employee centered leadership is superior than production centered leadership.

Behavioural styles suggested by Michigan studies have been termed static. A leader is
supposed to follow either of the two styles viz. task orientation and employee orientation.
But din practice, a practical style may succeed in one situation and fail in both orientations
in varying degrees to suit particular situations. The Michigan studies did not consider the
nature of the subordinates tasks or their personal characteristics. Group characteristics
and other situational variables were also ignored. Michigan studies failed to suggest
whether leader behavior is a cause or effect. They did not clarify the employee-oriented
leadership makes the group productive or whether the highly productive group includes the
leader to be employee-centred.

Ohio State Leadership Studies: Initiating structure, consideration

Initiating structure: It refers to the leader’s behavior in delineating the relationship between
himself and members of the workgroup and in endeavoring to establish well-defined
patterns of organization, channels of communication, and methods or procedures.
Consideration: It refers to behavior indicative of friendship, mutual trust, respect and
warmth in the relationship between the leader and the members of his staff.
Managerial Grid Theory: Robert Blake and Jane Mouton developed the managerial grid.
This a two-dimensional graphic model of an alternative combination of leadership styles or
behavior. These dimension are concern for people and concern for production.
1. The 9,1 Managerial style(task): People are regarded as an instrument of production
under the 9,1 managerial style. It is an autocratic style of leadership. This style places a
heavy emphasis on tasks and job requirement. The use of power in authority obedience is
the basic of control. Human relationships and interactions are minimized.
2. The 1,9 Managerial Style (Country Club): Thoughtful attention to the needs of people for
satisfying the relationship leadership conformable friendly organizational atmosphere and
work tempo. The leader Keep his team in good humor and secures good relationship. He
has maximum concern about his employees and minimum concern for production.
3. The 1,1 managerial style (Impoverished): The manager has low concern for both
production and people. Under it, exertion of minimum effort is required to get work done
and sustain organization membership. The leader avoids controversy and confrontation.
This management style generally results in low production and low satisfaction level.
4. The 5,5 Managerial style (middle road): Adequate organizational performance is
possible by balancing the necessity to get out of work while maintaining the morale of
people at satisfactory level. The leader balances tasks with concern through compromise.
He has moderate concern for both the production and people.
5. The 9,9 managerial Style (Team): Work accomplishment is from committed people and
interdependence through a common stake.
Tri-Dimensional Leader Effectiveness Model:
W.J. Reddin added effectiveness to the two dimension of Management grid and other
models. This was done to integrate to concepts of leadership with the situational demands
of a specific environment. When the style of a leader is appropriate to a given situation. It
is termed effective and when the style is inappropriate to a given situation termed
ineffective. In Reddin’s 3-D management style theory, three-dimensional axes represent
task orientation (similar to initiating structure or concern for production), relation orientation
(similar to consideration or concern for people) and effectiveness orientation.
Situational Theory of Leadership:
This theory advocated that leadership is strongly affected by the situation from which a
leader emerges and in which he works. The emphasis is on the behavior of leaders and
their followers and the type of situation. In other words, a person becomes a leader and
only because of his personal attributes, but also because of various situational factors and
the interactions between the leader and the group members.
1. Fiedler’s contingency Theory: 1. Task-oriented or controlling, structure leadership
under which the leader gains satisfaction from seeking tasks performed and 2.
Relationship-oriented or considerate leadership under which the leader tries to achieve
good interpersonal relations with his subordinates.
Least-preferred Co-worker scale (LPC): LPC ratings are made by people in a group as to
those with whom they would least like to work. In developing this scale, Fielder asked the
respondents to identify the traits of a person with whom they could work least well. He
gave 16 characteristics of people. Low-LPC leaders emphasize completing tasks
successfully, even at the expense of interpersonal relationships, gaining self-esteem
through task completion and valuing job performance. High-Lpc leaders emphasize good
interpersonal relationship, are more considerate derive major satisfaction from relationship
with others, and are not influenced by success or task accomplishment.
Situational Variables: Fred Fielder analysed three major situational variables which exert a
powerful influence on the leader’s behavior and effectiveness. There are three variable:
Leader-member relations, Task structure, Leader position power (formal power given by
company). Leader-member relations refer to the degree of confidence and respect of
subordinates have in the leader. Task structure implies whether the task of subordinates is
routine or complex. Leader position power refers to the ability of the leader to influence the
behavior of the subordinates through legitimate power.
Favorableness of situation: it is defined as the degree to which the situation enables the
leader to exert his influence over his group.
Successful vs effective leader: Successful leader uses punishment or threat to his
subordinate to complete their task means end result but in effective leadership, a leader
tries to complete the task but also fulfil the aspire of his subordinates.

