CAIE-IGCSE-Computer Science - Theory 21/11/2024, 08:54

ZNOTES.ORG

UPDATED TO 2023-2025 SYLLABUS

CAIE IGCSE

COMPUTER SCIENCE
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
Prepared for Chin for personal use only.

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As can be seen it starts from 1 and then goes to 128 from

1. Data Representation left to right
Now values with 1 are to be added together, giving the
final answer, as for the example, it is 128 + 64 + 32 + 8 +
1.1. Number Systems 4 + 2 = 238

Binary System Converting Denary to Binary

Base 2 number system Take the value and successively divide it by 2, creating a
It has two possible values only (0 and 1) table like follows:
0 represents OFF, and 1 represents ON
A point to be noted is that the most left bit is called the 2 142
MSB (Most Significant Bit) 2 71 Remainder: 0
2 35 Remainder: 1
Denary System 2 17 Remainder: 1
2 8 Remainder: 1
Base 10 number system 2 4 Remainder: 0
Has values from 0 to 9 2 2 Remainder: 0
2 1 Remainder: 0
Hexadecimal (aka Hex) 0 Remainder: 1

Base 16 number system Note that when the value itself is not divisible by 2, it is
Have values from 0 to 9 followed by A to F divided by the previous value of the current number and
A represents 10, B represents 11 and so on until 15, 1 is added to the remainder column for that specific
which is F number
When you reach 0, the remainder has to be read from
Binary Value Hexadecimal Value Denary Value bottom to top giving us the binary value ( as in this case,
0000 0 0 it is 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 )
0001 1 1
0010 2 2 Converting Hexadecimal to Binary
0011 3 3
0100 4 4 Separate each value from each other and convert them
0101 5 5 to denary
0110 6 6 Each separate denary value to be converted to binary
0111 7 7 All the binary values to be merged together
1000 8 8 e.g.
1001 9 9
1010 A 10 Hexadecimal : 2 1 F D
1011 B 11 Denary : 2 1 15 13
1100 C 12
Binary : 0010 0001 1111 1101
1101 D 13
Final Answer: 0010000111111101
1110 E 14
1111 F 15
Converting Binary to Hexadecimal

1.2. Number Conversions Divide the binary value into groups of 4 starting from the
right. If at the end, the last division is less than 4, add 0s
Converting Binary to Denary until it reaches 4
For each group, find the denary value as shown above,
Place the binary value in columns of 2 raised to the and then convert each denary value to its corresponding
power of the number of values from the right starting hexadecimal value (if less than 10, then itself, else, 10 is
from 0. e.g. For binary value 11101110, place it in a table A, 11 is B, 12 is C, 13 is D, 14 is E and 15 is F).
like this: After conversion, just put all the hexadecimal values in
order to get the final answer
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0

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Note: We move from RHS to LHS, and when adding values,
Given Value : 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 we use the rules given above. If the bit crosses the limit
When grouped: 10 0001 1111 1101 (overflows), we put the value in brackets, denoting it is
overflow.
After 2 values added to left: 0010 0001 1111 1101
iii. The solution would now be (1) 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0
After Conversion to Denary: 2 1 15 13
Logical Shifts
Denary to Hexadecimal: 21FD
The logical shift means moving a binary value to the left
Converting Hexadecimal to Denary or the right
When doing a logical shift, keep in mind that the bit
Convert the value to binary as shown above, and then being emptied is going to become 0
convert the final answer to denary
Explanation with Example
Converting Denary to Hexadecimal
Shifting 10101010 - 1 place left:
Convert the value to binary, and then convert it to 1. The furthest bit in the direction to be logically
hexadecimal as explained above shifted is removed ( in this case, one at the LHS is
removed) - ==(if it were two places, 2 bits would
1.3. Binary Calculations have been removed)==
2. Every bit is moved in given places to the given
Binary values are not added the way denary values are direction ( every bit is moved one place to the left
added, as when adding 1 and 1, we cannot write two in this case, and the leftover bit in the right is
because it doesn’t exist in binary. marked 0, so 10101010 would become 01010100)

Points to Note: Two’s Complement (Binary Numbers)

0+0=0 Two’s complement is a method used to represent

1+0/0+1=1 negative values in binary. Here, the MSB ( Most
Significant Bit) is replaced from 128 to -128; thus, the
1 + 1 = 0 (1 carry)
range of values in a two’s complement byte is -128 to 127
1 + 1 + 1 = 1 (1 carry)

Converting Binary Values to Two’s Complement

Overflow
Firstly, write the binary value and locate the first one
When adding two values, if the solution exceeds the limit
from the right; e.g., 1101100 would have the first one at
of given values, e.g., the solution has 9 bits, but the
the third position from the right.
question had 8 bits per value, the 9th bit (most left bit) is
Now, switch every value to the left of the first one
called overflow.
located above (not switching the one), e.g., the value in
This indicates that the memory doesn’t have enough
our example becomes 0010100, which is the two’s
space to store the answer to the addition done in the
complement of itself.
previous part.
Converting negative values to two complement
Steps to add Two Values (With Example)
Find the binary equivalent of the value ignoring the - sign
The values we will add are 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 and 1 1 0 1 1 1 1
Convert the binary value to two’s complement
0
Make the MSB 1, if not already
1. Convert both the bytes into 8 bits (add zero to the
left-hand side to match them).
e.g., 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 would become 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0
Converting Two’s Complement Value to Denary:
2. Add the values as follows with the points given
We do it the same way as a normal value is converted
above
from binary to denary; we only replace 128 with -12,8
Carry 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 e.g., for 1011101,0 we do the:
Byte 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0
-128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
Byte 2 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0
1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0
OVERFLOW
Solution 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0
-128 + 32 + 16 + 8 + 2 = -70

1.4. Use of the Hexadecimal System

Examples:

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Defining colours in Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) ASCII does not contain all of the international languages
Media Access Control (MAC) addresses (a number that thus, Unicode is used to solve this problem
uniquely identifies a device on a network) The first 128 values are the same as ASCII.
Assembly languages and machine code Unicode supports up to four bytes per character, storing
Memory Dumps multiple languages and more data.
Debugging (method to find errors in a program) To represent text in binary, a computer uses a
Display error codes (numbers refer to the memory character set, a collection of characters and the
location of the error) corresponding binary codes that represent them.
IP (Internet Protocol) addresses
Sound
Memory Dumps
Sound is analogue, and for it to be converted to digital
Hexadecimal is used when developing new software or form, it is sampled
when trying to trace errors. The sound waves are sampled at regular time intervals
Memory dump is when the memory contents are output where the amplitude is measured. However, it cannot be
to a printer or monitor. measured precisely, so approximate values are stored
Assembly code and machine code (low-level languages)
How is Sound Recorded
Computer memory is machine code/ assembly code
Using hexadecimal makes writing code easier, faster, and The amplitude of the sound wave is first determined at
less error-prone than binary. set time intervals
Using machine code (binary) takes a long time to key in The value is converted to digital form
values and is prone to errors. Each sample of the sound wave is then encoded as a
series of binary digits
A series of readings gives an approximate representation
1.5. Text, Sound and Images of the sound wave

