UNIT –II

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Binary Search Trees: Definition and Operations, AVL Trees: Definition and Operations,
Applications.
B Trees: Definition and Operations.
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2.1.INTRODUCTION

In a binary tree, every node can have a maximum of two children but there is no need to
maintain the order of nodes basing on their values. In a binary tree, the elements are arranged
in the order they arrive at the tree from top to bottom and left to right.

A binary tree has the following time complexities...

1. Search Operation - O(n)

2. Insertion Operation - O(1)
3. Deletion Operation - O(n)

2.1. BINARY SEARCH TREE

To enhance the performance of binary tree, we use a special type of binary tree known
as Binary Search Tree. Binary search tree mainly focuses on the search operation in a binary
tree. Binary search tree can be defined as follows...

Binary Search Tree is a binary tree in which every node contains only smaller values in
its left subtree and only larger values in its right subtree.

In a binary search tree, all the nodes in the left subtree of any node contains smaller values
and all the nodes in the right subtree of any node contains larger values as shown in the
following figure...

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2.1.1.OPERATIONS ON A BINARY SEARCH TREE

The following operations are performed on a binary search tree...

1. Search
2. Insertion
3. Deletion

1.Search Operation in BST

Searching means finding or locating some specific element or node within a data structure.
However, searching for some specific node in binary search tree is pretty easy due to the fact
that, element in BST are stored in a particular order.

1. Compare the element with the root of the tree.

2. If the item is matched then return the location of the node.
3. Otherwise check if item is less than the element present on root, if so then move to the
left sub-tree.
4. If not, then move to the right sub-tree.
5. Repeat this procedure recursively until match found.
6. If element is not found then return NULL.

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Algorithm:

Search (ROOT, ITEM)

o Step 1: IF ROOT -> DATA = ITEM OR ROOT = NULL

Return ROOT
ELSE
IF ROOT < ROOT -> DATA
Return search(ROOT -> LEFT, ITEM)
ELSE
Return search(ROOT -> RIGHT,ITEM)
[END OF IF]
[END OF IF]

o Step 2: END

2.Insert Operation in BST

Insert function is used to add a new element in a binary search tree at appropriate location.
Insert function is to be designed in such a way that, it must node violate the property of
binary search tree at each value.

1. Allocate the memory for tree.

2. Set the data part to the value and set the left and right pointer of tree, point to NULL.
3. If the item to be inserted, will be the first element of the tree, then the left and right of
this node will point to NULL.
4. Else, check if the item is less than the root element of the tree, if this is true, then
recursively perform this operation with the left of the root.
5. If this is false, then perform this operation recursively with the right sub-tree of the
root.

Insert (TREE, ITEM)

o Step 1: IF TREE = NULL

Allocate memory for TREE
SET TREE -> DATA = ITEM
SET TREE -> LEFT = TREE -> RIGHT = NULL
ELSE
IF ITEM < TREE -> DATA
Insert(TREE -> LEFT, ITEM)
ELSE
Insert(TREE -> RIGHT, ITEM)
[END OF IF]
[END OF IF]
o Step 2: END

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3.Delete Operation in BST

Delete function is used to delete the specified node from a binary search tree. However, we
must delete a node from a binary search tree in such a way, that the property of binary search
tree doesn't violate.
There are three situations of deleting a node from binary search tree.
a)The node to be deleted is a leaf node
It is the simplest case, in this case, replace the leaf node with the NULL and simple free the
allocated space.
In the following image, we are deleting the node 85, since the node is a leaf node, therefore
the node will be replaced with NULL and allocated space will be freed.

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Algorithm Delete (TREE, ITEM)
Step1: IFTREE=NULL
Write "item not found in the tree" ELSE IF ITEM < TREE -> DATA
Delete(TREE->LEFT,ITEM)
ELSE IF ITEM>TREE->DATA
Delete(TREE->RIGHT,ITEM)
ELSE IF TREE->LEFT AND TREE->RIGHT
SET TEMP = findLargestNode(TREE -> LEFT)
SET TREE -> DATA = TEMP -> DATA
Delete(TREE -> LEFT, TEMP -> DATA)
ELSE
SET TEMP = TREE
IF TREE -> LEFT = NULL AND TREE -> RIGHT = NULL
SET TREE = NULL
ELSE IF TREE -> LEFT != NULL
SET TREE = TREE -> LEFT
ELSE
SET TREE = TREE -> RIGHT
[END OF IF]
FREE TEMP
[END OF IF]
Step 2: END

2.2. AVL TREES

AVL tree is a height-balanced binary search tree. That means, an AVL tree is also a
binary search tree but it is a balanced tree. A binary tree is said to be balanced if, the
difference between the heights of left and right subtrees of every node in the tree is either -1,
0 or +1. In other words, a binary tree is said to be balanced if the height of left and right
children of every node differ by either -1, 0 or +1. In an AVL tree, every node maintains an
extra information known as balance factor. The AVL tree was introduced in the year 1962
by G.M. Adelson-Velsky and E.M. Landis.
An AVL tree is defined as follows...

