USING CONVERSION FUNCTIONS

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Besides the SQL utility functions, Oracle inbuilt function library contains type conversion functions.
There may be scenarios where the query expects input in a specific data type, but it receives it in a
different data type. In such cases, Oracle implicitly tries to convert the unexpected value to a
compatible data type which can be substituted in place and application continuity is not
compromised. Type conversion can be either implicitly done by Oracle or explicitly done by the
programmer.

Implicit data type conversion works based on a matrix which showcases the Oracle's support for
internal type casting. Besides these rules, Oracle offers type conversion functions which can be
used in the queries for explicit conversion and formatting. As a matter of fact, it is recommended
to perform explicit conversion instead of relying on software intelligence. Though implicit
conversion works well, but to eliminate the skew chances where bad inputs could be difficult to
typecast internally.

Implicit Data Type Conversion

A VARCHAR2 or CHAR value can be implicitly converted to NUMBER or DATE type value by Oracle.
Similarly, a NUMBER or DATA type value can be automatically converted to character data by
Oracle server. Note that the impicit interconversion happens only when the character represents
the a valid number or date type value respectively.

For example, examine the below SELECT queries. Both the queries will give the same result
because Oracle internally treats 15000 and '15000' as same.

Query-1

SELECT employee_id,first_name,salary
FROM employees
WHERE salary > 15000;

Query-2

SELECT employee_id,first_name,salary
FROM employees
WHERE salary > '15000';

Explicit Data Type Conversion

SQL Conversion functions are single row functions which are capable of typecasting column value,
literal or an expression . TO_CHAR, TO_NUMBER and TO_DATE are the three functions which
perform cross modification of data types.

TO_CHAR function
TO_CHAR function is used to typecast a numeric or date input to character type with a format
model optional.

Syntax

TO_CHAR(number1, [format], [nls_parameter])

For number to character conversion, nls parameters can be used to specify decimal characters,
group separator, local currency model, or international currency model. It is an optional
specification - if not available, session level nls settings will be used. For date to character
conversion, the nls parameter can be used to specify the day and month names, as applicable.

Dates can be formatted in multiple formats after converting to character types using TO_CHAR
function. The TO_CHAR function is used to have Oracle 11g display dates in a particular format.
Format models are case sensitive and must be enclosed within single quotes.

Consider the below SELECT query. The query format the HIRE_DATE and SALARY columns of
EMPLOYEES table using TO_CHAR function.

SELECT first_name,
TO_CHAR (hire_date, 'MONTH DD, YYYY') HIRE_DATE,
TO_CHAR (salary, '$99999.99') Salary
FROM employees
WHERE rownum < 5;

FIRST_NAME HIRE_DATE SALARY

-------------------- ------------------ ----------
Steven JUNE 17, 2003 $24000.00
Neena SEPTEMBER 21, 2005 $17000.00
Lex JANUARY 13, 2001 $17000.00
Alexander JANUARY 03, 2006 $9000.00

The first TO_CHAR is used to convert the hire date to the date format MONTH DD, YYYY i.e. month
spelled out and padded with spaces, followed by the two-digit day of the month, and then the four-
digit year. If you prefer displaying the month name in mixed case thatis, " December " , simply use this
case in the format argument: ′ MonthDD, YYYY ′ .

The second TO_CHAR function in Figure 10-39 is used to format the SALARY to display the
currency sign and two decimal positions.

Oracle offers comprehensive set of format models. The below table shows the list of format
models which can be used to typecast date and number values as character using TO_CHAR.

Format Model Description

,comma It returns a comma in the specified position. You can specify multiple
commas in a number format model. Restrictions:A comma element cannot
begin a number format model. A comma cannot appear to the right of a
decimal character or period in a number format model.

.period Returns a decimal point, which is a period . in the specified position.

Restriction: You can specify only one period in a number format model

$ Returns value with a leading dollar sign

0 Returns leading zeros. Returns trailing zeros.

9 Returns value with the specified number of digits with a leading space if
positive or with a leading minus if negative. Leading zeros are blank, except
for a zero value, which returns a zero for the integer part of the fixed-point
number.