ASCII Sampling Resolution:

The standard ASCII code character set consists of 7-bit The number of bits per sample is known as the sampling
code that represents the letters, numbers and characters resolution (aka bit depth)
found on a standard keyboard, together with 32 control Increasing the sampling resolution increases the
codes accuracy of the sampled sound as more detail is stored
Uppercase and lowercase characters have di!erent ASCII about the amplitude of the sound.
values Increasing the sampling resolution also increases the
Every subsequent value in ASCII is the previous value + 1. memory usage of the file as more bits are being used to
e.g. “a” is 97 in ASCII, “b” will be 98 (which is 97 + 1) store the data.
Important ASCII values (in denary) to remember are as
follows: Sampling Rate
0 is at 48 The sampling rate is the number of sound samples taken
A is at 65 per second, which is measured in Hertz (Hz)
a is at 97 A higher sampling rate would allow more accurate sound
as fewer estimations will be done between samples.
ASCII uses one byte to store the value
When the ASCII value of a character is converted to Images
binary, it can be seen that the sixth-bit changes from 1 to
0 when going from lowercase to uppercase of a Bitmap Images
character, and the rest remains the same. e.g.
Bitmap images are made up of pixels
A bitmap image is stored in a computer as a series of
binary numbers

Colour Depth
Unicode

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The number of bits representing each colour is called the Calculation of File Size
colour depth.
An 8-bit colour depth means that each pixel can be one The file size of an image is calculated as image resolution
of 256 colours (because 2 to the power of 8 = 256) (in pixels) × colour depth (in bits)
A 1-bit colour depth means each pixel can store one The size of a mono sound file is calculated as sample rate
colour (because 2 to the power of 1 is 2) - ( This is done (in Hz) × sample resolution (in bits) × length of sample (in
as the bit can either be 0 or 1, with 0 being white and 1 seconds). (For a stereo sound file, you would
being black) then multiply the result by two.)
Increasing colour depth increases the size of the file
when storing an image.
1.7. File Types
Image Resolution
Musical Instrument Digital Format (MIDI)
Image resolution refers to the number of pixels that Storage of music files
make up an image; for example, an image could contain A communications protocol that allows electronic
4096 × 3072 pixels.
musical instruments to interact with each other
Photographs with a lower resolution have less detail Stored as a series of demands but no actual music notes
than those with a higher resolution.
Uses 8-bit serial transmission (asynchronous)
When a bitmap image is ‘ blurry ‘ or ‘ fizzy ’ due to having
Each MIDI command has a sequence of bytes:
a low amount of pixels in it or when zoomed, it is known
The first byte is the status byte – which informs the
as being pixelated.
MIDI device what function to perform
High-resolution images use high amounts of memory as
Encoded in the status byte is the MIDI channel
compared to low-resolution ones.
(operates on 16 di!erent channels)
Examples of MIDI commands:
1.6. Measurement of the Size of Note on/o!: indicates that a key has been pressed
Key pressure: indicates how hard it has been pressed
Computer Memories
(loudness of music)
A binary digit is referred to as a BIT It needs a lot of memory storage
8 bits is a byte
MP3
4 bits is a nibble
Byte is used to measure memory size It uses technology known as Audio Compression to
convert music and other sounds into an MP3 file format
IECB System (Most Common) This compression reduces the normal file size by 90%
Done using file compression algorithms, which use
Name of memory No. of Perceptual Music Shaping
Equivalent Denary Value
size Bytes Removes sounds that the human ear cannot hear
1 kibibyte (1KiB) 210 1 024 bytes properly
1 mibibyte (1MiB) 220 1 048 576 bytes Certain sounds are removed without a!ecting the
1 gibibyte (1GiB) 230 1 073 741 824 bytes quality, too much
CD files are converted using File Compression Software
1 tibibyte (1TiB) 240 1 099 511 627 776 bytes
Use lossy format as the original file is lost following the
1 125 899 906 842 624
1 pibibyte (1PiB) 250 bytes compression algorithm

MP4
Conventional System
This format allows the storage of multimedia files rather
Name of memory No. of than just sound
Equivalent Denary Value
size Bytes Music, videos, photos and animations can be stored
1 kilobyte (1KB) 103 1 000 bytes Videos could be streamed without losing any real
1 megabyte (1MB) 106 1 000 000 bytes discernible quality
1 gigabyte (1GB) 109 1 000 000 000 bytes
Joint Photographic Experts Group (JPEG)
1 terabyte (1TB) 1012 1 000 000 000 000 bytes
1 000 000 000 000 000
1 petabyte (1PB) 1015
bytes

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JPEG is a file format used to reduce photographic file

sizes
2.1. Types and Methods of Data
Reducing picture resolution is changing the number of Transmission
pixels per centimetre
When a photographic file undergoes compression, file Data Packets
size is reduced
JPEG will reduce the raw bitmap image by a factor Packet Structure -
between 5 and 15 Header
Contains the IP address of the sender and the
1.8. Lossless and Lossy File receiver
The sequence number of the packet
Compression Size of the packet
Payload
Lossless File Compression Contains the actual data
Trailer
All the data bits from the original file are reconstructed
Includes a method of identifying the end of the
again when the file is uncompressed.
packet
Important for files where the loss of data would be
Error-Checking methods
disastrous (spreadsheet)
Packet Switching - Method of data transmission where
An algorithm is used to compress data
the data is broken into multiple packets. Packets are
No data is lost
then sent independently from start to end and
Repeated patterns/text are grouped together in indexes
reassembled at the receiver’s computer.

Run-Length Encoding Advantages Disadvantages

There is no need to create a
It reduces the size of a string of adjacent, identical data Packets may be lost
single line of communication
(e.g. repeated colours in an image) Possible to overcome failed or More prone to errors in real-
A repeating string is encoded into two values: the first busy nodes time streaming
value represents the number of identical data items (e.g. Delay at the receiver while the
High data transmission speed
characters), and the second value represents the code of packets are being re-ordered
the data item (such as ASCII code if it is a keyboard Easy to expand package usage
character), e.g. ‘aaaaabbbbccddddd’ becomes “05 97 04
98 02 99 05 100.” Data Transmission
RLE is only e!ective where there is a long run of
repeated units/bits Simplex data transmission is in one direction only (e.g.
One di#culty is that RLE compression isn't perfect for computer to printer)
strings like "cdcdcdcdcd". We use a flag to solve this; e.g., Half-duplex data transmission is in both directions but
255 can be made as the flag. Now 255 will be put before not at the same time (e.g., walkie-talkie)
every repeating value, e.g. our previous example Full-duplex data transmission is in both directions
becomes 255 05 97 255 04 98 255 02 99 255 05 simultaneously (e.g. broadband connection on the phone
100 where 255 now indicates that the next character/set line)
of characters is approaching Serial data transmission is when data is sent one bit at a
time over a single wire
Lossy File Compression Parallel data transmission is when data of several bits (1
byte) are sent down several wires at the same time.
The file compression algorithm eliminates unnecessary
data bits like in MP3 and JPEG formats. Comparison of Serial and Parallel Data
It is impossible to get the original file back once it is Transmission
compressed
Reduces file quality
In this, the image's resolution and colour depth are
reduced.

