An Investigation of Semi-Monocoque Aircraft Structural Design With a Detailed

Evaluation of Primary Structure Member Stability Criterion

A Thesis

Presented to the

Faculty of

California State Polytechnic University, Pomona

In Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the Degree

Master of Science

In

Mechanical Engineering

By:

Isaac N. Saeed

2017

i
 SIGNATURE PAGE

THESIS: AN INVESTIGATION OF SEMI-MONOCOQUE

AIRCRAFT STRUCTURAL DESIGN WITH A
DETAILED EVALUATION OF PRIMARY
STRUCTURE MEMBER STABILITY CRITERION

AUTHOR: Isaac N. Saeed

DATE SUBMITTED: Fall 2017

Mechanical Engineering Department

Dr. Todd D. Coburn

Thesis Committee Chair
Aerospace Engineering

Dr. Mehrdad Haghi

Mechanical Engineering

Dr. Nick Nikpour

Mechanical Engineering

ii
ABSTRACT

The paper presented here has been developed by Isaac Saeed for the purpose of

fulfillment of the requirements for the acquisition of a Master of Science Mechanical

Engineering degree, issued from California State Polytechnic University, Pomona in

2017.

This thesis investigates the fundamental classical methods used in the structural

analysis of semi-monocoque aircraft which are currently used by the aerospace industry,

summarizing their usage and evaluating their performance in accurately characterizing

primary stress values as compared to a coarse mesh FEM analysis. The fast-paced nature

of the aerospace industry requires a balance to be struck between speed and accuracy

when selecting an appropriate method of analysis for primary structure. The selection of a

suitable approach must take into consideration the time, complexity & cost associated

with any evaluation. Often a decision is made between the implementation of classical

hand analysis methods and a more complex Finite Element Analysis. Computer

simulations are often utilized in an effort to achieve greater accuracy and resolution

verses classical methods. Finite Element Analysis offers an excellent way to characterize

an accurate set of stresses. However, it is widely understood that it should not completely

replace simple classical hand analysis, which can be used in preliminary design, repairs,

and even for complete structural analysis in many cases.

The structural response of lightweight structures like aircraft is dominated by the

stability of members and substructures. Methods to characterize structural member

stability have been the focus of numerous theoretical and experimental investigations

over the past century. Although Finite Element Models have the ability to accurately

iii
predict the structural behavior of structures, they must be extremely detailed to capture all

of the effects of stability. A complete departure from classical hand analysis in favor of

FEA is inefficient, and usually falls short of a complete characterization of the structural

response. Therefore, a detailed classical analysis should precede most FEA work. It has

been proposed that a coarse mesh FEM that produces localized internal loads, followed

by classical analysis of individual elements is a more effective way to capture both the

enhanced accuracy of Finite Element Methods along with the semi-empirical findings of

classical methods.

These ideas are illustrated by implementing this approach on a sample structure.

A geometry representative of typical semi-monocoque aircraft structure is established and

used as an example for select calculations. Classical methods are used to develop

representative member geometries which incorporate the nonlinear effects of stability.

These static geometries are then applied to a coarse mesh FEM in order to achieve a

quasi-nonlinear structural evaluation of the structure as a whole using a linear static

(Solution 101) solution method.

A brief comparison is then made between a pure classical method approach and

the coarse mesh FEA approach in order to show convergence of the two methods when

applied to the sample structure. The correlation between these results allows for this

combined approach of classical hand analysis and Finite Element analysis to be

implemented to a more complex geometry with an increased level of confidence.

iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS

SIGNATURE PAGE ......................................................................................................... ii

ABSTRACT ...................................................................................................................... iii

1.0 INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................1

2.0 TYPICAL SEMI-MONOCOQUE GEOMETRY.....................................................4

- FUSELAGE LAYOUT .........................................................................................4
- FUSELAGE CROSS-SECTION IDEALIZATION ............................................6
- MODEL GEOMETRY ........................................................................................10
- STRUCTURAL MEMBER CROSS-SECTION PROPERTIES ........................12

3.0 AIRCRAFT LOADS..................................................................................................14

- ULTIMAT & LIMIT LOADS .............................................................................14
- V-n DIAGRAM ...................................................................................................18

4.0 MODEL APPLIED LOADS .....................................................................................21

5.0 STRUCTURAL EVALUATION ..............................................................................22

- SEMI-MONOCOQUE STRUCTURAL STAILITY .........................................22
- TORSIONAL GENERAL INSTABILITY ........................................................27
- TRANSVERSE SHEAR GENERAL INSTABILITY ........................................29

5.1 STRUCTURAL STABILITY OF STRUCTURAL MEMBERS ...............................31

- LONG COLUMN / ELASTIC BUCKLING.......................................................31
- SHORT COLUMN / IN-ELASTIC BUCKLING ...............................................37

5.2 STUCTURAL SECTION LOCAL FAILURE ..........................................................50

- LOCAL BUCKLING ..........................................................................................51
- CRIPPLING.........................................................................................................53
- NEEDHAM METHOD .......................................................................................55
- GERARD METHOD ...........................................................................................59
- MCCOMB METHOD .........................................................................................64
- LIP FIXETY ........................................................................................................64
- CRIPPLING LIMITS ..........................................................................................68
- LOCAL FAILURE SUMMARY ............................................................................

5.3 EFFECTIVE SKIN WIDTH & PLATE POST-BUCKLING .....................................69

- STRINGER EFFECTIVE SKIN WIDTH ...........................................................74
- RADIUS OF GYRATION ON COLUMN BUCKLING ALLOWABLE ..........77
- FRAME EFFECTIVE SKIN WIDTH .................................................................79

5.4 STRINGER STIFFENED PANELS ............................................................................80

- PANEL FAILURE MODES ...............................................................................81
v
 - INTERRIVET BUCKLING ................................................................................93

5.5 FLAT PLATE COPMRESSION BUCKLING ...........................................................96

5.6 FLAT PLATE SHEAR BUCKLING ........................................................................103

5.7 FLAT PLATE COMBINED SHEAR & COMPRESSION.......................................108

5.8 CURVED PLATE COMPRESSIVE BUCKLING ...................................................110

5.9 CURVED PLATE SHEAR BUCKLING ..................................................................116

5.10 CURVED PLATE COMBINED SHEAR & COMPRESSION ..............................121

5.11 EFFECTS OF PRESSURE ON PLATE STABILITY ............................................123

5.12 PLATE LOAD SUMMARY ...................................................................................131

6.0 MODEL GEOMETRY SUMMARY ANALYSIS ................................................132

7.0 CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................135

8.0 REFERENCES .........................................................................................................136

APPENDIX A .................................................................................................................144

APPENDIX B .................................................................................................................155

vi
THESIS SYMBOLS

a Plate long dimension, in

A Cross sectional area
Afr Cross sectional area of frame (in2)
Ast Cross sectional area of stringer (in2)
b Plate short dimension, in
dr Rivet diameter, in
e Colum eccentricity
E Elastic modulus,Young’s modulus, ksi
Et Tangent modulus, ksi
f Effective rivet offset
Fb Initial buckling allowable (psi)
Fc Column buckling stress, ksi
Fc_cr Critical compressive buckling stress
Fcc Crippling stress, ksi
Fcc_gerard Gerard Crippling stress, ksi
Fcc_needham Needham Crippling stress, ksi
Fco Column yield stress
FE Euler column buckling stress
FEE Euler-Engesser columb buckling critical stress
Fs Transverse shear general instability stress of fuselage (psi)
Fs_cr Critical shear buckling stress
Fst Critical failure stress of stringer with effective skin
FsT Torsional general instability stress of fuselage (psi)
Fw Panel wrinkling failure
I Second area moment of inertia
Kc Compressive buckling stress coefficient
Km Wrinkling failing stress coefficient
Ks Plate shear buckling coefficient
Curved plate compressive buckling coefficient with radial
Ky
pressure
L Column length
L’ Column effective length
Le Column effective length
m Buckling mode shape, number of half-waves
Maximum allowable moment which would induce general
Mmax_gen
instability of fuselage
Pc_cr Critical compressive buckling load
PE Euler critical buckling load
pr Rivet pitch, in
R Radius of curvature, Radius
R Radius of cylinder (in)
Rb Bending stress ratio
Rc Compressive stress ratio
Rs Shear stress ratio
vii
tf Distributed frame area [Afr/a]
ts Distributed stringer area [Ast/b]
tsk Skin thickness (in)
tst Stringer thickness
V Applied shear load to fuselage (lb)
w Deflection of plate normal to the plane of the plate
Effective width of skin acting with a stiffener (in) [one side
Weff
of fastener]
γxy Shear stress in the xy- plane, ksi
γxz Shear stress in the xz-plane, ksi
γyz Shear stress in the yz- plane, ksi
ρ Radius of giration
σm Wrinkling failure stress of plate, ksi
σx Normal stress in the x-direction, ksi
σy Normal stress in the y-direction, ksi
σz Normal stress in the z-direction, ksi
ψ Deflectional stiffness per unit length, ksi
𝜂 Plasticity factor
𝜈 Poisson’s ratio
Bw Hat section stringer dimension
Bt Hat section stringer dimension
Bf Hat section stringer dimension
Bw Hat section stringer dimmension
Kt Compression buckling constant for hat section
tf Hat section stringer dimension
tt Hat section stringer dimension
Fcc’ Crippling allowable of individual angle unit (Needham)
b’ Equivalent flange length (Needham)
Ce Flange edge fixity coefficient (Needham)

viii
1.0 INTRODUCTION

The field of aircraft structural stress analysis is rife with a plethora of data

regarding design and analysis methods. Considerable research has been conducted in

support of the analytic methods currently in use by aerospace industry professionals.