B Returns blanks for the integer part of a fixed-point number when the integer
part is zero regardlessof " 0 " sintheformatmodel.

C Returns in the specified position the ISO currency symbol

thecurrentvalueoftheNLSISOCURRENCYparameter.

D Returns in the specified position the decimal character, which is the current
value of the NLS_NUMERIC_CHARACTER parameter. The default is a period .
. Restriction: You can specify only one decimal character in a number
format model.

EEE Returns a value using in scientific notation.

FM Returns a value with no leading or trailing blanks.

G Returns in the specified position the group separator

thecurrentvalueoftheNLSNUMERICCHARACTERparameter. You can specify multiple
 group separators in a number format model. Restriction: A group separator
cannot appear to the right of a decimal character or period in a number
format model

L Returns in the specified position the local currency symbol

thecurrentvalueoftheNLSCURRENCYparameter.

MI Returns negative value with a trailing minus sign − . Returns positive value
with a trailing blank. Restriction: The MI format element can appear only in
the last position of a number format model.

PR Returns negative value in . It can appear only in the end of a number format
model.

RN,rm Returns a value as Roman numerals in uppercase. Returns a value as

Roman numerals in lowercase. Value can be an integer between 1 and
3999.

S Returns negative value with a leading or trailing minus sign − . Returns

positive value with a leading or trailing plus sign + . Restriction: The S format
element can appear only in the first or last position of a number format
model.

TM "Text minimum". Returns indecimaloutput the smallest number of characters

possible. This element is case-insensitive.

U Returns in the specified position the "Euro" orother dual currency symbol
thecurrentvalueoftheNLSDUALCURRENCYparameter.

V Returns a value multiplied by 10n andifnecessary, rounditup, where n is the

number of 9's after the "V".

X Returns the hexadecimal value of the specified number of digits.

TO_NUMBER function
The TO_NUMBER function converts a character value to a numeric datatype. If the string being
converted contains nonnumeric characters, the function returns an error.

Syntax

TO_NUMBER (string1, [format], [nls_parameter])

The below table shows the list of format models which can be used to typecast character values as
number using TO_NUMBER.

Format Model Description

CC Century

SCC Century BC prefixed with -

YYYY Year with 4 numbers

SYYY Year BC prefixed with -

IYYY ISO Year with 4 numbers

YY Year with 2 numbers

RR Year with 2 numbers with Y2k compatibility

YEAR Year in characters

SYEAR Year in characters, BC prefixed with -

BC BC/AD Indicator

Q Quarter in numbers 1, 2, 3, 4

MM Month of year 01, 02...12

MONTH Month in characters i. e. January

MON JAN, FEB

WW Week number i. e. 1

W Week number of the month i. e. 5

IW Week number of the year in ISO standard.

DDD Day of year in numbers i. e. 365

DD Day of the month in numbers i. e. 28

D Day of week in numbersi. e. 7

DAY Day of the week in characters i. e. Monday

FMDAY Day of the week in characters i. e. Monday

DY Day of the week in short character description i. e. SUN

J Julian Day numberofdayssinceJanuary14713BC, whereJanuary14713BCis1inOracle

HH,H12 Hour number of the day 1 − 12

HH24 Hour number of the day with 24Hours notation 0 − 23

AM, PM AM or PM

MI, SS Number of minutes and seconds i. e. 59 ,

SSSSS Number of seconds this day.

DS Short date format. Depends on NLS-settings. Use only with timestamp.

DL Long date format. Depends on NLS-settings. Use only with timestamp.

E Abbreviated era name. Valid only for calendars: Japanese Imperial, ROC
Official, Thai Buddha.

EE The full era name

FF The fractional seconds. Use with timestamp.

FF1..FF9 The fractional seconds. Use with timestamp. The digit controls the number of
decimal digits used for fractional seconds.

FM Fill Mode: suppresses blanks in output from conversion

FX Format Exact: requires exact pattern matching between data and format
model.

IYY OR IY OR I The last 3,2,1 digits of the ISO standard year. Output only

RM The Roman numeral representation of the month I. . XII

RR The last 2 digits of the year.