2. Data Transmission

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Serial Parallel
Better for longer distances Better for short distances To overcome the limitations of parity bits, Parity blocks
(Telephone Lines) (Internal circuits) would be used.
Expensive (More hardware
Cheaper Option
required)
Used when the size of data
Used when speed is necessary
transmitted is small
Slower Option Faster than Serial

2.2. Universal Serial Bus (USB)

USB is an asynchronous serial data transmission method
USB consists of:
Four-wire shielded cable
Two wires are used for power and earth Any changes in bits would be identified through the rows
Two wires are used in data transmission and columns

Advantages Disadvantages Checksum

Transmission rate is less than
Automatically detected Whenever a block of data needs to be sent, the sender
120 MB/sec
Only fit one way, prevents Maximum cable length is about would calculate the checksum value using a specific
incorrect connections 5 metres algorithm.
Di!erent data transmission Once the data has been sent, The receiver would
rates calculate the checksum again with the same set of data
Backwards compatible and the same algorithm used before.
Industry-standard The receiver would then compare the value received and
the newly calculated value. If they aren’t matched, A
2.3. Methods of Error Detection request is made to re-send the data.

Echo Check
Parity Checks
Once the data has been sent, The receiver will send the
It uses the number of 1-bits in a byte
data back to the sender for verification.
Type Types -
The sender would compare the received and original
Even - Even number of 1-bits
data for errors.
Odd - Odd numbers of 1-bits
The only downside is that we wouldn’t know if the error
Example (Even Parity) -
occurred when sending the data or sending the data
0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 back for verification.

The LMB (Left-Most Bit) is the parity bit. As the number Check Digits
of 1s is even, the parity bit would be set to even.
Check digits are calculated from all the other digits in the
Limitations with Parity Checks
data (ex-codes). The check digit would be the last digit of
Two bits may change during transmission; therefore
the code.
error is not found
These are used to identify mistyping errors such as -
Even though the parity checks would reveal the errors,
6372 typed as 6379
the bit(s) changed wouldn’t be identified
8432 typed as 842
Parity Blocks
Automatic Repeat Requests (ARQs)

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Uses acknowledgements and timeouts to make sure the Processor: The processor contains the Arithmetic and
user received the data Logic Unit (ALU)
The receiver would check the data for any errors; if none Control Unit: The control unit controls the operation of
are found, a positive acknowledgement is sent to the the memory, processor and input/output devices
sender. However, if errors are found, a negative Arithmetic Logic Unit: Carries out the logic system like
acknowledgement will be sent, and the data will be sent calculations
again. System Clock: The system clock is used to produce
The sender uses timeouts to wait for a pre-determined timing signals on the control bus
amount for the acknowledgement.
If no acknowledgements are received after the timeout, Buses: Carry data through components. The following are its
the data will be sent again to the receiver. types.

Address bus – unidirectional

2.4. Encryption Data Bus – bi-directional
Control Bus – bi-directional
Encryption is a process of turning the data into an
unreadable form so it doesn’t make sense to hackers and Immediate Access Store: Stores the instructions that are to
other attackers. be processed, which are fetched by the CPU

Plaintext and Ciphertext The following registers also exist in the architecture:

REGISTER ABBREVIATION FUNCTION

Plaintext is the original data that is being sent
Stores the instruction the
Ciphertext is the text produced after encryption Current instruction
CIR CPU is currently decoding or
register
executing
Symmetric and Asymmetric Encryption Stores the Address of the
Memory address
MAR instruction, copy it, and
Symmetric Encryption: register
sends it to MDR
It uses an encryption key for the encryption process; Stores the Data from the
the same key is used for encrypting and decrypting MDR Memory data register address received from the
the data. MAR and sends data to CIR
Asymmetric Encryption: Stores the address of the
PC Program counter next instruction to be
Uses a public key and a private key. The public key is
fetched from memory
available to everyone, whereas the private key is only
During calculations, data is
available to the user. ACC Accumulator
temporarily held in it
The receiver would have the private key, and they
would send the public key to the sender. The sender
can encrypt the message with the public key, and the
data can be decrypted using the private key.

3. Hardware
3.1. Computer Architecture & Von
Neumann Architecture
The central processing unit (CPU) (also known as a
microprocessor or processor) is central to all modern The Fetch-Execute Cycle
computer systems

The CPU consists of the following architecture:

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1. PC contains the address of the next instruction to be Cores

fetched
2. This address is copied to the MAR via the address bus The more cores in the CPU, the better and faster the
3. The instruction of the address is copied into the MDR performance
temporarily
4. The instruction in the MDR is then placed in the CIR But if any number of cores are used, it could slow down
5. The value in the PC is incremented by 1, pointing to the system performance as the communication between
the next instruction to be fetched each core increases, and so do the data cables between
6. The instruction is finally decoded and then executed each. Which in turn reduces the potential system
performance.
Stored Program Concept You might have heard about quad and dual cores, not
septa or octa cores.
Instructions are stored in the main memory
Instructions are fetched, decoded, and executed by 3.3. Input Devices
the processor
Programs can be moved to and from the main memory Two-dimensional Scanners:

Memory Concept Used to input hard-copy documents

The image is converted into an electronic form, which
A computer’s memory is divided into partitions: Each can be stored in the computer
partition consists of an address and its contents, e.g. The document is placed on a glass panel
A bright light illuminates the document
MEMORY LOCATION CONTENT A scan head moves across the document until the
10101010 01010110 whole page is scanned. An image of the document is
produced and sent to a lens using a series of mirrors
Instruction Set: The lens focuses on the document image
An instruction set is a list of all the commands that a CPU
The focused image now falls onto a charge-coupled
can process, and the commands are machine code
device (CCD), which consists of several integrated
circuits
3.2. Cores, Cache and Internal Clock The software produces a digital image in the
electronic form
System’s Clock Optical Character Recognition (OCR) is a software which
converts scanned documents into a text file format
The clock defines the clock cycle that synchronises all If the original document was a photo/image, then the
computer operations. By increasing the clock speed, the scanned image forms an image file such as JPEG
computer's processing speed also increases. This doesn’t
mean that the computer's performance is increased, Three-dimensional Scanners
however.
3D scanners can scan solid objects and produce a three-
dimensional image
Overclocking
Scanners take images at several points, x, y and z (lasers,
Using a clock speed higher than the computer was designed magnetic, white light)
for. The scanned images can be used in Computer-Aided
It leads to multiple issues. Design (CAD) or in a 3D printer to produce a working
model
Operations become unsynchronised - (the computer
would frequently crash and become unstable) Application of 2D Scanners at an Airport:
can lead to serious overheating of the CPU

Length of Data Buses

The wider the data buses, the better the performance of

the computer

Cache

Cache memory is located within the CPU itself

-- allows faster access to the CPU
-- stores frequently used instructions and data that need to
be accessed faster, which improves CPU performance
The larger the cache memory size, the better the CPU
performance