Through the judicious use of simplifying assumptions and methods, an evaluation of

complex fuselage structure can be made with an appropriate level of accuracy.

The practicing stress analyst exists in an environment where a balance must be

struck between speed and accuracy. Equilibrium of these two characteristics can be found

by developing appropriately simplified methods which incorporate conservative

assumptions. This allows for the development of minimally conservative results,

generated on an accelerated schedule, which meet the regulatory requirements for vehicle

strength.

In order for an analytic method to become widely accepted, any method must be

able to be understood by an analyst’s colleagues. Complex and enigmatic methods

generate unnecessary confusion and allow for the possibility for errors to go unnoticed. In

an effort to mitigate these issues, simpler methods are often employed. This has the

additional benefit of reducing the possibility of unintentional errors from propagating

through an analysis. Additionally, the methods chosen for analysis must be able to be

implemented to meet usual industry schedule restraints.

In order for an appropriate method of analysis to be chosen, the analyst must have

a grasp on the fundamental concepts which play a role in the development of primary

structure member stresses. This study presents these concepts, starting with the general

and progressing to the specific. The general structure of semi-monocoque fuselage

1
structures is presented first followed by a brief look into the load which generates

member stresses in primary structure. Following the presentation of these two

fundamental concepts, a detailed survey of the topic of structural member stability is

undertaken. This provides insight into the classical methods widely used throughout

industry.

A brief evaluation of the structure selected for this evaluation is then conducted

using both classical hand analysis method and compared to the results of a coarse mesh

finite element model. First, a preliminary classical approach was used to establish static

geometric properties of each member based on the concepts of stability. These geometric

properties are then utilized to develop a coarse mesh FEM, upon which a linear static

analysis (Solution 101) can be used to develop individual member stresses.

This analysis is done by first establishing the maximum moment carrying

capability of the model fuselage using classical tabular methods. To calculate this

maximum moment, the critical compressive failure stress of the stringer, developed in

Section 5, is set as the point which represents failure of the fuselage. The goal seek

function of Microsoft Excel is then used to determine the applied moment which would

cause this stress in the crown stringer. This maximum moment value is then applied to

the FEM and the maximum stringer compression stress is compared to the previously

established failure stress of the stringer.

This combined classical/FEM approach to the evaluation of a complete structure

combines the expeditious incorporation of stability concepts developed through the semi-

empirical methods of classical analysis with the ability of multiple member stress

resolution provided by FEA. The comparison of the stresses developed by the two

2
methods indicates the confidence with which this approach can be extrapolated to

geometries of greater complexity. This method provides the additional benefit of

eliminating the need for the development of highly complex FEM’s, analyzed using a

non-linear solution methods, in the analysis of complex lightweight structures.

3
2.0 TYPICAL SEMI-MONOCOQUE GEOMERY

FUSELAGE LAYOUT

The general layout of semi-monocoque aircraft is shown below. Modern aircraft

are typically fabricated using the semi-monocoque fuselage design. The term semi-

monocoque refers to a shell structure comprised of a thin outer covering, supported by a

combination of circumferential and longitudinal members. When related to an aircraft,

these members are referred to as skin, frames (or rings) & stringers (or longerons)

respectively. The general configuration of these members throughout the major portion of

the fuselage is as shown here:

Figure 1: General Transport Aircraft Structural Layout

(Niu, Airframe Structural Design, 1988)

4
 A variety of structural cross

sectional shapes are used in modern

aircraft. These shapes are typically

created by either the forming of sheet

Figure 2: Various Stringer geometry
metal or by extrusion. Some typical (Niu, Airframe Structural Design,
1988)
shapes of stringer currently in use are shown below. For this evaluation, a formed hat

section stringer and a formed Z-section frame are chosen.

The structure selected for this evaluation is based on a simplified version of a

Boeing 737 civilian transport aircraft. An overview of the cross section used for this

evaluation is shown below. For clarity, the frame which is located on the internal radius

of the skin has been removed in the image below for clarity. Given that this evaluation if

focused on the primary structural members of the fuselage which carry flight loads, any

effects of the floor structure is ignored

.
Figure 3: Model fuselage cross section
In order to perform calculations on this section, each bay and each stringer has

been assigned a number. Since the model is symmetric about the BL 0, one side is chosen

5
for evaluation. The model uses a fuselage with a bay located at butt line zero (BL 0). This

bay has been assigned the number 1. Each successive bay is numbered with an odd

number traveling down the circumference of the fuselage. The stringer located adjacent

to bay 1 is assigned the number 2. Each successive stringer is numbered with an even

number for a total of 78 stingers, 39 on either side of Butt Line zero. In order to establish

the section properties of this geometry, the following process was used.

FUSELAGE CROSS SECTION IDEALIZATION

The fuselage cross section of a Boeing 737 is configured using a double radius

design. Two radii, one equal to 99.00” and one equal to 96.78”, which have centers offset

by approximately 17”. For the model used in this evaluation, this has been simplified to a

cross section with a single radius of 100”.

In order to proceed with the required calculations, the second moment of area (I)

of the fuselage cross section must be calculated. The standard formulations for area

moment of inertia are as follows:

𝐼𝑥 = ∫ 𝑦 2 𝑑𝐴 - 𝐼𝑦 = ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝐴 - 𝐼𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝐴

If the section being evaluated can be discretized into distinct section with known I

values about their respective centroids, the integral term can be represented as a

summation. If the parallel axis theorem is employed, the following relationships can be

written where I̅ represents the sections area moment of inertia about its centroid.

𝐼𝑥 = ∑ 𝐼̅𝑥 + ∑ 𝐴𝑦 2 , 𝐼𝑦 = ∑ 𝐼̅𝑦 + ∑ 𝐴𝑥 2 , 𝐼𝑥𝑦 = ∑ 𝐴𝑥𝑦

6
When calculating section properties of the fuselage, a modified parallel axis theorem is

employed. In this, the I̅ value of each stringer about its centroid is neglected. Only the

Ad2 term of each stringer is used in the calculation of the collective I value of the

fuselage. This has the effect of significantly reducing the required calculations, while

maintaining an appropriate level of accuracy. The second area moment of inertia

equations defining the section properties of the fuselage can therefore be rewritten as

follows.

𝐼𝑥 = ∑ 𝐴𝑦 2 , 𝐼𝑦 = ∑ 𝐴𝑥 2 , 𝐼𝑥𝑦 = ∑ 𝐴𝑥𝑦

When the fuselage is subject to pure axial tension, the entire cross section can be

considered effective in carrying this load, if the effects of shear lag are neglected.

However, when any portion of the section experiences compression, additional

consideration must be taken in regard to the compressive stability of the individual

members.

In order apply this method to the sample geometry, the following table is

generated. This represents the second moment of area contribution of each stringer as

well as a full effective skin.

7
 The table below shows the details of the I value calculations using the lumped

area method. The coordinate system used is located at the center of the radius of

curvature of the fuselage skin.

Relative to Coordinate System at Center of Fuselage

STRINGER BAY
No Xs t Zs t' Ixx = As t*Zs t'2 No Xba y Zba y' Ixx = Aba y*Zba y'2
4
- in in in - in in in4
2 3.98477 98.8811 4028.0 1 0 99.9685 2535.0
4 11.9285 98.2398 3975.9 3 8.044122 99.6443 5037.3
6 19.7948 96.9614 3873.1 5 16.03608 98.6739 4939.6
8 27.5328 95.0542 3722.3 7 23.92403 97.0636 4779.7
10 35.0922 92.5305 3527.2 9 31.65682 94.8238 4561.7
12 42.424 89.4067 3293.1 11 39.18431 91.9690 4291.1
14 49.4807 85.7030 3025.9 13 46.45768 88.5177 3975.1
16 56.2165 81.4436 2732.6 15 53.42975 84.4924 3621.8
18 62.5876 76.6559 2420.8 17 60.0553 79.9191 3240.3
20 68.5529 71.3712 2098.5 19 66.29138 74.8275 2840.6
22 74.0736 65.6235 1774.1 21 72.09753 69.2506 2433.0
24 79.1139 59.4503 1456.0 23 77.4361 63.2246 2028.0
26 83.6411 52.8915 1152.5 25 82.27246 56.7886 1636.1
28 87.6259 45.9896 871.3 27 86.57526 49.9843 1267.5
30 91.0424 38.7895 619.9 29 90.31658 42.8558 931.8
32 93.8684 31.3379 404.6 31 93.47217 35.4493 637.5
34 96.0857 23.6830 231.1 33 96.02155 27.8130 392.4
36 97.6798 15.8745 103.8 35 97.9482 19.9963 202.9
38 98.6404 7.9631 26.1 37 99.23962 12.0499 73.7
40 98.9613 0.0000 0.0 39 99.88743 4.0253 8.2
42 98.6404 -7.9631 26.1 41 99.88743 -4.0253 8.2
44 97.6798 -15.8745 103.8 43 99.23962 -12.0499 73.7
46 96.0857 -23.6830 231.1 45 97.9482 -19.9963 202.9
48 93.8684 -31.3379 404.6 47 96.02155 -27.8130 392.4
50 91.0424 -38.7895 619.9 49 93.47217 -35.4493 637.5
52 87.6259 -45.9896 871.3 51 90.31658 -42.8558 931.8
54 83.6411 -52.8915 1152.5 53 86.57526 -49.9843 1267.5
56 79.1139 -59.4503 1456.0 55 82.27246 -56.7886 1636.1
58 74.0736 -65.6235 1774.1 57 77.4361 -63.2246 2028.0
60 68.5529 -71.3712 2098.5 59 72.09753 -69.2506 2433.0
62 62.5876 -76.6559 2420.8 61 66.29138 -74.8275 2840.6
64 56.2165 -81.4436 2732.6 63 60.0553 -79.9191 3240.3
66 49.4807 -85.7030 3025.9 65 53.42975 -84.4924 3621.8
68 42.424 -89.4067 3293.1 67 46.45768 -88.5177 3975.1
70 35.0922 -92.5305 3527.2 69 39.18431 -91.9690 4291.1
72 27.5328 -95.0542 3722.3 71 31.65682 -94.8238 4561.7
74 19.7948 -96.9614 3873.1 73 23.92403 -97.0636 4779.7
76 11.9285 -98.2398 3975.9 75 16.03608 -98.6739 4939.6
78 3.98477 -98.8811 4028.0 77 8.044122 -99.6443 5037.3
- - - 79 5.66E-14 -99.9685 2535.0
4 4
∑ (Half Fuselage) 78,674 in (Half Fuselage) 98,867 in
(Full Fuselage) 157,348 in4 (Full Fuselage) 197,733 in4
Ist Ibay