COMMUNICATION
Communication may be defined as an exchange of facts, idea, opinion, or emotions to
create mutual understanding. In the words of “Koontz and O’Donnell”, Communication is
an intercourse by words, letter, symbols, or message and is a way that one organization
member shares meaning and understanding with others. Communication is crucial for
management because the success of an enterprise depends on how effectively its employ
understand one another. Communication is a managerial skill which is essential for
effectively leading and motivating people at work.
Nature of Communication: It has two basic objectives. To transmit message, ideas or
opinions. To create an impression or understanding in the mind of the receiver of
information.

For communication feedback is crucial. It is not effective if it does not produce the desired
response.
Importance of effective Communication: As Chester Barnard remarked, ‘the first
executive function of management is to develop and maintain a system of communication.
Better planning, effective operations, decision making, controlling, motivation, better
human relations, coordination.
Two-way communication One-way communication
When receiver provides feedback to the Feedback is totally absent. A policy
 sender. For instance, giving an instruction statement from the top executive is an
to a subordinate and receiving its example of one-way communication.
acceptance is an example of two-way
communication.
Principal of communication: 7c of communication- completeness, conciseness,
consideration (stepping into shoes of others), clarity, concreteness, courtesy, correctness.

Process of Communication:-

Source --- Encoding --- Channel --- Decoding --- Receiver

Sender: The sender or communication is the person who sends a message or an idea. He
is the source and initiates the process of communication.
Message: Message is what is conveyed by the sender. It consists of words, facts, ideas,
opinions etc.
Encoding: In order to transmit the idea, the sender translates the idea into language.
Channel: it is medium or route through which message is passed from the sender to
receiver.
Receiver: The receiver or communicate is the person or group who is supposed to receive
the message.
Decoding: The receiver interprets the message to derive its meaning from symbol encoded
by the sender.
Feedback: It is the response or reaction by the receiver.
Levels of Communication:

(a) Extra Personal Communication: Human beings interacts with non-human entities.
(b) Intrapersonal communication: Communication happens when we communicate with
ourselves.
(c) Interpersonal communication: When we taking a bunch of people.
(d) Organizational communication: Communication that happens within an organization is
termed organizational communication.
(e) Mass communication: When communication is with a large audience then it is termed
as mass communication.
Types of Communication:
(a) Formal Communication: Formal communication follow the route follow or laid down in
the organizational structure or enterprise. Communication is based on authority
relationship. There are four types of formal communication.
(1) Downward Communication: It represents the flow of information from the top level to
the lower level of the organization. The purpose is to communicate policies, procedures,
programs and objective and to issue order and instruction to the subordinates.
(2) Upward Communication: Upwards communication refers to the flow of communication
from lower level (subordinates) to higher levels (superiors) of authority. Feedback has
become all the more necessary due to the growing tendency towards delegation and
decentralization.
(3) Horizontal Communication: It implies the exchange of ideas and information among
people at the same level of authority. Such communication is helping coordinating the
activities of different department or divisions of the enterprise.
(4) Crosswise or diagonal communication: It means communication between persons who
are neither in the same department on the same level of organizational structure. It cuts
across departmental lines. It generally takes place when members cannot communicate
effectively through other channel.
(b) Informal communication: Informal communication or grapevine arises from the social
interactions of people. It is the expression of their natural motivation to communicate. Its
speed is very fast compared to formal communication.
Distortions may appear in the transmission of such message through the grapevine in the
form of rumours and gossip. When the employees are unable to communicate the
required information to higher authorities because of barriers then they may resort to
informal channels of communication.
Merits of Informal Communication: It helps in achieving better human relation in
organisations. It links even those people who do not fall into official chain of command. Its
speed is very fast as it is free from all barriers. It serves to fill the possible gaps in formal
communication.
Rumour is the most undesirable feature of the grapevine and it has given the grapevine
bad reputation. The best approach in dealing with rumours is to get its causes, rather than
try to kill them after it has started.
(c) Verbal Communication: Oral/Speech, Written. Language is used to communicate
emotional and feelings and to share information and meaning. Oral communication is a
medium of transmitting meaning by means of sounds produced by our vocal organs.
Writing is medium of transmitting ideas, information, meaning, etc by means of graphic
representation of sounds which are made on a surface using some tool of writing or by
typing on machines.
Why oral communication is most frequently used? We need not be literate to speak.
Human beings are born with a language acquisition device (LAD) which disposes them to
learn a language when they grow up on a social-cultural environment. It is faster and
economical.
(d) Non-Verbal Communication: Kinesics: movement of gesture body language to
communicate with each other. Proxemics- way of communicating through your distance
from other or the study of physical space in interpersonal relations. Proxemics has four
zones, intimate zone extends just to 18 inches (one and a half feet). Personal zone
stretches 18 inches to 4 feet. Social zone is radius of 4 feet to 12 feet, relationships are
more formal and official people are more cautious in their movements. The situation
involves less motivation and more planning. Public zones start from 12 feet and may
extend to 25 feet (politician).
Chronemics: The study of the use of time to communicate is known as chronemics. In the
professional world, time is a valuable resources.
Haptics: The language of touch for communication.
Paralanguage: it is the way meaning is conveyed by how we say things while speaking.
It includes speed of speaking, pitch, voice modulation, breaks or pauses.
Oculesics: it is the study of eye movement, behavior, gaze and eye-related non-verbal
communication.
Communication Network: formal communication networks are circle, chain, wheel, all
channel free and ‘Y ‘channel. Informal communication networks are single strand, gossip,
probability, Cluster.

Barrier of Effective Communication:

(a) Organizational barrier: Several layer of management. Long lines of communication.
Long distance of subordinates from a top management. Lack of instructions for passing
information to the subordinated. Heavy pressures of work on certain levels of authority.
(b) Status barrier:
(c) Semantic Barrier: words and symbols used to communicate facts and feelings may
mean different things to different persons. The word ‘write’ and ‘wrong’.
(d) Inattention Barrier: when the receiver does not pay complete attention to the message,
communication becomes in vane.
(e) Perceptual Barrier: Everyone tries to evaluate the same message from his point of view
or opinion.
(f) Lack of ability to communicate
(g) Heightened emotions: Barriers may also arise due to specific situations e.g. emotional
reaction, physical conditions like noise or insufficient light, past experiences etc.
(h) Premature Evaluation:
(i) Channel Distortions

Overcoming Barriers to Communicate: Compassion, Consistency, Feedback, Attention

You must check intelligence level and background of individual whom we want to
communicate.
Communication Models: The model of communication defines those models which explain
the process of sending and receiving message or transferring information from one part to
another i.e. sender to receiver. There are three model Linear model, interactive model,
Transactional model.