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Make use of (OCR) to produce digital images which Mouse/trackball

represent the passport pages Traditional mechanical ball, connected by USB port
Text can be stored in ASCII format Modern type: red LEDs to detect movement
The 2D photograph in the passport is also scanned and
stored as jpeg image Microphones
The passenger’s face is also photographed using a digital
Used to input sound to a computer
camera and compared to using face recognition software
When a microphone picks up sound, a diaphragm
Key parts of the face are compared (distance between
vibrates, producing an electric signal
eyes, width of nose)
The signal goes to a sound card and is converted into
Barcode readers/scanners digital values and stored in a computer
Voice recognition: voice is detected and converted into
A barcode is a series of dark and light parallel lines of digital
varying thicknesses
The numbers 0 -9 are each represented by a unique Touchscreens
series of lines
Capacitive (medium cost tech)
The left and right-hand sides of the barcode are separate
Made up of many layers of glass
using guard bars
Creating electric fields between glass plates in layers
Allows barcode to be scanned in any direction
When the top layer of glass is touched, electric
The barcode is read by a red laser or red LED
current changes
Light is reflected o! the barcode; dark areas reflect
Co-ordinates where the screen was touched are
little light, which allows the bars to be read
determined by an on-board microprocessor
Reflected light is read by sensors (photoelectric cells)
Infra-red heat (expensive)
The pattern is generated, which is converted to digital
Use glass as the screen material
Quick Response (QR) Codes Needs a warm object to carry an input operation
Infra-red optical (expensive)
Another type of barcode is the QR codes Uses glass as screen material
Made up of a matrix of filled-in dark squares on a light Uses an array of sensors (grid form)
background Point of contact is based on which grid co-ordinate is
Can hold more storage (7000 digits) touched
Advantages of QR codes: Resistive (inexpensive)
No need for the user to write down the website The upper layer of polyester, the bottom layer of
address glass
QR codes can store website addresses When the top polyester is touched, the top layer and
bottom layer complete a circuit
Digital Cameras
Signals are then sent out, which are interpreted by a
It is controlled by a microprocessor that adjusts the microprocessor to determine where the screen was
shutter speed, focuses the image, etc. touched
Photo is captured when light passes through the lens
Sensors
onto a light sensitive cell
The cell is made up of pixels
The number of pixels determines the size of the file

Keyboards

Connected to a computer with a USB connection or by

wireless connection
Each character has an ASCII value and is converted into a
digital signal
Slow method
Prone to errors

Pointing devices

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Devices that read or measure physical properties Used to print one-o! pictures and documents
Data needs to be converted to digital Data from the document sent to the printer driver
Analogue-to-digital converter (ADC) converts physical The printer driver ensures data is in the correct format
values into digital Check made by printer driver that the chosen printer is
Sensors and their purposes: available
Acoustic - These sensors act like a microphone that Data is sent to the printer and stored in a temporary
converts sound to electric pulses. memory (printer bu!er)
Accelerometer - These sensors measure an object's A sheet of paper is fed; the sensor detects if the paper is
acceleration or deceleration and motion. available in the paper tray
Flow - This sensor measures the flow of liquid or gas. The print head moves across paper printing text/image,
Gas - These sensors measure the amount/level of any four ink colours sprayed in the exact amount
gas in the environment. Paper is advanced, so the next line is printed
Humidity - This sensor measures the water vapour in Repeated until the bu!er is empty
the air or any sample. Once it is done, the printer sends an interrupt to the
Infra-red (active) - This IR sensor uses an invisible processor (request for more data to be sent)
infrared beam. When the beam is broken/disturbed,
it changes the amount of infrared light reaching the Laser Printers
detector.
Used to print flyers, high quality
Infra-red (passive) - These sensors detect the heat
Use dry powder ink (toner) and static electricity to
emitted by any object.
produce text and images
Level - This sensor detects the solids, liquids, or gas
Prints the whole page in one go
level.
Light - These devices use light-sensitive cells that 1. (steps 1-4 same as inkjet)
generate electric current based on light brightness. 2. The printing drum is given a positive charge; as the
Magnetic field - This sensor detects the change in drum rotates, a laser beam is scanned across it;
magnetic field. removing the positive charge leaves negatively
Moisture - This type of sensor detects the water charged areas which match the text/image
content wherever this sensor has been installed. 3. The drum is then coated with positively charged
pH - This measures the acidity or alkalinity. toner; it only sticks to negatively charged parts of the
Pressure - This sensor measures the pressure applied drum
Proximity - This sensor detects the nearby objects 4. A negatively charged sheet is rolled over the drum
around the sensor 5. The toner on the drum now sticks to the paper to
Temperature - These sensors measure the produce a copy of the page
temperature of the environment. 6. Paper finally goes through a fuser (set of heated
(Note: You do not need to know the working principle of rollers); heat melts the ink so it is permanent
the sensor. But have an idea of their purposes.) 7. The discharge lamp removes all electric charge from
the drum, ready to print on the next page
Control of Street Lighting
3D Printers
The light sensor sends data to the ADC
The data is digitised and sent to the microprocessor Used for models of cars
Microprocessor samples data every minute Produce solid objects that work
If data from sensor < value stored in memory: Built up layer by layer, using powdered resin, ceramic
Signal sent from microprocessor to street lamp powder
Lamp switched on A design is made using Computer-aided Design (CAD)

2D and 3D Cutters
3.4. Output Devices
3D cutters can recognise objects in x, y, z direction
Inkjet Printers 3D laser cutters can cut glass, crystal, metal, wood

Actuators

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The actuators convert electrical signals to mechanical Older technology than DLP
processes. A powerful beam of white light is generated from a bulb
Used in many control applications involving sensors and This beam of light is then sent to a group of chromatic-
devices (ADC and DAC) coated mirrors; these reflect the light at di!erent
wavelengths
Loudspeakers/Headphones When the white light hits the mirrors, the reflected light
has wavelengths corresponding to red, green, and blue
Sound is produced by passing the digital data through a
These three di!erent lights pass through three LCD
DAC, then through an amplifier, and then emerges from
screens; these screens show the image to be projected
the loudspeaker
as millions of pixels in grayscale
Produced by voltage di!erences vibrating a cone in the
When the coloured light passes through the LCD screens,
speaker at di!erent frequencies
a red, green and blue version of the grey image emerges
LCD and LED Monitors Finally, the image passes through the projector lens onto
the screen
The front layer of the monitor is made up of Liquid
Crystal Display (LCD); these tiny diodes are grouped in
threes as pixels (LCD doesn’t emit any light)
LCD monitors are backlit using Light Emitting Diode (LED)
because:
LEDs reach their maximum brightness immediately
LEDs sharpen image (higher resolution), and CCFL
has a yellow tint
LEDs improve the colour image
Monitors using LED are much thinner than CCFL
LEDs consume very little power
Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer
Before LEDs, LCD monitors were backlit using CCFL
Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education)
CCFL uses two fluorescent tubes behind the LCD screen,
which supplies the light source
3.5. Memory, Storage Devices & Media
Light Projectors:
Primary vs. Secondary Storage
Two common types of light projectors:
Digital Light Projector (DLP) The CPU directly accesses primary storage
LCD Projector The CPU does not directly access secondary storage
Projectors are used to project computer output onto RAM, ROM, and cache memory are some examples
larger screens/interactive whiteboards HDD, SSD, DVD, memory stick, and Blu-ray disc are some
examples
Digital Light Projectors (DLP)
Primary Memory:
Uses millions of micromirrors
Random Access Memory (RAM)
the number of micromirrors and the way they are
arranged on the DLP chip determines the resolution of
the image
When the micromirrors tilt towards the light source they
are on
When the micromirrors tilt away from the light source,
they are o!
This creates a light or dark pixel on the projection screen
A bright white light source passes through a colour filter
on its way to the DLP chip
White light splits into primary colours