4
ITot 355,081 in

Figure 4: Fuselage moment of inertia based on lumped area method (full effective skin)

8
 The input parameters to the preceding table are as follows as well as a graphic

representation of the lumped area locations are shown below.

Rout 100 in Skin outter radius

ts k 0.063 in Skin Thickness
ds t 0.97566 in Offset from top of stringer to stringer centroid
Rs t 98.9613 in Stringer Radius
Rba y 99.9685 in Bay centerline radius
#st 78 - Number of stringers
α 4.61538 Degrees Stringer spacing
As t 0.41197 in2 Stringer area
2
Aba y 0.50733 in Bay skin area

As a method of verification, two

methods are used for the establishment of the

second moment of area of the section in order to

validate the assumption presented above. First,

the above excel table is was generated. Second,

an AutoCAD model was constructed from

which the I value was calculated. This method

incorporates the true distribution of area about Figure 5: Stringer and bay locations

the centroid and produces a negligibly higher number. There two results are within

0.005% of each other, verifying the approximation of the lumped area method. The

results of these two trials are shown below.

True Distribution Method (AutoCAD) Lumped Area Method (Excel)

I of stringers = 157,368 in4 I of stringers = 157,348 in4

I of skin = 197,733 in4 I of skin = 197,733 in4
Total I = 355,102 in4 Total I = 355,081 in4

9
MODEL GEOMETRY

The section of the fuselage which is considered for this evaluation is shown in the

box below.

Section of fuselage considered for this evaluation

Figure 6: General Boeing 737 layout

For the purposes of this evaluation, a 10 frame station section of the aircraft

extending aft of the wing box and forward of the empennage is selected. This represents a

portion of the fuselage which undergoes large stresses due to tail loads. A number of

simplifying assumptions have been made which allow a more straight forward analysis

approach to be utilized. These are as follows:

1. Fuselage taper is neglected.

2. Stringer cross section remains constant along the length of the fuselage.

3. All stringers are constructed of the same material and cross section.

4. Frame cross section remains constant around circumference of fuselage.

10
 5. All frames are constructed of the same material.

6. Intersections between stringer & frame are neglected, eliminating additional

evaluation to be conducted of the associated shear tie.

With regard to the intersection locations of the stringer and frame, a simplified model

has been selected which idealizes the true geometry shown below. In this simplification,

both the frames and the stringers are placed directly against the skin, and each member is

assumed to remain continuous. The true geometry of the 737 uses a frame which is

located at the inner radius surface of the stringers and is fastened to the skin by way of a

shear tie . A representation of this true geometry is shown below.

Figure 7: True aircraft geometry (Niu, Airframe Structural Design, 1988)

11
 This frame offset is ignored for this

analysis except where semi-monocoque

stability is calculated. This calculation

requires a more accurate value of frame inertia

value which integrates the effective skin as

Figure 8: Idealized frame/stringer/skin
configuration (W. Tye, 1952) well as the frame/skin offset.

STRUCTURAL MEMBER CROSS SECTIONAL PROPERTIES

In order to conduct a structural evaluation of the fuselage section chose, the

geometric and material properties of each of the structural elements must be established.

The cross sectional properties of the structural elements are shown below. The material of

the stringers, frames & skin is taken as 2024-T3 with properties as shown in Appendix A.

Stringer Cross Section (Longitudinal Members)

These stringer section

properties are used to when

implementing the calculations of

buckling, crippling and effective

Without Effective Skin
sheet width. The compressive failure

stress of these stringers is used to

establish the assumed failure point of

the fuselage as a whole. With Effective Skin

Figure 9: Model stringer cross section
Frames (Circumferential Members)

12
 These sections are used when establishing the generalized instability of the

fuselage.

Without Effective Skin With Effective Skin

Figure 10: Model frame cross section

The attachment hardware chosen for this analysis is one that connects fuselage

skin to the underlying semi-monocoque structure with solid aluminum rivets. This is a

widely used method of attachment due to the low cost, low weight and ease of

installation. Extensive empirical research has been conducted with regard to the strength

of joints fastened in this manner. Two factors play a dominant role in the strength of

these joints, fastener shear strength and sheet bearing strength. Design data first

developed by the U.S. military has been published in MMPDS-09, and widely used in the

aviation industry. The fastener properties chosen for this evaluation are shown in

Appendix A.

13
3.0 AIRCRAFT LOADS

A structural evaluation of an aircraft should begin with a general understanding of

the loads generated during flight, landing and take-off. Extensive knowledge of

aerodynamics is required for an investigation of a complete loads profile of an aircraft.

Only that information which is required for structural analysis is considered here. A wide

variety of aircraft parameters affect the values of these loads. These parameters include,

but are not limited to, wing shape, operating speed, weight, power plant location,

operating conditions and fuselage profile. Although it is not necessary for the structural

analyst to understand the details regarding the establishment of the entire aircraft loads

profile, a general understanding of the genesis of these loads should be maintained.

The establishment of flight loads requires a detailed understanding of the

aerodynamics of sub- & super-sonic flight. In industry these loads are typically

developed by a specialized department of a design company typically titled the Loads

Group. Each aircraft is designed to perform within a set of projected operating

conditions. Commercial transport aircraft are used to comfortably move people and

cargo safely to a destination, whereas a military joint strike fighter must have the

maneuvering capability to successfully engage enemy aircraft. The characteristics of each

aircraft are tailored to produce the correct balance of functionality & comfort to achieve

an effective design.

ULTIMATE & LIMIT LOADS

Aircraft loads are typically broken into two categories; limit loads (applied loads)

& ultimate loads (design loads). A brief description of each is provided below.

14
 Limit Loads – This term is used to describe the anticipated maximum loads

experienced by an aircraft during its operational life. The entirety of the aircraft structure

must be capable of sustaining these loads without detrimental material deformation.

Deformation of aircraft structure up to limit loading must not interfere with the safe

operation of the aircraft.

Ultimate Loads – Although limit loads are the maximum expected loads

experienced by an aircraft, an additional factor of safety is typically applied to a design.

This is done to account for unforeseen circumstances inherent to the design of any

physical structure. These include but are not limited to: material property variation,

approximations associated with structural/aerodynamic theory, installation /

manufacturing/inspection techniques and the ability of a pilot to apply excessive control

input.

Generally, a factor of safety of 1.25 is used for unmanned structure (including

rocket/missile structures) and 1.5 for civil transport aircraft (FAA CFR Title 14 §25.303).

These are typical values, although others may be used depending on circumstance. The

term ultimate loads, is synonymous with the term design loads, when referring to civil

aircraft. These design loads are defined as follows:

Design Loads = Factor of Safety * Limit Loads = 1.5 * Limit Loads

Perhaps the strongest motivator for the use of a conservative factor of safety is the

establishment of limit loads based on the assumed operating conditions of the aircraft.

The aerodynamic forces experienced by an aircraft are generally proportional to the

velocity of the aircraft and the rate of change of the velocity’s magnitude and direction.

15
During emergency conditions, the pilot may be forced to exceed the design bounds,

generating excessive loads on the aircraft.

The way the analyst quantifies the magnitude of the applied loads is through the

use of Load Factors (n). Load factors are

a multiplying coefficient which are

applied to the aircraft or internal

component weight. They act as a

representation of a dynamic load which

is applied to the structure as a static

force. Both civil and military aircraft

Figure 11: Relative Design Load Factors
have guidelines which define the (Niu, 1988)

structural requirements for an aircraft depending on the magnitudes of the applicable load

factors. Figure 11 shows the relative design load factor to which a variety of aircraft are

considered.

Aircraft accelerations are due to two primary sources, maneuvers and air gusts.