RRRR The last 2 digits of the year when used for output. Accepts fout-digit years
when used for input.
SP Spelled format. Can appear of the end of a number element. The result is
always in english. For example month 10 in format MMSP returns "ten"

SPTH Spelled and ordinal format; 1 results in first.

TH Converts a number to it's ordinal format. For example 1 becoms 1st.

TS Short time format. Depends on NLS-settings. Use only with timestamp.

TZD Abbreviated time zone name. ie PST.

TZH,TZM Time zone hour/minute displacement.

TZR Time zone region

X Local radix character. In America this is a period .

The SELECT queries below accept numbers as character inputs and prints them following the
format specifier.

SELECT TO_NUMBER('121.23', '9G999D99')

FROM DUAL

TO_NUMBER('121.23','9G999D99')
------------------------------
121.23

SELECT TO_NUMBER('1210.73', '9999.99')

FROM DUAL;

TO_NUMBER('1210.73','9999.99')
------------------------------
1210.73

TO_DATE function
The function takes character values as input and returns formatted date equivalent of the same.
The TO_DATE function allows users to enter a date in any format, and then it converts the entry
into the default format used by Oracle 11g.

Syntax:

TO_DATE( string1, [ format_mask ], [ nls_language ] )

A format_mask argument consists of a series of elements representing exactly what the data
should look like and must be entered in single quotation marks.

Format Model Description

YEAR Year, spelled out

YYYY 4-digit year

YYY,YY,Y Last 3, 2, or 1 digits of year.

IYY,IY,I Last 3, 2, or 1 digits of ISO year.

IYYY 4-digit year based on the ISO standard

RRRR Accepts a 2-digit year and returns a 4-digit year.

Q Quarter of year 1, 2, 3, 4; JAN − MAR = 1.

MM Month 01 − 12; JAN = 01.

MON Abbreviated name of month.

MONTH Name of month, padded with blanks to length of 9 characters.

RM Roman numeral month I − XII; JAN = I.

WW Week of year 1 − 53 where week 1 starts on the first day of the year and
continues to the seventh day of the year.

W Week of month 1 − 5 where week 1 starts on the first day of the month and
ends on the seventh.

IW Week of year 1 − 52or1 − 53 based on the ISO standard.

D Day of week 1 − 7.

DAY Name of day.

DD Day of month 1 − 31.

DDD Day of year 1 − 366.

DY Abbreviated name of day.

J Julian day; the number of days since January 1, 4712 BC.

HH12 Hour of day 1 − 12.

HH24 Hour of day 0 − 23.

MI,SS Minute 0 − 59.

SSSSS Seconds past midnight 0 − 86399.

FF Fractional seconds. Use a value from 1 to 9 after FF to indicate the number

of digits in the fractional seconds. For example, 'FF4'.

AM,PM Meridian indicator

AD,BC AD, BC indicator

TZD Daylight savings information. For example, 'PST'

TZH,TZM,TZR Time zone hour/minute/region.

The following example converts a character string into a date:

SELECT TO_DATE('January 15, 1989, 11:00 A.M.', 'Month dd, YYYY, HH:MI A.M.',
'NLS_DATE_LANGUAGE = American')
FROM DUAL;

TO_DATE('
---------
15-JAN-89

General Functions
General functions are used to handle NULL values in database. The objective of the general NULL
handling functions is to replace the NULL values with an alternate value. We shall briefly see
through these functions below.

NVL
The NVL function substitutes an alternate value for a NULL value.
Syntax:

NVL( Arg1, replace_with )

In the syntax, both the parameters are mandatory. Note that NVL function works with all types of
data types. And also that the data type of original string and the replacement must be in
compatible state i.e. either same or implicitly convertible by Oracle.

If arg1 is a character value, then oracle converts replacement string to the data type compatible
with arg1 before comparing them and returns VARCHAR2 in the character set of expr1. If arg1 is
numeric, then Oracle determines the argument with highest numeric precedence, implicitly
converts the other argument to that data type, and returns that data type.

The SELECT statement below will display 'n/a' if an employee has been not assigned to any job yet
i.e. JOB_ID is NULL. Otherwise, it would display the actual JOB_ID value.