LCD Projectors

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RAM is used by a system when it needs to store and You may be expected to draw a diagram like the above.
access data that is actively being used or processed by The main advantages of virtual memory are
the user immediately. They can be larger than the physical memory
Features of RAM provided in the RAM.
Volatile/temporary memory (contents lost if RAM is Avoids the need to install/upgrade RAM, as it could
turned o!) be expensive
Used to store; data, files The system wastes no storage on unwanted/unused
It can be written to or read from, and the contents of data.
the memory can be changed
The larger the size of the RAM, the faster the computer Read Only Memory (ROM)
will operate
Features of ROM
RAM never runs out of memory and continues to run
Non-volatile/permanent memories (contents remain
slow
even when ROM is turned o!)
As RAM becomes full, the processor has to access the
Used to store start-up instructions (basic
continually hard drive to overwrite old data on RAM with
input/output systems)
new data
Data/contents of a ROM chip can only be read and
RAM is of two types:
cannot be changed
DRAM (Dynamic RAM) and SRAM (Static RAM)
Secondary Storage:
Hard Disk Drives (HDD)

Data is stored in a digital format on the magnetic surface

of the disks (platter)
A number of read/write heads can access all of the
surfaces of the disk
Each platter will have two surfaces which can be used to
store the data
Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer
Data is stored on the surfaces in sectors and tracks
Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education)
HDD has very slow data access compared to RAM
Virtual memory
Solid-State Drive (SSD)
When RAM runs out of memory, there is a problem with
memory management; thus, the system has a high There are no moving parts, and all data is received at the
chance of crashing. This is why virtual memory comes
same time (not like HDD)
into the picture.
Store data by controlling the movement of electrons
The virtual memory can be either HDD or SSD (these
within NAND chips, as 1s and 0s
storages are discussed below)
Non-volatile rewritable memory
Benefits of using SSD rather than HDD:
More reliable (no moving parts)
Considerably lighter (suitable for laptops)
Lower power consumption
Run much cooler than HDDs
Very thin
Data access is faster than HDD
Drawback – questionable longevity (20GB per day)

O!-Line Storage:
CD/DVD Disks

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Laser (red) light is used to read and write data on the A combination of hardware and software is designed to
surface of the disk. carry out a specific set of tasks.
A thin layer of metal alloy is used to store data. Embedded systems may contain -
Both systems use a single spiral track that runs from the Microcontrollers - CPU, RAM, ROM and other
centre of the disk to the edge peripherals on one single chip
DVD uses Dual-Layering, which increases the storage Microprocessor - Integrated circuit with CPU only
capacity (two individual recording layers) System on Chips (SoC) - microprocessor with I/O
ports, storage and memory
Blu-ray Disks Process of Embedded Devices -
Input from the user is sent to the microprocessor
Uses a blue laser to carry out read-and-write operations
(ADC needed if the data is analogue)
The wavelength of laser light is less than CD and DVD
Data from the user interface is also sent to the
(stores up to five times more data than DVD)
microprocessor
Automatically come with secure encryption (prevent
The microprocessor then sends signals to actuators
piracy and copyright infringement)
which are the output
Used as backup systems
Non-programmable devices need to be replaced if they
USB Flash Memories need a software update.
Programmable devices have two methods of updating
Very small, lightweight, and suitable for transferring files Connecting the device to a computer and
Small back-up devices for photo, music downloading the update
Solid state, so needs to be treated with care Updating automatically via a satellite, cellular or Wi-Fi
link
Cloud Storage:
Advantages and Disadvantages of using embedded
Cloud storage is a method of data storage where data is systems
stored on remote servers Advantages Disadvantages
The same data is stored on more than one server in case
Small in size, therefore can
of maintenance or repair, allowing clients to access data Can be di#cult to upgrade
easily fit into devices
at any time. This is known as data redundancy. The interface can be confusing
Low cost to make
sometimes
The following are its types:
Troubleshooting is a specialist’s
Requires very little power
job
Public cloud – this is a storage environment where the
Often thrown away as di#cult
customer/client and cloud storage provider are di!erent Very fast reaction to changing
to upgrade and faults are
companies input
harder to find
Private cloud – this is storage provided by a dedicated Increased garbage as they are
environment behind a company firewall; customer/client Dedicated to one task only
thrown away
and cloud storage provider are integrated and operate Any computerised system is
Can be controlled remotely
as a single entity prone to attacks
Hybrid cloud – this is a combination of the two above
environments; some data resides in the private cloud, Applications of Embedded devices
and less sensitive/less commercial data can be accessed GPS systems
from a public cloud storage provider Security Systems
Vending Machines
Washing Machines
Oven
Microwave

3.7. Network Hardware

Network Interface Card (NIC)
3.6. Embedded System

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A network interface card (NIC) is needed to allow a device to
connect to a network (such as the Internet). IP address allocation:
The network allocates IP addresses.
Media Access Control (MAC) Two types of IP addresses: static and dynamic.
Static IP addresses:
A MAC address comprises 48 bits which are shown as six Assigned manually to a device.
groups of hexadecimal digits. The first six display the Does not change over time.
manufacturer’s code, and the second half shows the device Dynamic IP addresses:
serial number. Assigned automatically by a DHCP (Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol) server.
These do not change and are primarily constant for every
Changes periodically or when the device connects to
device
a di!erent network.
there are two types of MAC addresses: the Universally
IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4):
Administered MAC Address (UAA) and the Locally
Widely used protocol.
Administered MAC Address (LAA)
Consists of four groups of decimal numbers
The only di!erence between the two types is that UAA is separated by dots (e.g., 192.168.0.1).
made Universally and cannot be changed, but it is the Provides approximately 4.3 billion unique addresses.
opposite for LAA. IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6):
Developed to address the limitations of IPv4.
IP Addresses Uses eight groups of hexadecimal numbers
separated by colons (e.g.,
2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334).
Provides an extremely large number of unique
addresses (approximately 340 undecillion).
Di!erences between IPv4 and IPv6:
Address format: IPv4 uses a 32-bit address, while IPv6
uses a 128-bit address.
Address space: IPv4 provides approximately 4.3
billion addresses, whereas IPv6 o!ers around 340
undecillion addresses.
Address allocation: IPv4 addresses are allocated
manually using DHCP, while IPv6 addresses are
primarily assigned using stateless autoconfiguration.