Accelerations due to maneuvers are under the control of the pilot whereas the

accelerations due to air gusts are not under the control of the pilot. Air gust accelerations

are greater when the aircraft is at its lightest condition. In this condition, the wings

experience reduced loads because the aircraft is lighter. However, the load experienced

by other items not affected by a reduction in aircraft weight, including the engine mounts,

experience the same engine weight, but are exposed to a higher magnitude load factor.

A brief description of some of the primary sources of aircraft loads is provided

below.

16
Maneuver Loads:

Maneuvering loads are broken into two categories due to the difference in load

distribution caused by each. These categories are symmetric and asymmetric.

Symmetric flight conditions are those about the lateral (pitch) axis of the aircraft,

in which only lift and pitch are considered. The assumption made is that airspeed

and Mach number remains constant during the maneuver and that any yaw or roll

inputs are negligible. Asymmetric maneuvering loads are generated by input from

the lateral flight controls which cause roll of the aircraft. These maneuvers will

cause wing torsion as well as fuselage torsion due to inertia. Yawing maneuvers

caused by rudder input are also considered asymmetric maneuvers. Pitching

accelerations and asymmetric loading are seldom of sufficient magnitude to

justify extensive analysis (Peery, Aircraft Structures, 1982). Therefore,

simplifying assumptions are usually stipulated for the structural members critical

for these types of loads.

Gust Loading:

Gust loading is not under the control of the pilot. These are the result of the

aircraft intersecting an air gust, turbulent air flow of low pressure

gradients/inversions. These loads tend to be higher for very light aircraft. The

cause of these loads is the change in angle of attack due to air gusts of continuous

turbulence at right angles to the flight path.

Horizontal Tail Elevator Loads:

In order to maintain balance of the aircraft about the pitch axis, an input force

must be provided by the tail. This allows for a pitching moment to be applied

17
 about the CG. For transport aircraft, the overall aircraft weight distribution will

change depending on the type & size of cargo being carried. This will cause the

CG of the loaded aircraft to vary. The balancing tail force must be calculated

considering cargo loaded in both the forward most and rear most condition.

Emergency Landing Conditions:

Ultimate analysis is typically conducted using the loads generated during

emergency landing conditions. These tend to be the highest loads experienced by

large transport aircraft. The FAA requires that transport aircraft as described by

CFR Title 14 Part 25 must adhere to §25.561 which specifies the following limits:

Emergency Landing Condition Load Factors (n):

Upward: 3.0 g
Forward: 9.0g
Sideward: 3.0g on airframe, 4.0g on seats
Downward: 6.0g
Rearward: 1.5g

V-n DIAGRAM

Aircraft loads increase as a function of airspeed (dynamic pressure). In order to

limit the maximum loads experienced by an aircraft, a limit is set on the maximum

airspeed which the aircraft should travel. The relationship between load factor (n) and

airspeed can be graphically represented by a V-n diagram (velocity-load factor diagram).

The V-n diagram is defined in terms of indicated airspeed, which is equal to:

𝜌𝑎 Where:
𝑉𝑖 = √ ∗ 𝑉𝑎 Vi = indicated airspeed
𝜌𝑜 Va = actual airspeed
𝜌𝑜 = 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑎ℏ𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑐ℏ𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑎 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙
𝜌𝑎 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑐ℏ𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎ℏ𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑤ℎℏ𝑐ℎ 𝑉𝑎 ℏ𝑠 𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑎ℏ𝑛𝑒𝑑

18
 This definition allows for an aircraft’s V-n diagram to remain constant regardless

of flight altitude, causing compressibility effects to be neglected. If the inertial and

gravitational forces are summed through the z-axis of the aircraft, the load factor (n) can

be derived. The right hand side of the expression is proportional to the resultant inertial

and gravitational force acting at the CG of the aircraft. An understanding if the loads

experienced by an aircraft require the knowledge of four factor types. A change to any of

these will have a significant impact on the magnitude of the load experienced by the

aircraft.

1) Aircraft gross weight

2) Aircraft configuration (i.e. flaps/aileron/landing gear position, external stores, etc.)
3) Degree of symmetry of loading
4) Altitude

A representative V-n diagram can be generated for the aircraft considered here

using the following parameters, published by Boeing for the 737 series aircraft.

Max takeoff weight: 155,500 lb C.G. to tail length (Lt): 550 in

Max air speed: 580 mph Wing area (S): 57,600 in2
Wing chord length (Lc): 150 in Air density: 0.002378 slug/ft3
KU: 35 ft/s

In the development of a V-n diagram, a number of coefficients are required which

are typically established by wind tunnel testing. If representative values of these

coefficients are chosen as shown below, the following V-n diagram can be generated.

α Cl Cd Cm Cz Cx Ct Cz_a
35 8.00 0.420 0.0450 6.7941 -4.2446 0.0123 6.8064
25 7.00 0.240 0.0360 6.4456 -2.7408 0.0098 6.4554
15 6.00 0.130 0.0250 5.8292 -1.4273 0.0068 5.8360
10 5.00 0.082 0.0160 4.9383 -0.7875 0.0044 4.9426
5 2.50 0.035 0.0065 2.4935 -0.1830 0.0018 2.4953
0 1.00 0.027 -0.0110 1.0000 0.0270 -0.0030 0.9970
-5 -2.50 0.034 -0.0340 -2.4935 -0.1840 -0.0093 -2.5027
-10 -5.00 0.052 -0.0550 -4.9331 -0.8170 -0.0150 -4.9481
-15 -7.00 0.098 -0.0790 -6.7868 -1.7171 -0.0215 -6.8084
-20 -8.00 0.130 -0.0930 -7.5620 -2.6140 -0.0254 -7.5874
Figure 12: V-n diagram coefficients

19
 The following equations represent the magnitude of the load factor (n) for both

maneuver and gust conditions.

C z a SV 2 mKUSV Cza _ max  Cza _ min
nman  n  m
2W 2W max  min
These equations are then used to generate the following table and chart. As

specified by FAA CFR 14 §25.337, the maximum positive and negative maneuvering

load factors have been limited to +3.8 & -1 respectively.

5.00
V-n Diagram
+nz_Man
4.00 -nz_Man
3.00 +nz_max
Load Factor (n)

2.00 -nz_max

1.00 +nz
-nz
0.00
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 +nz_G
-1.00
-nz_G
-2.00
Indicated Air Speed (V) [MPH]

Figure 13: Relative Design Load Factors

20
4.0 MODEL APPLIED LOADS

Considering the variety of loads to which modern transport aircraft are subject,

one specific loading conditions is chosen for this evaluation which represents severe

loading of the fuselage. The representative fuselage model will be subject to a pure

applied moment, acting at one end of the fuselage section. The fuselage section is taken

as being fixed at the location of the wing box and classical beam theory formulations are

employed. This includes assuming a linear stress distribution across the section as well as

the assumption that planar sections remain planar following the application of load. The

section of the fuselage chosen for this evaluation (between the wing box and empennage)

is subject to large moments due to tail loads. The direction of applied moment considered

here is that generated during a climb maneuver. This produces a moment which acts

parallel to the span wise axis of the aircraft and induces compression in the crown of the

aircraft. Additionally, items within the fuselage such as cargo & passengers will

contribute to this moment during climb maneuvers when the plane is fully loaded. A

graphical representation of the section of fuselage chosen is shown below.

Figure 14: Beam theory idealization of fuselage with pure applied moment

21
5.0 STRUCTURAL EVALUATION

Following a general understanding of the loads and geometry associated with

typical aircrafts structure, an investigation into the variety of member failure modes can

be undertaken. Often, the ultimate strength of primary structural members are limited by

a stability type failure. This is particularly true for the light frame structures which are

used to construct modern vehicles. A variety of factors play a role in the analytic

establishment of these allowable value. Extensive research into these relationships was

conducted by NACA in the early twentieth century. This data was used as the primary

source for the investigations presented here.

SEMI-MONOCOQUE STRUCTURE STABILITY

Modern transport aircraft are designed using what is termed a semi-monocoque

structure. This consists of a thin cylindrical shell, typically fabricated from sheet metal,

which is supported by both longitudinal and transverse members. The intent of this

structure is to absorb and distribute the various concentrated and distributed load applied

to the aircraft.

The shell of the structure is incredibly effective at resisting in-plane shear and

tension loads. However, an unsupported shell is often subject to compressive stability

failure at loads far below the yield point of the material. It is unfeasible, from a weight

standpoint, to utilize a shell structure which is capable of supporting large compressive

loads. This point spurred the introduction of stiffened shells which are capable of

supporting both large shear and compressive loads, while maintaining a minimum

22
weight. If no stiffeners are added to this shell, it would be called monocoque or full

monocoque, from the French words meaning “single shell.”

The fuselage is in essence a beam structure. The frames act to maintain the shape

of the fuselage as well as to reduce the column length of the stringers. Stringers act as the

primary tension/compression members of the beam as well as acting as supports for the

skin. The skin carries the primary transverse, torsional and pressures load applied to the

aircraft. Where concentrated loads are applied, often bulkheads are installed to help

distribute loads to the skin. The combination of these elements produces a highly efficient

structure, i.e. a high strength to weight ratio. This type of structure can be utilized in a

large variety of applications as well as sustain local failure without causing total failure

due to load redistribution.