SELECT first_name, NVL(JOB_ID, 'n/a')

FROM employees;

NVL2
As an enhancement over NVL, Oracle introduced a function to substitute value not only for NULL
columns values but also for NOT NULL columns. NVL2 function can be used to substitute an
alternate value for NULL as well as non NULL value.

Syntax:

NVL2( string1, value_if_NOT_null, value_if_null )

The SELECT statement below would display 'Bench' if the JOB_CODE for an employee is NULL. For a
definite not null value of JOB CODE, it would show constant value 'Job Assigned'.

SQL> SELECT NVL2(JOB_CODE, 'Job Assigned', 'Bench')

FROM employees;

NULLIF
The NULLIF function compares two arguments expr1 and expr2. If expr1 and expr2 are equal, it
returns NULL; else, it returns expr1. Unlike the other null handling function, first argument can't be
NULL.

Syntax:

NULLIF (expr1, expr2)

Note that first argument can be an expression that evaluates to NULL, but it can't be the literal
NULL. Both the parameters are mandatory for the function to execute.

The below query returns NULL since both the input values, 12 are equal.

SELECT NULLIF (12, 12)

FROM DUAL;

Similarly, below query return 'SUN' since both the strings are not equal.

SELECT NULLIF ('SUN', 'MOON')

FROM DUAL;
COALESCE
COALESCE function, a more generic form of NVL, returns the first non-null expression in the
argument list. It takes minimum two mandatory parameters but maximum arguments has no limit.

Syntax:

COALESCE (expr1, expr2, ... expr_n )

Consider the below SELECT query. It selects the first not null value fed into address fields for an
employee.

SELECT COALESCE (address1, address2, address3) Address

FROM employees;

Interestingly, the working of COALESCE function is similar to IF..ELSIF..ENDIF construct. The query
above can be re-written as -

IF address1 is not null THEN

result := address1;
ELSIF address2 is not null THEN
result := address2;
ELSIF address3 is not null THEN
result := address3;
ELSE
result := null;
END IF;

Conditional Functions
Oracle provides conditional functions DECODE and CASE to impose conditions even in SQL
statement.

The DECODE function

The function is the SQL equivalence of IF..THEN..ELSE conditional procedural statement. DECODE
works with values/columns/expressions of all data types.

Syntax:

DECODE (expression, search, result [, search, result]... [, default])

DECODE function compares expression against each search value in order. If equality exists
between expression and search argument, then it returns the corresponding result. In case of no
match, default value is returned, if defined, else NULL. In case of any type compatibility mismatch,
oracle internally does possible implicit conversion to return the results.

As a matter of fact, Oracle considers two nulls to be equivalent while working with DECODE
function.

SELECT DECODE(NULL,NULL,'EQUAL','NOT EQUAL')

FROM DUAL;

DECOD
-----
EQUAL

If expression is null, then Oracle returns the result of the first search that is also null. The maximum
number of components in the DECODE function is 255.

SELECT first_name, salary, DECODE (hire_date, sysdate,'NEW JOINEE','EMPLOYEE')

 FROM employees;

CASE expression
CASE expressions works on the same concept as DECODE but differs in syntax and usage.

Syntax:

CASE [ expression ]
WHEN condition_1 THEN result_1
WHEN condition_2 THEN result_2
...
WHEN condition_n THEN result_n
ELSE result
END

Oracle search starts from left and moves rightwards until it finds a true condition, and then returns
result expression associated with it. If no condition is found to be true, and an ELSE clause exists,
then Oracle returns result defined with else. Otherwise, Oracle returns null.

The maximum number of arguments in a CASE expression is 255. All expressions count toward this
limit, including the initial expression of a simple CASE expression and the optional ELSE
expression. Each WHEN ... THEN pair counts as two arguments. To avoid exceeding this limit, you
can nest CASE expressions so that the return_expr itself is a CASE expression.

SELECT first_name, CASE WHEN salary < 200 THEN 'GRADE 1'
WHEN salary > 200 AND salary < 5000 THEN 'GRADE 2'
ELSE 'GRADE 3'
END CASE
FROM employees;

ENAM CASE
---- -------
JOHN GRADE 2
EDWIN GRADE 3
KING GRADE 1
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