Routers

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Router functionality:
A router is a networking device that directs data
packets between di!erent networks.
It determines the most e#cient path for data
transmission.
Sending data to a specific destination on a network:
A router examines the destination IP address of
incoming data packets.
It uses routing tables to determine the next hop or
the next router on the path to the destination.
The router forwards the data packet to the
appropriate next hop.
Router's role in IP address assignment:
Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer Science -
A router can act as a DHCP server (Dynamic Host
Second Edition (Hodder Education)
Configuration Protocol) and assign IP addresses to
devices on a local network. Memory Management - Manages the RAM and the
It dynamically allocates IP addresses from a
HDD/SSD during the execution of programs
predefined range to connected devices. Security Management - Providing security features such
DHCP allows for automatic IP address configuration as Anti-Virus, System updates and so on
and simplifies network management. Hardware Peripheral Management - Managing the device
Connecting a local network to the Internet: drives, Inputs, Outputs, Queues and bu!ers
A router serves as the gateway between a local File Management - Opening, Creating, Deleting,
network and the internet. Renaming, and many more functions
It connects the local network to an internet service Multitasking - OS would share the hardware resources
provider (ISP) network. with each of the processes
The router receives data packets from devices on the Management of User Accounts - OS would allow multiple
local network and forwards them to the internet. users to customise their accounts individually.
It also receives incoming data packets from the
internet and routes them to the appropriate devices Running of Applications
on the local network.
The computer starts its OS (booting up the computer)
3.8. Operating Systems through the bootstrap loader.
The BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) tells the computer
Operating Systems are designed to establish the location of the OS in the storage.
communication between the user and the computer BIOS is often referred to as the firmware
Functions of a typical operating system -
-managing files
– handling interrupts
– providing an interface
– managing peripherals and drivers
– managing memory
– managing multitasking
– providing a platform for running applications
– providing system security
– managing user accounts
WIMP - Windows, Icons, Menu, and Pointing Devices
Interrupts
Advantages and Disadvantages of CLI and GUI

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Signal that causes the operating system to stop what it’s Translates a program written in a high-level language
doing and service a task into machine code
Ensures important tasks are dealt with on a priority basis Used without compiler
It can be a software or a hardware interrupt Executable file of machine code produced
Peripherals like a keyboard & mouse can generate it One high-level language translated into several machine
Di!erent interrupts have di!erent levels of priority code instructions
After interruption is dealt with, the previous process Used for general use
continues
Interpreter

3.9. Programming Languages, Executes a high-language program a statement at a time

No executable file of machine code produced
Translators and IDEs
One high-level language program statement may require
several machine code instructions to be executed.
Computers can only understand machine code;
Interpreted programs cannot be used without an
therefore, translators are needed
interpreter
High-Level Languages Used when the program is being developed

It is easier to read and understand as the language is Assembler

closer to human language.
Translates a low-level language program into machine
Easier to write in a shorter time
code
Easier to debug at the development stage
Executable file of machine code produced
Easier to maintain once in use
One low-level language translated into one machine
Low-Level Languages code instructions
It can be used without an assembler
Refer to machine code Used for general use
Binary instructions that the computer understands
Compiler Interpreter Assembler
Translates a high- Executes a high-level Translates a low-
level language language program level assembly
program into one statement at a language program
machine code. time. into machine code.
An executable file of No executable file of An executable file of
machine code is machine code is machine code is
produced. produced. produced.
One high-level
One high-level language program One low-level
language statement statement may language statement
can be translated require several is usually translated
Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer into several machine machine code into one machine
Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education) code instructions. instructions to be code instruction.
Assembly Language executed.
Interpreted Assembled
Compiled programs
Few programmers use assembly language to - programs cannot be programs are used
are run without the
Make use of special hardware run without the without the
compiler.
interpreter. assembler.
Write code that doesn’t take up much space
An interpreter is An assembled
Write code that runs very quickly A compiled program
often used when a program is usually
Assembly language must be translated into machine is usually distributed
program is being distributed for
for general use.
code using an assembler to run. developed. general use.

3.10. Translators Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer

Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education)
Compiler
Integrated Development Environments (IDEs)

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An IDE would usually have these features - Compiler: Translates high-level language into machine
Code Editor code, allowing for direct use by a computer to perform
Translator tasks without re-compilation.
Debugger Linker: Combines object files produced by a compiler
Error Reports into a single program, allowing the use of separately
Auto-Completion and Auto-Correction written code modules in the final program.
Auto-Documenter Device driver: Software that enables hardware devices to
Pretty Printing communicate with a computer's operating system,
without which a device like a printer would be unable to
work.
3.11. Types of Software and Interrupts Operating system: Software that manages basic
computer functions such as input/output operations,
Types of Software program loading and running, and security management,
making computers more user-friendly.
1. System Software e.g. Operating System, Utility Utility programs: Software that manages, maintains, and
programs and device drivers controls computer resources by carrying out specific
2. Application Software e.g. spreadsheet, word tasks, such as virus checking, disk repair and analysis, file
processor, etc. management, and security.

System Software: Application Software:

these are a set of programs which control and manage
the operations of hardware
gives a platform for other software to run
it is required to allow hardware and software to run
without problems
provides a human-computer interface (HCI) to the user
controls the allocation and usage of hardware resources

Application Software:

allows a user to perform specific tasks using the

computer’s resources
maybe a single program (for example, NotePad) or a
suite of programs (for example, Microsoft O#ce)
user can execute the software when they require, and it
is mostly not automatic

Examples

System Software:

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Word Processor: Software used for manipulating text Timing signals: Scheduled signals prompt the
documents, including creating, editing, and formatting microprocessor to pause and handle tasks at specific
text with tools for copying, deleting, spell-checking, and intervals.
importing images. Input/Output processes: Events such as a disk drive or
Spreadsheet: Organizes and manipulates numerical data printer requiring additional data cause an interruption in
using a grid of lettered columns and numbered rows, the microprocessor's activities.
with each cell identified using a unique combination of Hardware faults: Issues like a paper jam in a printer,
columns and rows. It can calculate using formulas, signalling the microprocessor to halt its operations and
produce graphs, and do modelling and "what if" address the hardware problem.
calculations. User interaction: Instances like a user pressing specific
Database: Software used to organize, analyze, and keys on a keyboard (e.g., ), leading to an interrupt in the
manipulate data consisting of one or more tables that system's operation.
hold records and fields. It provides the ability to query Software errors: Problems such as missing .exe files
and report on data and add, delete, and modify records needed to initiate a program, conflicts like two processes
in a table. accessing the exact memory location, or attempts to
Control and Measuring Software: A program designed to divide by zero. These errors trigger interrupts, prompting
interface with sensors and allow a computer or the microprocessor to handle the issues.
microprocessor to measure physical quantities and
control applications by comparing sensor data with
stored data and altering process parameters accordingly.
Apps: Software designed to run on mobile phones or
tablets, downloaded from an "App Store" and ranging
from games to sophisticated software such as phone
banking. Common examples include video and music
streaming, GPS, and camera facilities.
Source: Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Computer
Photo and Video Editing Software: Software that allows
Science - Second Edition (Hodder Education)
users to manipulate digital photographs or videos,
including changing colour, brightness, and contrast,
applying filters and other enhancements, and creating 3.12. Utility Software
transitions between clips.
Graphics Manipulation Software: Software that allows Computer users have access to utility programs as part
the manipulation of bitmap and vector images, with of system software
bitmap graphics editors changing pixels to produce a Utility programs can be initiated by the user or run in the
di!erent image, while vector graphics editors manipulate background without user input
lines, curves, and text to alter the stored image as Common utility programs include virus checkers,
required. defragmentation software, disk analysis and repair tools,
file compression and management software, backup
Interrupts software, security tools, and screensavers.