Evaluation of the ultimate strength of semi-monocoque structures involves

addressing two primary issues. First, establishing the stress distribution of the structure

under a variety of loading conditions. Second, checking the capability of the various

elements to sustain the loads applied to them. Preliminary design allows for approximate

calculations to be conducted and accepted with sufficient confidence; “The most

elaborate analysis possible cannot make a poor design into a good one – any time

available at this stage might better be spent on improving the design” (Niu, Airframe

Structural Design, 1988)

An analytic evaluation of a semi-monocoque structure generally focuses on three

types of failure; Skin instability, Panel instability & General instability. These are

described below.

Skin Instability:

23
Fuselage skin is typically constructed from thin sheets, fastened to both the

stringer and frames. Long, thin sheets buckle under a relatively low load due

to large slenderness ratio value. To prevent this buckling, a fairly thick sheet

would need to be used or support members would need to be spaced relatively

closely. Both of these approaches would significantly retract from the strength

to weight ratio of the overall structure. Interestingly, this low buckling load is

slightly increased due to the curvature of the sheet. Additionally, a pressurized

fuselage significantly increases this failure load.

Fuselage skin in a semi-monocoque structure is subject to loads which

may cause either compressive or shear buckling failures. The longitudinal

stringers serve two functions in this regard. First, the stingers act to break up

the skin panels into smaller sections, providing discretized support for the

sheet. Additionally, the fasteners used to attach the sheet to the stringer

provide an edge fixity which significantly contributes to the load carrying

capability of the panel before buckling. Second, the stringers tend to carry the

a large portion of the bending compressive load which the structure is capable

of sustaining.

Although skin panels are subject to buckling at relatively low loads, these

panels are capable of transmitting significant shear loads past their shear

buckling allowable through a diagonal tension field. It is important to note

that the buckling of individual panels is not indicative of failure of the

structure as a whole. At the point of individual member stability failure,

24
 considerable stress redistribution takes place which allows the structure to

continue to carry increasing loads.

In order to begin investigation into the stability of semi-monocoque

structures as a whole, the primary fuselage failure modes are described below.

Panel Instability:

The frames of a semi-monocoque fuselage act to break the structure into

section of stringer and skin. These sections are called panels. Panel failure is

considered to be the stability limit of the stringer and its effective skin

between the frames. Their length is considered to equal the frame spacing

(also called ring spacing). The frames of aircraft tend to be fairly stiff due to

the need for loads such as cargo & passengers to be transmitted through them

into the skin. A structure with relatively stiff frames will fail in a way similar

to that shown in Figure 15. In this case, the frames are sufficiently stiff to

enforce zero displacement nodes in the stringers at the frames. Following the

shear and compression buckling of a skin panel, an additional shear

component is induced by a semi-diagonal tension field. This produces an

additional axial and bending load in the stringer which must be considered

when arriving at the panel failing strength. The appropriate equation should be

used when considering the interaction between these loads.

25
 Figure 15: Mode shape of panel instability of semi-monocoque structure
(Becker, NACA Technical Note 3786, Handbook of structural stability
Part VI, Strength of stiffened curved plates and shells, 1958)

General Bending Instability:

General instability of the fuselage manifests as a buckle wavelength which is

greater than the frame spacing. This tends to occur with frames with a

relatively low stiffness. This is illustrated in Figure 16. General instability will

occur when the frame stiffness is beneath a certain critical value.

Figure 16: Mode shape of general instability of semi-monocoque structure

(Becker, NACA Technical Note 3786, Handbook of structural stability Part
VI, Strength of stiffened curved plates and shells, 1958)

26
 A method of assessing a structure’s capability of resisting the general instability

mode was presented by F.R. Shanley for semi-monocoque cylinders subject to pure

bending. His expression is presented below.

‫ܥ‬௙ ‫ܦܯ‬ଶ
ሺ‫ܫܧ‬ሻ௙ ൌ
‫ܮ‬

Here, the subscript f represents qualities related to the frame. D is the diameter of

the stiffened shell, L is the frame spacing & M is the bending moment on the shell.

This expression can be rearranged to solve for the allowable bending moment

which would cause a general instability failure of the geometry considered here. The

value of Cf has been experimentally determined to have a value of 1/16000. Here, L is

equal to the Frame spacing.

16,000‫ܮ‬ሺ‫ܫܧ‬ሻ௙ 16,000 ∗ 22ሺ10,700,000 ∗ 1.852ሻ௙

‫ܯ‬୫ୟ୶ _௚௘௡ ൌ ൌ
‫ܦ‬ଶ 199.937ଶ

‫ܯ‬୫ୟ୶ _௚௘௡ ൌ 174,494,234 ݈ܾ݅݊

[Moment causing general instability of fuselage under pure bending]

TORSIONAL GENERAL INSTABILITY

In addition to the bending induced instability modes discussed above, a semi-

monocoque cylinder may undergo stability failure due to torsional loading. An empirical

investigation into torsional general instability was undertaken by Guggenheim

Aeronautical Laboratory, California Institute of Technology (GALCIT) in collaboration

with the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) (Anon., 1943) (Dunn,

NACA TN 1197_Some Investigations of the General Instability of Stiffened Metal

Cylinders VIII : Stiffened Metal Cylinders Subjected to Pure Torsion, 1947)

27
 A theory of the general

torsional instability was developed

by Hayashi (Hayashi, 1952) which

utilized an orthotropic

representation of Donnell’s

equation, similar to equation (2) of

NACA Technical Note 3786

(Becker, NACA Technical Note Figure 17: Semi-monocoque general instability by

pure torsion (Anon., 1943)
3786, Handbook of structural

stability Part VI, Strength of stiffened curved plates and shells, 1958). Hayashi showed

that the effects of orthotropicity could be included in Donnell’s equation through a

generalization of the parameters employed to relate the geometric properties and loading

of isotropic cylinders. This allows Hayashi’s method to be applicable to the entire length

range of cylinders through the implementation of generalized parameters into the curves

presented by Donnell (L.H. Donnell, 1950). The equations presented by Hayashi were of

implicit form. For the purposes of design, these were modified by Becker in NACA TN

4237 (Becker, NACA TN 4237 - General Instability of Stiffened Cylinders, 1958) to an

explicit form.

The explicit form of general torsional instability equation for long cylinders is

shown below. A distinction is typically made between long & moderate length cylinders

depending on the amount of edge contribution which is assumed in the analysis. In this

case, the fuselage is taken as a long cylinder. If a moderate length cylinder is considered,

28
the additional term (R/L)0.5 must be multiplied by the expression below, where L equals

the length of the cylinder.

ଵൗ ଷൗ
‫ݐ‬௦ ସ ‫ܫ‬௙ ସ
‫ܨ‬௦் ൌ 1.754‫ ܧ‬൬ ൰ ൬ ଶ ൰
‫ݐ‬௦௞ ܴ ‫ݐ‬௦௞

‫ܣ‬௦௧ൗ 0.41197 ݅݊ଶൗ

‫ݐ‬௦ ൌ ܾ ൌ 8 ݅݊ ൌ 0.051496 ݅݊

‫ܣ‬௙௥ൗ 0.4948 ݅݊ଶൗ

‫ݐ‬௙ ൌ ܽ ൌ 22 ݅݊ ൌ 0.013185 ݅݊
ଵൗ ଷൗ
0.051496 ସ 1.8520 ସ
‫ܨ‬௦் ൌ 1.754ሺ10,500,000ሻ ൬ ൰ ൬ ൰
0.063 99.9685ଶ 0.063

‫ܨ‬௦் ൌ 221,186 ‫݅ݏ݌‬

ሾ݄ܵ݁ܽ‫ݕݐ݈ܾ݅݅ܽݐݏ݊݅ ݈ܽݎ݁݊݁݃ ݈ܽ݊݋݅ݐݎ݋ݐ ݎ݋݂ ݐ݈݅݉݅ ݏݏ݁ݎݐݏ ݎ‬ሿ

TRANSVERSE SHEAR GENERAL INSTABILITY

A reliable theoretical method of establishing the transverse-shear general

instability stress value does not appear to be available. However, the results of torsional

stability can be employed with an appropriate modification. GALCIT conducted research

on cylinders subject to combined bending and transverse-shear reportd that failure

occurred either in the bending mode or the shear mode. An interaction between the two

general failure types did not appear to exist (Becker, NACA Technical Note 3786,

Handbook of structural stability Part VI, Strength of stiffened curved plates and shells,

1958).

29
 To arrive at the transverse-shear general instability failure stress, a 15% reduction

is applied to the torsional failure stress to arrive at the following expression.

ଵൗ ଷൗ
‫ݐ‬௦ ସ ‫ܫ‬௙ ସ
‫ܨ‬௦ ൌ 0.85 ∗ ‫ܨ‬௦் ൌ 1.4909 ൬ ൰ ൬ ଶ ൰ ൌ 0.85 ∗ 221,186 ‫݅ݏ݌‬
‫ݐ‬௦௞ ܴ ‫ݐ‬௦௞

‫ܨ‬௦ ൌ 188,008 ‫݅ݏ݌‬

ሾܶ‫ݕݐ݈ܾ݅݅ܽݐݏ݊݅ ݈ܽݎ݁݊݁݃ ݎ݋݂ ݐ݈݅݉݅ ݏݏ݁ݎݐݏ ݎ݄ܽ݁ݏ ݁ݏݎ݁ݒݏ݊ܽݎ‬ሿ

30
5.1 STABILITY OF STRUCTURAL MEMBERS

LONG COLUMN / ELASTIC BUCKLING

Aircraft structural members are subject to a variety of load combinations

including tension, compression, shear & torsion. Given that aircraft are designed to be as

light as possible, these members are typically thin, and intended to transfer load in a

particular manner. Those members which are subject to compressive loads tend to be

considered ’critical’ due to stability considerations. Long elements tend to fail by

buckling, requiring a method to analytically

establish the strength of these members. The

concepts of structural instability represent an

idealization of the structure which it is impossible

to reproduce in the physical world. The values

calculated are, however, able to be used as

limiting values for the purposes of design.