Emotional Intelligence
Emotion is something what you are experience at a particular moment in a given situation.
Emotion is a subjective Feeling.
Positive emotions Negative emotions
Love/affection, Happiness/joy, Surprise Fear, sadness, Anger, disgust, shame
Intelligence is the ability to understand, learn and think.
Emotional intelligence: It is ability to understand, use and manage our own emotions in a
positive way to relives stress, communicate effectively, empathize with others and
overcome challenge. EI helps to build relationship with people. Emotional intelligence
refers to emotional awareness and emotional management skills which provides the ability
to balance emotion and reason so as to maintain long-term happiness.
Importance of Emotional Intelligence:
A High EQ --- Positive Feeling --- General Happiness
Low EQ --- Negative Feeling --- General Unhappiness
A high EQ --- High Perspective --- Behavior – Rational
A low EQ --- Wrong Perspective --- Behavior – not rational
A high EQ – Empathy
A low EQ – Self centered
Some myths about Emotional Intelligence: It is sometimes treated as being nice to
others which is not true. It does not mean giving free rein to feelings. There is a myth that
men have higher emotional intelligence than women. It is also myth that emotions
intelligence is fixed genetically and develops only in early childhood.
Goldman’s dimensions of Emotional Intelligence in the workplace:
Self-awareness: It is understanding self and knowledge of true feelings at the moment.
Self-Management: it means managing one’s own emotions.
Self-Motivation: To remain self-motivated and optimistic in any given situation.
Empathy: To feel the pain of others.
Social skills: These include the ability to read social situations and smoothness, in
interacting with others and forming network.
How to manage emotions: Self-awareness, Cooperation, managing emotions, resolving
conflicts, Empathy.
Models of emotional intelligence:
Ability model: Emotional abilities: emotional perception, emotional use, emotional
understanding, emotional management
Mixed Model: Self-awareness, Self-regulation, social skills, Empathy, Motivation
Trait model: The trait model is most recent model of EI given by Petrides. Petrides asserts
that there is no standard profile of an emotionally intelligence person.
Interpersonal Relations

Attitude: The way that you think, feel or behave. An attitude may be defined as the way a
person feel about something a person, a commodity, a situation or an idea. It expresses
an individual’s positive or negative feelings about some object.
Features of Attitude: it affects the behavior of an individual by putting him/her ready to
respond favorably or unfavorably to thing in his/her environment. Attitudes are acquired
though learning over a period of time. Attitude are invisible as they constitute a
psychological phenomenon that is observed directly. Attitude are pervasive.
Components of Attitudes: Informational or cognitive component – Affective or Emotional
component – Behavior component (Attitude).
Attitude and Beliefs: Beliefs means what you think is true even though it can’t be proven.
Attitude means the you express yourself in thoughts, words and actions because of your
values and beliefs.
Sources of Attitude:
Direct Personal Experience:
Association of Attitude: A new attitude object may be associated with an old attitude object
and the attitude towards the latter may be transferred by former to later.
Social Learning:
Formation of Attitude:
Psychological Factors: perception, ideas, beliefs, values, information etc.
Family Factors:
Social Factors: Societies differ in terms of language, culture, norms, values, beliefs etc.
Organizational factors: The nature of the job, factory or office layout, fellow workers,
quality of supervision, monetary rewards associated with the job, trade unionism, informal
groups, organization’s policies and practices.
Economic Factors: economic status in the society, rate of inflation in the economy,
government’s economic policies, and the country’s economic conditions.
Political factors: ideologies of the political parties, political stability, the behavior of the
political leaders affect the attitude of the people.