An interrupt is a signal sent to the microprocessor, either Virus Checkers & Anti-Virus Software
from a device or software, prompting the microprocessor to
pause its ongoing tasks and handle the interrupt
temporarily. Various factors can trigger interrupts, including:

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Virus checkers or anti-virus software are important for Security software is a utility software that manages
protecting computers from malware. access control, user accounts, and links to other utilities
They should be kept up to date and run in the such as virus and spyware checkers.
background to maintain their e!ectiveness. It also protects network interfaces using firewalls to
Anti-virus software checks files before they are run or prevent unauthorized access.
loaded and compares possible viruses against a Security software uses encryption and decryption to
database of known viruses. ensure intercepted data is unreadable without a
Heuristic checking is used to identify possible viruses decryption key.
that are not yet on the database. It oversees software updates to verify legitimate sources
Infected files are put into quarantine for automatic and prevent malicious software from being installed.
deletion or for the user to decide. Access control and user accounts use IDs and passwords
Anti-virus software must be updated as new viruses are to secure user data and prevent unauthorized access.
constantly discovered.
Full system scans should be carried out regularly to Screensavers
detect dormant viruses.
Screensavers display moving and still images on the
Disk Defragmentation Software monitor screen after computer inactivity.
They were originally developed to protect CRT monitors
Defragmentation software rearranges the data blocks on from 'phosphor burn'.
a hard disk drive (HDD) to store files in contiguous Screensavers are now mostly used for customizing a
sectors, reducing head movements and improving data device and as a part of computer security systems.
access time. They automatically log out of the user after a certain
As an HDD becomes full, blocks used for files become period of inactivity.
scattered all over the disk surface, making it slower to Some screensavers activate useful background tasks like
retrieve data as the HDD read-write head needs several virus scans and distributed computing applications.
movements to find the data.
When a file is deleted or extended, new data does not fill Device Drivers
the vacant sectors immediately, causing the files to
become more scattered throughout the disk surfaces. Device drivers translate data into a format that can be
A disk defragmenter rearranges the data blocks to store understood by the hardware device they are associated
files in contiguous sectors wherever possible, allowing with.
for faster data access and retrieval. Without the appropriate device driver, a hardware device
The defragmentation process can free up previously cannot work with a computer and may not be recognised
occupied sectors and empty some tracks. by the operating system.
USB device drivers contain descriptors, which include a
Backup Software vendor ID (VID), product ID (PID) and unique serial
number that allow the operating system to identify the
Backup software is a utility software that helps create device.
and manage backup copies of data files and programs. Serial numbers must be unique to avoid confusion if two
Manual backups using memory sticks or portable hard devices with the same serial number are plugged into a
drives are good practices, but operating system backup computer simultaneously.
utilities are also recommended.
Backup utilities allow scheduling backups and only
backup files if changes have been made to them. 4. The Internet and Its Uses
There could be three file versions for total security: the
current version stored on the internal HDD/SSD, a locally
4.1. The Internet and the World Wide
backed-up copy on a portable SSD, and a remote backup
on cloud storage. Web
Security Software

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CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

Internet World Wide Web (WWW)
Uses transmission protocols Cookies are small files stored on the user’s computer
Collection of webpages and They are used to track data about the users and autofill
such as TCP and IP (Internet
other information on websites
Protocols) forms or give suggestions accordingly
Allows the user to Types of Cookies -
Uses HTTP(S) protocols that are
communicate with other users
written using Hypertext Mark-
via chat, email, calling and Session Cookie Persistent Cookie
up Language (HTML)
more Remembers the user’s login
Worldwide Collection of URLs (Uniform Resource Temporary cookies are stored
details so the user doesn’t have
Interconnected Networks and Locator) are used for the in the RAM till the browser is
to log in every time they visit a
Devices location of the web pages closed.
website
Web browsers can access web Stored on the hard disk on the
pages. Doesn’t collect any information
computer until their expiry
on the user
date or the user deletes them
Uniform Resource Locator (URLs) A good example is the virtual
shopping basket on e-
URLs are used to locate and access web pages. The commerce websites.
typical format of URLs is -
4.2. Digital Currency
protocol://website address/path/file name
Form of payment to pay for goods and services
The protocol would usually be HTTP or HTTPS
A few examples are Debit/Credit Cards, Apps (Paypal,
The website address would contain -
Apple Pay, Bank Transfers and many more)
domain host (www)
Cryptography was later introduced due to the problem in
domain name (website name)
centralised banking systems.
domain type (.com, .org, .net, .gov) or sometimes
Cryptocurrency uses cryptography to maintain track of
country codes (.uk, .in, .cy)
transactions.
The path would usually become the file directory roots.
Cryptocurrency is also more secure because it uses
for example, https://www.znotes.com/computer-science
Blockchain Network
The /computer-science is the file name

Blockchain Network
HTTP and HTTPS
Blockchain Network involves several interconnected
HTTP stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol, and HTTPS
computers where the transaction data is stored
stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol secure
Hacking isn’t possible here as transaction details would
They are safety protocols maintained while transmitting
be sent to all the computers, and the data can’t be
data.
changed without the consent of all the network
members
Web Browsers
How do blockchains work
It is software used to connect to the internet Every time a transaction takes place, A block is created. The
It translates the HTML code block would contain -
ensures SSL & TLS security can be established
O!ers additional features like search history & ad Data - Name of the sender and the receiver, amount of
blockers money and more
Hash Value - Unique value generated by an algorithm
Retrieval and Location of web pages Previous Hash Value - Hash Value of the previous block
in the chain
The browser sends the URL to the domain name server
(DNS)
DNS stores the index and matches it with the IP
IP is sent to the browser if it exists
The browser sends a request to the IP of the webserver
Browser interprets the HTML

Cookies

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CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

The act of gaining illegal access to a computer system

E!ect:
This leads to identity theft, gaining personal
information
Data can be deleted, changed or corrupted
To remove risk:
Firewalls
Strong passwords/ user IDs
Use of anti-hacking software
Di!erence between hacking and cracking
Hacking breaks into computer systems to steal data
The first block is called the genesis block as it doesn’t point
Cracking is when someone edits a program code,
to any previous block (Previous Hash Value - 0000)
malicious