Compression member stability failure can

be grouped into two failure type categories, Figure 18: Elementary Buckling
Model (Ref (Shanley F. , 1957),
sometimes called the primary & the local modes. Fig. 24.1)

The simplest form of primary stability failure is column buckling. Whereas local failure,

also called crippling, typically occurs in members with long, thin flanges. Column theory

forms a basis for the general theory of buckling (Shanley F. , 1957). Column buckling

occurs when a slender section with a stable cross section is subjected to a compressive

load. An analytic establishment of column buckling begins with an idealization of the

given column, also called the elementary buckling model, shown here. The model

31
consists of two rods, pined at the ends, and assumed to have an infinite stiffness. A

spring, with spring constant K is placed at the center of the two rods. The spring carries

zero loads when the column is perfectly straight. The force Pa can be increases to large

value assuming the column remains in the ‘absolutely straight’ condition. Intuition would

tell us that this will not occur. Any misalignment, such as that which would exist due to

manufacturing irregularities, would cause the spring to resist some portion of the applied

load Pa.

The methods of instability are concerned with the loading state which allows

equilibrium to be maintained given that a small amount of lateral deflection () exists. A

value called the critical load (Pcr) is established which represents the load at which the

column desires to exist in both the deflected an undeflected state. This referred to as the

“bifurcation of the equilibrium position.” At this load the straight position is unstable and

will assume the deflect position given the slightest disturbance. To establish the critical

load, a tiny value of  is used, and the value of Pcr is arrived at as follows.

Figure 19: Force balance of column section

32
 ߜ ܲ௕ 2ߜ ܲ௕ 4ߜ
ܶܽ݊ ߙ ൌ ; ൌ ; ൌ
‫ܮ‬ൗ ܲ௔ ‫ܮ‬ൗ ܲ௔ ‫ܮ‬
2 2

If the representation of the spring constant arrived at by Hook’s law is used:

ܲ௕ ൌ ‫ߜܭ‬

These equations can now be substituted into each other to arrive at the following:

‫ܮܭ‬
ܲ௖௥ ൌ
4

Since  does not show up in this expression of Pcr, this indicates that this value is

maintained for all values of assuming the value of L/2 does not change appreciably.

This leads to the simplified relationship shown

e below. This model indicates that deflection will

increase to infinity with no increase in load. Failure

will occur about the axis with the lowest moment

of inertia. The relationship of Figure 21 is only

Figure 20: Eccentrically valid for idealized columns, assumed to be

loaded beam behavior
perfectly straight. If any initial eccentricity exists,

as occurs in all physical beams, the relationship of Figure 20 arises. The variable ‘e’

represents the initial eccentricity of the applied load.

One of the most famous equations

Pa
in the field of strengths of materials is the

Euler buckling equation. Euler’s paper Pcr

written in 1757 reveals the incredible

insight which Euler possessed and his 

Figure 21: Critical buckling load

relationship
33
ability to apply advanced mathematics to practical engineering problems. Interpretations

of Euler’s writings have been presented by Van den Broek and Timoshenko, and are

recommended for those interested in additional information.

Euler derived a basis of establishing a column’s strength based on a term called

stiffness moment, which we now call the bending stiffness (EI). Euler begins by writing a

basic equation which implies a bending moment will cause curvature, defined by the

following relationship:

1 ‫ܯ‬
ൌ
ܴ ‫ܫܧ‬

At any point x along the column, the

bending moment can be defined as Py, leading to:

1 ܲ‫ݕ‬
ൌ
ܴ ‫ܫܧ‬

The column curvature is the rate of change

of slope, which for small deflections can be written Figure 22: Euler column
buckling (Shanley F. , 1957), Fig
as d/dx. This allows the following differential equation to be established:

1 ݀ଶ ‫ݕ‬ ݀ ଶ ‫ ݕ‬െܲ‫ݕ‬
ൌ ; ൌ
ܴ ݀‫ ݔ‬ଶ ݀‫ ݔ‬ଶ ‫ܫܧ‬

Euler solved this differential equation which determined the shape of the

deflection curve and the critical load. The critical load for a pinned/pinned column of

constant cross section in the elastic range has a critical load as follows. This relationship

is called the Euler equation and is shown below.

݊ଶ ߨ ଶ ‫ܫܧ‬
ܲா ൌ
‫ܮ‬ଶ

34
 It can be shown that the deflection follows a sinusoidal relationship. A coefficient

of n2 can be multiplied to the right hand side of this equation, as shown, to establish the

critical load of higher order buckling modes of the column. Since these higher order

mode shapes tend to be unstable, n is usually taken as unity. If the column is restrained

from lateral deflection at any points along its length, higher order buckling modes may be

induced. These mode are shown by b) & c) of Figure 23.

The above relationship of PE is based on the condition of a pinned/pinned column.

Aircraft structure rarely have this configuration, therefor requiring a modification be

made to this equation to account for a variety of end conditions. It can be intuitively

understood that a column which can carry a moment at its end would be more stable than

one which is free to rotate. The method of incorporating the effects of end fixity is

through the use of an effective column length (Le). It can be shown that the following

relationship exists between the column length and the effective length based on the

column end conditions:

‫ܮ‬
‫ܮ‬௘ ൌ
√ܿ

35
 Where c represents the coefficient of fixity. The values of c can be found in the

following figure.

a) b) c) d) e) f)

Figure 23: Fixity coefficient for a variety of end conditions

(Ref (Bruhn, 1965), Fig C2.2)

From this it can be seen that the critical load of columns with a variety of end

conditions act as a proportion of a pinned/pinned column. A column with fixed/free ends

has a fixity coefficient of ¼, producing an effective length (Le) of double the length of the

column(2*L). This indicates a fixed/free column as pinned/pined with twice the length of

the fixed/free column. The Euler equation can now be rewritten to account for the column

end conditions to establish the Euler buckling load of the column.

ߨ ଶ ‫ܫܧ‬
ܲா ൌ ଶ
‫ܮ‬௘

The above equation is a description of the critical load of a column when

considered from a force/deflection point of view. It is common for this equation to be

modified and represented on the basis of stress/strain level. This can be done by dividing

both sides of the equation by the cross sectional area of the column. The I/A term
36
represents the square of the radius of gyration, it may therefore be substituted into the

equation to produce the following:

ߨ ଶ ‫ܫܧ‬ ூ
‫ܨ‬ா ൌ ; ߩ ൌ ට஺
‫ܮ‬ଶ௘ ‫ܣ‬

ߨ ଶ‫ܧ‬
‫ܨ‬ா ൌ ଶ
ቀ௅ఘ೐ቁ

This is now considered the Euler equation, represented in a stress-strain form. If

the elastic limit is not exceeded, this equation can be used to solve for the critical

buckling load of a column. This is typically used as a cut off load in design due to the

secondary effects which present themselves upon buckling, which usually leads to

failure.

SHORT COLUMN / INELASTIC BUCKLING

The equations shown above represent the elastic behavior of columns with a

slenderness ratio (L/) above a certain critical value. This critical value corresponds to

the value at which the maximum compressive stress in the section is equal to the stress at

which the stress-strain curve deviates from a straight line (Peery, Aircraft Structures,

1950). This value is typically much lower than the yield stress.

37
 Columns with slenderness ratios less than a critical value exhibit strengths far

lower than that predicted by the Euler equation using the elastic modulus. This caused

the Euler equation to not be utilized in practical design for a number of years; until in

1889, Engesser proposed the tangent-modulus theory (Bleich, 1952). In this Engesser

suggested that the elastic modulus (E) used in the Euler equation could be substituted

with the tangent modulus (Et). This produces the following, often referred to as the

Euler-Engesser equation.

ߨ ଶ ‫ܧ‬௧
‫ܨ‬ாா ൌ ଶ
ቀ௅ఘ೐ቁ

Test data from (Broek, Dec 1945)

shows a strong correlation between the

Engesser method and test data, see

Figure 24. Shanley suggests that when

using this equation, a plot of Et be

generated for smoothing purposes since

considerable scatter arises whenever a

slope (derivative) is obtained graphically.

A description of the method is presented

in (Shanley F. , 1957). Additionally,

Figure 24: Determination of
precaution should be taken when column curve from stress strain
diagram (Shanley F. , 1957)
evaluating considering materials which exhibit an upper and lower yield point, such as

low carbon steel (see Figure 25). As the material passes through the flat portion of the

curve, an instability is introduced due to the modulus being effectively zero. Unless the

38
straightness of the column is maintained using external

supports during this transition region, the right hand

portion of the stress-strain curve cannot be utilized. For

these types of materials, the lower yield point should be

used as the limiting load.