Cognitive Dissonance: Cognitive means mind and Dissonance means when we hold two
thoughts that are inconsistent with one another, basically that is dissonance. Dissonance
leads to inconsistency. Cognitive dissonance refers to any incompatibility that an individual
might perceive between two or more of his attitudes or between his behavior and attitudes.
Inconsistency leads to discomfort.
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: It is the process by which a person attempts ( consciously or
sub-subconsciously) to convert his attitudes, beliefs and expectations into a reality.
Job Related Attitude:
Job Satisfaction: It refers to an individual’s general attitude towards his job. High level of
job satisfaction gives positive attitude. And dissatisfied person gives negative attitude.
Job Involvement (Job specific): It measures the degree to which a person identifies
psychologically with his job and considers his perceived performance level important to his
self-worth. High job involvement means lower rates of labor turnover and absentism.
Organizational Commitment:
Transactional Analysis:
It refers to a method of analyzing and understanding interpersonal behavior. When people
interact, there is a social interaction in which one person responds to another. The study of
the these interactions between people is called transactional analysis.
Ego states: An ego state is a pattern of behavior that a person develops as he grows up
based on his or her accumulated network of feeling and experiences There are three types
Parent, Adult, Child.
Parent Ego: Parents are little strict, judgmental, overprotective, dogmatic, rule -making,
upright, distant.
Adult Ego: It is based on reasoning, seeking and providing information. A Person
interacting with adult ego views people are equal, worthy and responsible human beings. It
is based on rationality.
Child ego: it constitutes the emotional, creative, spontaneous, and impulsive components
of personality. It is characterized by non-logical and immediate actions which result in
immediate satisfaction.
The ego state are not tied to one’s chronological age. In course of daily interactions, adults
are likely to display all three ego states though one state may predominate. Conversations
often are a mixture of reactions from the parent, adult and child. Each ego state has both
positive and negative features. We can find out the ego state that is in control by carefully
observing not only the words used but also a person’s tone, posture, gesture, and facial
expressions.
There are four types transaction
(a)Complementary Transactions: There are complementary transactions when the ego
states of sender and receiver in the opening transaction are simply reversed in the
response. Here, the message by a person gets the predicted/expected response from
other people. Open communication.
(b) Non-complementary transactions: it occurs when the stimulus and response lines are
not parallel. This happens when the person who initiates the transaction expecting a clear
response but does not get it.
(c) ulterior transactions: Ulterior transactions are the most complex because the
communication has double meaning. It is like blocked transactions, are undesirable.
(d) Gallows transaction: it is signified by inappropriate love or a smile in transaction. A
smile in response to a person’s misfortune may serve as gallows transactions.
Life Positions: It is the basic beliefs or assumptions that we hold about ourselves and
others, which are used to justify our decisions and behaviors. Positive Life positions- I am
ok & you are not ok, I am ok and you are ok. Negative life positions – I am not ok and you
are not ok, I am not ok and you are ok.
I’m not ok – Here, people tend to feel bad about themselves and see the world as
you’re not ok miserable. People with this life position tend to give up. They don’t trust
(worst life others and have no confidence in themselves.
positions)
I’m not ok – Here, people often feel that others are generally more competent than
you are ok they are and generally have fewer problems. They tend to think that
they always get ‘the short end of the stick’.
I’m ok – you’re Here, people tend to watch others closely because they think no one
not ok can be trusted to do things as well as they can. There are often
 dominated by their crucial parents.
I’m ok – you’re This position is considered as the optimal and healthy position. People
ok occupying this position will hold the belief that all people are innately
worthy and valuable. People occupying this position are collaborative
and accepting of themselves and others.

Utility of Transactional analysis:

Training in TA can give fresh insights into their personalities and help them understand
why others sometimes respond as they do. Its major benefit is improve interpersonal
communication. TA can be used as a technique for the resolution of interpersonal conflict.
It can be used as a measure of control over subordinates.
Limitations of Transactional Analysis:
It is difficult to understand ego states and transactions between people in practice,
particularly for less educated people. TA can be used as a put-down in interpersonal
relationship. Some people might use this tool to manipulate behavior of others in the case
of ulterior transactions.
Stoke: It is unit of recognition or appreciation.
Johari Window: Joseph Luft, Harry Ingham
It was developed in 1955 at the university of California.

Johari Window Model

Known to self Not known to self
Open area Blind Area

Hidden Area Unknown Area

Known to others
Not known to others

Johari window is a technique for improving self-awareness within an individual. It helps in

understanding your relationship with yourself and others. Gaining insight into one’s
behavioral strengths and weakness. Assessing how one is perceived by others. How
others are impacted based on one’s behavior and conduct.
Open Quadrant: Such Behaviors, Feelings and motives you know about yourself and other
know about you. There are no secrets here.
Hidden quadrant (Private): such behavior feelings and motives you know about you, others
don not know about you. Secrets, past experiences, regret, dreams, hope, feelings etc.
Blind Quadrant: such behaviors, feelings and motives you do not know yourself but others
know it. Any talent, like/dislike. Others get to know through observation.
Unknown Quadrant: such Behaviors, feeling and motives you do not know about yourself,
and other also do not know. When a person is put in a life-threatening situation, he puts
such an effort to save his life which might not done earlier.

Decision Making & MBO