4.3. Cyber Security Malware

Brute Force Attack: Stands for Malicious Software. A few examples are -
Virus - A program that can replicate itself with the
Hackers try to guess your password by trying all the intention of deleting or corrupting files, causing a
di!erent combinations of letters, numbers and symbols. computer malfunction
E!ect: Ransomware - Attackers encrypt the user’s data until
Hacker gets access to user’s personal data (credit a certain amount of money is paid
cards, passwords and more) Adware - Displays unwanted ads on the user’s screen
To remove risk: Trojan Horse - Programs that are disguised as
Use stronger passwords with more characters and legitimate software
symbols Spyware - Sends data about all the activities of the
user to the attacker
Data Interception: Worms - Programs that can replicate themselves with
the intention of corrupting the entire network instead
This involves stealing data by tapping into a wired or a
of the computer alone
wireless transmission line
Wardriving - The act of locating and using wireless Phishing
internet connections illegally
Packet Sni#ng - Uses Packet sni!ers to examine Attackers send legitimate-looking emails to bait the user
packets sent over a line; all the data collected is sent into giving out their information.
back to the attacker To remove risk:
E!ect: Don’t open links from unknown receivers
It can cause a computer to crash Use anti-phishing tools
Can delete or corrupt files/data Block pop-up ads
To remove risk: Have an up-to-date browser
Install anti-virus software
Pharming
Don’t use software from unknown sources
Be careful when opening emails from unknown The attacker installs a malicious code on the computer,
which redirects the user to fake websites
Distributed Denial of Service Attacks (DDoS)
E!ect:
An attempt at preventing users from accessing part of a The user gives out login details and other personal
network details
Usually temporary but may be damaging To remove risk:
An attacker may be able to prevent the user from: Using anti-virus software
Accessing their emails Checking the spelling and the weblink carefully
Accessing websites Make sure that the green padlock is present in the
Accessing online services URL bar

Hacking

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CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

Social Engineering
Two-Step Verification - Requires two methods of
Attackers create a social situation which leads to victims authentication to prove who the user is
giving out their details (For example - Spam calls Automatic Software Updates - Latest updates contain
informing them that their account has been hacked) patches which improve device security
Spelling and Tone - Fake emails tend to have wrong
Keeping data safe from threats spelling and grammar (amazonn instead of amazon), and
the tone would also seem urgent
Access Levels - Having Di!erent levels of access for Firewalls - Hardware or Software which monitors the
di!erent people (for example - Only doctors can have tra#c between a network and the user’s computer
access to patient’s data) Proxy Servers - Acts as an intermediate between the
Antivirus - Protects user’s computer from malware user’s computer and the web server. They are used for -
attacks Filtering Internet tra#c
Authentication - User proving who they are. The most Keeping the user’s IP Address Confidential
common methods are passwords, PINs, Mobiles (OTPs), Blocking access to certain websites
biometrics and more) Attacks like DDoS and Hacking attack the proxy
server, keeping the web server safe.
Benefits and Drawbacks of Biometric Method
Acts as a firewall as well.
Biometric
Benefits Drawbacks Privacy Settings - Used to limit who can access and see a
Methods
Most development user’s profile
Intrusive as used to SSL (Secure Socket Layer) - Set of rules used while
methods are very easy
identify criminals, Can’t
Fingerprint to use and require very communicating with other users on the internet.
be used if the finger
Scans low storage space to
gets dirty or damaged
store the biometric
data.
(e.g. cuts)
5. Automated and Emerging
With very high It is very intrusive,
Retina Scan
accuracy, it Impossible
to replicate a person’s
Takes longer to verify,
Expensive to install and
Technologies
retina set up
Can’t identify if there 5.1. Automated Systems
Face Non-intrusive method, are any changes in the
Recognition Relatively cheaper lighting, change in age
or person’s age. Automated Systems are a combination of software and
Voices can be recorded hardware designed to function without human
and used for intervention.
verification, but low Process of Automated Systems
Non-Intrusive method,
accuracy and illnesses Sensors take inputs, and they are sent to the
Voice verification is done
such as colds or coughs microprocessor. The data is usually analogue, so it
Recognition quickly and relatively
can a!ect a person’s
cheaper has to go through Analogue-to-Digital Converter
voice, making
identification (ADC)
impossible. The microprocessor processes the data and makes
the necessary decisions based on its program
The actions are then executed by the actuators
(Motors, wheels and so on)

Advantages and Disadvantages of Automated Systems

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CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

Advantages Disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages
Expensive to set up and Robots can find it di#cult to do
Faster and Safer Robots can work 24/7
maintain non-standard tasks
Any changes can be identified Any computerised systems are Robots can work in hazardous Robots can lead to higher
quickly prone to attacks conditions unemployment
Over-reliance on automated They are less expensive in the Risk of deskilling as robots
Less Expensive in the long run systems may cause humans to long run replace humans in some task
lose skills They have high productivity Expensive to install and
Higher Productivity and and are more consistent maintain in the short run
E#ciency Robots have the risk of getting
hacked.
You should be able to describe the advantages and
disadvantages of an automated system used for a given
scenario.
5.3. Artificial Intelligence
Including scenarios from:
AI is the branch of computer science that simulates
industry intelligent human behaviour.
transport Types of AI -
agriculture Narrow AI - A machine has superior performance to a
weather human when doing one specific task
gaming General AI - A machine is similar to a human when
lighting doing one specific task
science Strong AI - Machine has superior performance to a
human in many tasks
Characteristics of AI -
5.2. Robotics Collection of Data and Rules
Ability to Reason
Robotics is the branch of computer science that
Ability to learn and adapt
combines robot design, construction and operation.
Isaac Asimov’s Laws of Robotics -
Types of AI
A robot may not injure a human through action or
inaction Expert System - AI that is developed to mimic human
A robot must obey orders given by humans unless it knowledge and experiences. They are usually used for
comes into conflict with Law 1 answering questions using knowledge and inference.
a robot must protect itself unless this conflicts with They have many applications, including chatbots,
law 1. diagnosis in the medical industry, financial calculations
Characteristics of a robot - and so on
Ability to sense their surroundings
Have a degree of movement Advantages and Disadvantages of Expert Systems
Programmable Advantages Disadvantages
Setup and Maintenance costs
High level of Expertise
NOTE - ROBOTS DO NOT POSSESS AI; THEY TEND TO DO are very high
REPETITIVE TASKS RATHER THAN REQUIRING HUMAN Can only rely on the information
High Accuracy and Consistent
CHARACTERISTICS in the system
Tend to give cold responses
High response times
Types of Robots - sometimes
Independent - Have no human intervention; they can
completely replace humans Machine Learning is a subset of AI in which machines
Dependent - Needs human intervention through an are trained to learn from past experiences.
interface, can supplement but can’t completely
replace humans Di!erence Between AI and Machine Learning

Advantages and Disadvantages of Robots

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CAIE IGCSE COMPUTER SCIENCE

AI Machine Learning
Machines are trained to make
Representation of human
decisions without being
intelligence in machines
programmed to
The aim is to build machines The aim is to make machines
that think like humans learn through data acquisitions

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CAIE IGCSE
Computer Science

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