This equation does not however represent Figure 25: Double yield
point (Shanley F. , 1957)
accurately the true conditions of a short column. Upon

its presentation, it was criticized for not

accounting for the fact that upon the onset of

buckling, a portion of the cross section will

experience unloading. This idea can be better

realized if a simple example is considered.

Take a column which is subjected to an axial

compressive load which caused the entire Figure 27: Loading vs unloading in
the plastic range (Bruhn, 1965)
cross section to experience a compressive

stress above the yield point but below the

critical buckling stress. Upon the onset of

buckling the section will begin to

develop bending stresses which will

increase the stress on one side of the

neutral axis and decrease the stress on the

Figure 26: Reduced modulus vs
tangent modulus theories vs test data
other side of the neutral axis. Within the
(Peery, Aircraft Structures, 1950)
plastic range, the material behaves differently during loading vs unloading, causing the

39
effective modulus of the cross section to lie somewhere between the E & Et. This lead to

the development of the reduced modulus theory. This theory however had the result of

predicting higher strength than was seen in testing.

The Engesser-Euler equation (tangent modulus theory) has been widely adopted

by industry and government agencies. This is due to the close correlation to test data and

it being always slightly conservative (Peery, Aircraft Structures, 1950). This method is

that suggested for design purposes for aircraft structures for the U.S. military by MIL-

HDBK-5G (Defence, MIL-DBK-5G, Metalic Materials and Elements for Aerospace

Vehicle Structures, 1994). Figure 26 shows the predictions of the reduced & tangent

modulus theory plotted with test data of a solid round tube of various L/ values. This

shows that the tangent modulus theory’s tendency of being slightly conservative.

A semi-empirical approach to short column strength perdition is widely used in

industry. One of the most common and

convenient approaches is a parabolic curve

which provides a close approximation to points

generated by testing. This curve takes the

general form as follows:

ଶ
௅ᇲ
‫ܨ‬௖ ൌ ‫ܨ‬௖௢ െ ‫ ܭ‬ቀ ఘ ቁ

Where the constants Fco and K are chosen so that

the parabola match test results and lies tangent

Figure 28: Parabolic vs Engesser
to the Euler curve at a point. When these two
curves (Shanley F. , 1957)
constraints are imposed on the equation, the

following is produced:
40
 ᇲ మ
ி೎೚ ቀಽഐ ቁ
‫ܨ‬௖ ൌ ‫ܨ‬௖௢ ൭1 െ ସగమ ா
൱

Fco is termed the column yield stress and is typically determined so that the

parabola matched test data. However, if the material has a distinct yield point in

compression, this value may be assumed as the column yield stress (Defence, ANC-5

Bulletin, Strength of Metal Aircraft Elements, 1951). This parabola is always tangent to

the curve at Fco= Fco/2 and produces a critical slenderness ratio as shown. Both the

parabolic curve and the Euler curve are only valid within the slenderness ratio range to

which they apply. This curve tends to hold true for aluminum alloys, leading to its wide

spread adoption. Other curve fits including a linear & semi-cubic equations are used for

other alloys.

s s
s

s
Figure 29: Parabolic short beam curve
(Peery, Aircraft Structures, 1950)

41
 When evaluating a structure, it is not always clear whether the Euler or the Euler-

Johnson curves should be used. It is useful to establish a cut-off value of slenderness ratio

from which this decision can be based. This can be done by equating the slopes of the

two curves (mi).

݀‫ܨ‬௖
݈ܵ‫݊݋݅ݐ݂݅݊݅݁݀ ݁݌݋‬: ᇲ
݀ ቀ௅ఘ ቁ

ᇲ మ
ி೎ೞ ቀಽഐ ቁ ݀‫ܨ‬௖ ‫ܨ‬௖௦ଶ ௅ᇲ
‫ ݊݋ݏ݄݊݋ܬ‬െ ‫ݎ݈݁ݑܧ‬: ‫ܨ‬௖ ൌ ‫ܨ‬௖௦ ൭1 െ ସగమ ா
൱ ; ݉ଵ ൌ ൌെ ቀ ቁ
ᇲ
݀ ቀ௅ఘ ቁ 2ߨ ଶ ‫ ܧ‬ఘ

ߨ ଶ‫ܧ‬ ݀‫ܨ‬௖ 2ߨ ଶ ‫ܧ‬

‫ݎ݈݁ݑܧ‬: ‫ܨ‬௖ ൌ ଶ ; ݉ଶ ൌ ᇲ
ൌെ ଷ
ᇲ
ቀ௅ఘ ቁ ݀ ቀ௅ఘ ቁ ᇲ
ቀ௅ఘ ቁ

ᇲ ସగర ா మ ᇲ ா
݉ଵ ൌ ݉ଶ : ቀಽഐ ቁ ସ ൌ మ െ ‫ ݂݂݋‬ቀಽഐ ቁ ൌ √2 ߨ ට
‫ݐݑܥ‬
ி೎ೞ ி ೎ೞ

If the cut-off value of the column being evaluated is above this value, the Euler

expression can be used, otherwise, the Euler-Johnson equation should be used. This is

checked below as applied to the fuselage stringers between frames.

௅ᇲ ‫ܧ‬௖ 10,700,000
ቀఘ ቁ ൌ √2 ߨ ඨ ൌ √2 ߨ ඨ ≅ 71
஼௨௧ି௢௙௙ ‫ܨ‬௖௖ 41,895

22
൬ ൰ ≅ 33
0.6619023

Since the slenderness ratio for the stringer geometry considered here is less than

the cut-off slenderness ration as defined above (33<71), equations describing failure

outside of the simple Euler equation range should be used.

The Euler method can now be used to establish the buckling strength of the

stringer. The crippling stress of the stringer used here was calculated using the Needham

42
method. L’ is calculated using a column fixity coefficient of 1, representing a simply

supported column.

ᇲ మ మ
ி೎೎ ቀಽഐ ቁ మమ
ସଵ,଼ଽହ൫బ.లలభవ൯
‫ܨ‬௖ ൌ ‫ܨ‬௖௖ ൭1 െ ସగమ ா೎
൱ ൌ 41,895 ቆ1 െ ସగమ ଵ଴,଻଴଴,଴଴଴
ቇ ൌ 37,304 ‫݅ݏ݌‬

[Euler Johnson buckling allowable of stringer with no effective skin]

When the primary failure occurs at compressive stress values greater than Fcy, a

correlation between Et and Fc must be used. A solution to this problem was presented by

Walter Ramberg and William R. Osgood (W. Ramberg W. O., 1943) by using three

parameters to define the shape of the stress-strain curve. Their basic equation can be

presented as follows:

‫ܧ‬௧ 1
ൌ
‫ ܧ‬1 ൅ ଷ ௡ ቀಷಷ ቁ೙షభ
଻ బ.ళ

‫ܧ‬௧ 1
ൌ
‫ ܧ‬1 ൅ ଷ ௡ ቀಷಷ ቁ೙షభ
଻ బ.ళ

Figure 30: Dimensionless tangent modulus curves

43
 Here, n is a constant which is associated with a specific material. This constant is

also called the shape factor of the material. The value of n can be found in tables

presented in (Bruhn, 1965) or can be

analytically established by the following

expression.

17 17
݈݊ ቀ
ቁ ݈݊ ቀ ቁ
݊ ൌ1൅ 7 ൌ1൅ 7
ଷଽ ≅ 11.5
ிబ.ళ
݈݊ ቀிబ.ఴఱቁ ݈݊ ൫ଷ଺൯

The definitions of the secant moduli F0.7 &

F0.85 are shown in Figure 31. Other

Figure 31: Secant modulus
descriptions of the stress-strain curve are (Bruhn, 1965)

available including that presented by L. H. Donnell (Donnell, Suggested New Definition

for Proportional Limit and Yield Point, Nov. 1938) or Esser and Ahrend. However the

Ramberg-Osgood definition is the most widely used in industry. Additionally, an

iterative, pseudo-linear method has been developed by Todd Coburn of California State

Polytechnic University.

The Ramberg-Osgood relationship can be combined with Euler’s expression to

produce the following.

Ramberg-Osgood Euler
ᇲ ଶ
‫ܧ‬௧ 1 ߨ ଶ ‫ܧ‬௧ ‫ܧ‬௧ ቀ௅ఘ ቁ
ൌ ‫ܨ‬ாா ൌ → ൌ ଶ
‫ ܧ‬1 ൅ ଷ ௡ ቀಷಷ ቁ೙షభ ᇲ ଶ ‫ܨ‬ாா ߨ
଻ బ.ళ ቀ௅ఘ ቁ

44
The objective here is to obtain an expression for Et/Fc from the Ramberg-Osgood

relationship. To achieve this, multiply both sides of Ramberg-Osgood by (F0.7/Fc) and

equate to B2.

Figure 32: Tangent modulus of Al 2024-T3 (n = 11.5)

‫ܧ‬௧ ‫ܨ‬଴.଻ 1
൬ ൰൬ ൰ൌ ಷ య ಷ ೙ ൌ ‫ܤ‬ଶ
‫ܧ‬ ‫ܨ‬௖ ಷ
೎ ା ೙൬
ళ ಷ ൰
బ.ళ బ.ళ

If the rearranged Euler expression is substituted, this becomes:

ᇲ ଶ
ቀ௅ఘ ቁ ‫ܨ‬଴.଻
൬ ൰ ൌ ‫ܤ‬ଶ
ߨଶ ‫ܧ‬

ଵ ௅ᇲ ிబ.ళ
‫ ܤ‬ൌ గ ቀ ఘ ቁ ටቀ ா
ቁ

This expression can be plotted and is shown below as presented in the Lockheed Aircraft

Structures Manual (See

Figure 33). This can be used to find the ultimate load carrying capability in the plastic

region of a column based only on E, F0.7 & (L’/).