An AVL tree is a balanced binary search tree. In an AVL tree, balance factor of every
node is either -1, 0 or +1.

Balance factor of a node is the difference between the heights of the left and right subtrees of
that node. The balance factor of a node is calculated either height of left subtree - height of

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right subtree (OR) height of right subtree - height of left subtree. In the following
explanation, we calculate as follows...

Balance factor = heightOfLeftSubtree - heightOfRightSubtree

Example of AVL Tree

The above tree is a binary search tree and every node is satisfying balance factor condition.
So this tree is said to be an AVL tree.
Every AVL Tree is a binary search tree but every Binary Search Tree need not be AVL
tree.

2.2.1.AVL Tree Rotations

In AVL tree, after performing operations like insertion and deletion we need to check
the balance factor of every node in the tree. If every node satisfies the balance factor
condition then we conclude the operation otherwise we must make it balanced. Whenever the
tree becomes imbalanced due to any operation we use rotation operations to make the tree
balanced.
Rotation operations are used to make the tree balanced.

Rotation is the process of moving nodes either to left or to right to make the tree
balanced.

There are four rotations and they are classified into two types.

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iv)Right Left Rotation (RL Rotation)

The RL Rotation is sequence of single right rotation followed by single left rotation. In RL
Rotation, at first every node moves one position to right and one position to left from the
current position. To understand RL Rotation, let us consider the following insertion operation
in AVL Tree...

2.2.2.Operations on an AVL Tree

The following operations are performed on AVL tree...

1. Search
2. Insertion
3. Deletion

i)Search Operation in AVL Tree

In an AVL tree, the search operation is performed with O(log n) time complexity. The search
operation in the AVL tree is similar to the search operation in a Binary search tree. We use
the following steps to search an element in AVL tree...

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  Step 1 - Read the search element from the user.
 Step 2 - Compare the search element with the value of root node in the tree.
 Step 3 - If both are matched, then display "Given node is found!!!" and terminate the
function
 Step 4 - If both are not matched, then check whether search element is smaller or
larger than that node value.
 Step 5 - If search element is smaller, then continue the search process in left subtree.
 Step 6 - If search element is larger, then continue the search process in right subtree.
 Step 7 - Repeat the same until we find the exact element or until the search element is
compared with the leaf node.
 Step 8 - If we reach to the node having the value equal to the search value, then
display "Element is found" and terminate the function.
 Step 9 - If we reach to the leaf node and if it is also not matched with the search
element, then display "Element is not found" and terminate the function.

ii)Insertion Operation in AVL Tree

In an AVL tree, the insertion operation is performed with O(log n) time complexity. In AVL
Tree, a new node is always inserted as a leaf node. The insertion operation is performed as
follows...

 Step 1 - Insert the new element into the tree using Binary Search Tree insertion logic.
 Step 2 - After insertion, check the Balance Factor of every node.
 Step 3 - If the Balance Factor of every node is 0 or 1 or -1 then go for next
operation.
 Step 4 - If the Balance Factor of any node is other than 0 or 1 or -1 then that tree is
said to be imbalanced. In this case, perform suitable Rotation to make it balanced and
go for next operation.

Example: Construct an AVL Tree by inserting numbers from 1 to 8.

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iii)Deletion Operation in AVL Tree

The deletion operation in AVL Tree is similar to deletion operation in BST. But after every
deletion operation, we need to check with the Balance Factor condition. If the tree is balanced
after deletion go for next operation otherwise perform suitable rotation to make the tree
Balanced.

The two types of rotations are L rotation and R rotation. Here, we will discuss R rotations.
L rotations are the mirror images of them.

If the node which is to be deleted is present in the left sub-tree of the critical node, then L
rotation needs to be applied else if, the node which is to be deleted is present in the right sub-
tree of the critical node, the R rotation will be applied.

Let us consider that, A is the critical node and B is the root node of its left sub-tree. If node
X, present in the right sub-tree of A, is to be deleted, then there can be three different
situations:

a)R0 rotation (Node B has balance factor 0 )

If the node B has 0 balance factor, and the balance factor of node A disturbed upon deleting
the node X, then the tree will be rebalanced by rotating tree using R0 rotation.

The critical node A is moved to its right and the node B becomes the root of the tree with T1
as its left sub-tree. The sub-trees T2 and T3 becomes the left and right sub-tree of the node A.
the process involved in R0 rotation is shown in the following image.

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2.3. B Tree

B Tree is a specialized m-way tree that can be widely used for disk access. A B-Tree of order
m can have at most m-1 keys and m children. One of the main reason of using B tree is its
capability to store large number of keys in a single node and large key values by keeping the
height of the tree relatively small.

A B tree of order m contains all the properties of an M way tree. In addition, it contains the
following properties.

1. Every node in a B-Tree contains at most m children.

2. Every node in a B-Tree except the root node and the leaf node contain at least m/2
children.
3. The root nodes must have at least 2 nodes.
4. All leaf nodes must be at the same level.

It is not necessary that, all the nodes contain the same number of children but, each node
must have m/2 number of nodes.

A B tree of order 4 is shown in the following image.

While performing some operations on B Tree, any property of B Tree may violate such as
number of minimum children a node can have. To maintain the properties of B Tree, the tree
may split or join.

2.3.1.Operations of B Trees
1.Searching
2.Insertion
3.Deletion

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i) Searching :
Searching in B Trees is similar to that in Binary search tree. For example, if we search for an
item 49 in the following B Tree. The process will something like following :

1. Compare item 49 with root node 78. since 49 < 78 hence, move to its left sub-tree.
2. Since, 40<49<56, traverse right sub-tree of 40.
3. 49>45, move to right. Compare 49.
4. match found, return.

Searching in a B tree depends upon the height of the tree. The search algorithm takes O(log
n) time to search any element in a B tree.

ii)Inserting

Insertions are done at the leaf node level. The following algorithm needs to be followed in
order to insert an item into B Tree.

1. Traverse the B Tree in order to find the appropriate leaf node at which the node can
be inserted.
2. If the leaf node contain less than m-1 keys then insert the element in the increasing
order.
3. Else, if the leaf node contains m-1 keys, then follow the following steps.
o Insert the new element in the increasing order of elements.
o Split the node into the two nodes at the median.
o Push the median element upto its parent node.
o If the parent node also contain m-1 number of keys, then split it too by
following the same steps.

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Example:
Insert the node 8 into the B Tree of order 5 shown in the following image.

8 will be inserted to the right of 5, therefore insert 8.

The node, now contain 5 keys which is greater than (5 -1 = 4 ) keys. Therefore split the node
from the median i.e. 8 and push it up to its parent node shown as follows.

iii)Deletion

Deletion is also performed at the leaf nodes. The node which is to be deleted can either be a
leaf node or an internal node. Following algorithm needs to be followed in order to delete a
node from a B tree.

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 1. Locate the leaf node.
2. If there are more than m/2 keys in the leaf node then delete the desired key from the
node.
3. If the leaf node doesn't contain m/2 keys then complete the keys by taking the element
from eight or left sibling.
o If the left sibling contains more than m/2 elements then push its largest
element up to its parent and move the intervening element down to the node
where the key is deleted.
o If the right sibling contains more than m/2 elements then push its smallest
element up to the parent and move intervening element down to the node
where the key is deleted.
4. If neither of the sibling contain more than m/2 elements then create a new leaf node
by joining two leaf nodes and the intervening element of the parent node.
5. If parent is left with less than m/2 nodes then, apply the above process on the parent
too.

If the the node which is to be deleted is an internal node, then replace the node with its in-
order successor or predecessor. Since, successor or predecessor will always be on the leaf
node hence, the process will be similar as the node is being deleted from the leaf node.

Example 1

Delete the node 53 from the B Tree of order 5 shown in the following figure.

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53 is present in the right child of element 49. Delete it.

Now, 57 is the only element which is left in the node, the minimum number of elements that
must be present in a B tree of order 5, is 2. it is less than that, the elements in its left and right
sub-tree are also not sufficient therefore, merge it with the left sibling and intervening
element of parent i.e. 49.
The final B tree is shown as follows.

2.3.2.Application of B tree

B tree is used to index the data and provides fast access to the actual data stored on the disks
since, the access to value stored in a large database that is stored on a disk is a very time
consuming process.

Searching an un-indexed and unsorted database containing n key values needs O(n) running
time in worst case. However, if we use B Tree to index this database, it will be searched in
O(log n) time in worst case.

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