45
 c

Figure 33: Dimensionless column curves based on Cozzone/Melcon method. Chart from
Lockheed Aircraft structures manual (Bruhn, 1965)

This figure can be used as an alternative means of calculating the buckling

strength of the stringer.

ଵ ௅ᇲ ி ଵ ଶଶ ଷଽ,଴଴଴
‫ ܤ‬ൌ గ ቀ ఘ ቁ ටቀ ாబ.ళቁ ൌ ቀ
గ ଴.଺଺ଵଽ଴ଶଷ
ቁ ටቀ ଵ଴,଻଴଴,଴଴଴
ቁ ൌ 0.6387
೎

‫ܨ‬௖
ൌ 0.925 ; ‫ܨ‬௖ ൌ 0.925 ∗ ‫ܨ‬଴.଻ ൌ 0.925 ∗ 39,000 ൌ 36,075 ‫݅ݏ݌‬
‫ܨ‬଴.଻

‫ܨ‬௖ ൌ 36,075 ‫݅ݏ݌‬

[Column curve buckling allowable of stringer with no effective skin]

It can be seen that this method produces a stringer buckling allowable which varies from

Eulers method by 3.29%.

46
 The critical buckling stresses calculated above are considerably conservative

because they are considering the stringer to act as an individual member, unsupported by

any surrounding structure. The effects of the stringers attachment to the skin causes it to

not simply act as a stand-alone column which will buckle about its minimum inertial axis.

The attachment to the skin has two primary impacts on the buckling failure of the

stringer. Firstly, it stabilizes the stinger from buckling in the plane of the skin. A buckling

failure must occur in the direction which causes deflection in a direction perpendicular to

the plane of the skin. Secondly, the portion of the skin which is attached to the stringer

through the attachment hardware, has the effect of acting with the stringer. This

significantly increases the moment of inertia on the column, allowing the stringer to take

greater load than would be found if it were considered to act alone.

The above discussion related to buckling assumes the column in question has a

stable cross section. Aircraft structures are designed to be as light as possible, often

making them subject to crippling/local buckling failures. This is due to the presence of

long/thin flanges & webs. A variety of methods exist for analytically establishing the

theoretical value of the crippling strength of a section. These will be presented later. If

the crippling stress of the section is taken into account, the previously presented column

curves become slightly modified. A widely adopted method for establishing the

compressive strength of columns with unstable cross sections was presented by J.B.

Johnson. His method modifies the short column, parabolic curve by replacing Fco

(column stress) with Fcc (crippling stress). This generates the following equations which

can be plotted using a variety of crippling stress values to arrive at a family of curves.

47
 ᇲ మ
ி೎೎ ቀಽഐ ቁ
‫ܨ‬௖ ൌ ‫ܨ‬௖௖ ൭1 െ ସగమ ா
൱

As an expansion of Figure 34, Engesser’s

tangent failure curve can be included to produce

the curves shown in Figure 35.

In order to arrive at a more accurate

method of establishing stringer failure which

includes the effects of the skin and the

establishment of the crippling stress of the

Figure 34: Colum failure
stringer, both of these topics must be investigated, curves, including Engesser
method (Bruhn, 1965)
a summary of which is presented in the next sections.

Figure 35: Family of generalized Johnson curves

48
 Below is shown a summary of the column buckling allowable using the various

methods presented in this section. Given its extensive use in industry, the Euler method is

selected for use elsewhere in this analysis.

Euler-Johnson 37,304 psi

Column Curves 36,075 psi
Figure 36: Column failure summary

49
5.2 STRUCTURAL SECTION LOCAL FAILURE

The topic of buckling is concerned with columns with cross sections which are

considered stable. When wall thicknesses become thin, the column may fail at a load

significantly lower than that predicted by standard buckling formulae. This is due to the

instability which develops as a members wall thickness is reduced. A column susceptible

to this type of failure will be considered to have failed through either local buckling or

crippling, depending on the specifics of the geometry.

In order to understand these effects, the typical types of aircraft structural sections

should be considered. In an effort to achieve a maximum strength to weight ratio of flight

vehicle structure, thin sheets will often be bent into a compound shape consisting of a

number of straight sections. This type of construction generates cross sections which

consist of a collection of flanges and plates, which are differentiated by their end

conditions. If an adjacent flange is sufficient to provide a simple support condition, the

encapsulated portion can be considered a plate, as shown below.

Flange
Plate

Plate

Figure 37: Typical aircraft structural flange/plate sections (Niu, Airframe Structural
Design, 1988)

50
 An additional phenomena which arises is in regards to the contribution of the

corner radius on the crippling allowable of the member. A description of the influence of

corners is provided by Anderson in NACA TN 3553 (Anderson, 1956): “Although the

shape of the curved corner may influence the crippling stress, the formulas imply that the

effect of increased yield stress due to forming is more important”. Neglecting the increase

in yield strength due to corner work hardening provides conservative results through the

plastic range and is therefore acceptable for generalized use. Additionally, calculation

methods based on empirical results will account for the corner hardening effects.

LOCAL BUCKLING

Local buckling is considered the circumstance where an individual element (either

plate or flange) of a flange/plate member buckles under the applied compressive load. As

would be imagined, a conservative view of the section could assume the flange/plate to

be pinned at its attachment to the adjacent member. However, a more accurate

representation would account for the amount of elastic restraint provided by the formed

or extruded corner. An analytic approach to establishing the amount of restrain provided

by the corner is highly complex and is usually dependent on the specific section

geometry. For the stringer geometry considered here (hat section), an analytic approach

for determining local instability was developed by Van Der Maas in his work for the

Fairchild Corporation. There, he describes two types of local instability to which hat

sections are subject, distortion & lateral movement. Given that the stringer in the

geometry considered here is fastened to the skin through a single fastener at the center

51
plate of the section, it may be subject to either type of failure. These two local failure are

shown graphically in below.

Distortion & lateral movement of flanges Distortion only

Figure 38: Hat section local instability failure modes

Figure 39: Local buckling design curve for hat section

52
 The curves developed by Van Der Maas can be used to establish the local

buckling allowable for the hat section stringer considered here where failure is assumed

to occur in the elastic range (ߟ=1).

ܾ௪ 1.6858 ݅݊
ൌ ൌ 1.27422
்ܾ 1.323 ݅݊

ܾ௙ 0.931 ݅݊
ൌ ൌ 0.55226
ܾ௪ 1.6858 ݅݊

ඥ‫ܭ‬௧ ≅ 1.33 ; ‫ܭ‬௧ ൌ 1.7689

‫ݐ‬௧ ଶ 0.063 ଶ
‫ܨ‬௖௥_௟௢௖ି௕௨௖ ൌ ‫ܧ ்ܭ‬௖ ൬ ൰ ൌ 1.7689 ∗ 10,700,000 ൬ ൰ ൌ 42,918 ‫݅ݏ݌‬
ܾ௧ 1.323
‫ܨ‬௖௥_௟௢௖ି௕௨௖ ൌ 42,918 ‫[ ݅ݏ݌‬Local buckling of stringer]

This indicates failure where the side legs buckle first.

CRIPPLING

Where local buckling is concerned with the failure of individual elements of a

flange/plate member, crippling describes the failure

of the cross section as a whole. Tests of structural

members constructed of flange/plate elements show

that following local buckling, a stress distribution

occurs across the cross section similar to that shown.

Similar to the effect that takes place following the

Figure 40: Section
buckling of the skin in a stringer stiffened panel, a stress distribution
following local buckling,
stress distribution is establish focused around the prior to crippling failure
(Niu, Airframe Structural
stiffest portion of the section, the corners. A Design, 1988)
distribution similar to that shown in Figure 40 can be used for visualization purposes. A

53
unified theoretical solution to the crippling behavior of all sections has not been

developed due to the unknown restraint provided to each element by the corners.

Additionally, the manner in which stress collects around the corners is not well

understood. This has led to a number of primarily empirical solutions to be developed,

three of which are presented here; namely, the Needham method, the Gerard method &

the McComb method.

It is a well-known phenomenon that the failing strength of a flat plate can

considerably exceed the elastic buckling allowable, when buckling occurs in the elastic

range. This is due to the boundary conditions of the unloaded edges of the plate which

allow significant tension to build up after buckling. A basic understanding of crippling

typically begins with an investigation of a flange under compressive load. This is due to a

flange being the simplest type of element which exhibits the ability to carry additional

load following buckling. Flanges differ from columns in that a column is unsupported

along its unloaded edge which allow it to deflect considerably following buckling.

Flanges however are supported along one unloaded edge and are therefore stiffened

during post buckling rotation which permits for post critical loads to be carried.

The nonlinear nature of the post buckling behavior as well as the nonlinearities

associated with plasticity make analysis of buckled elements quite complex. An

evaluation conducted by Stowell (Stowell, 1950, January) on cruciform sections has

provided numerical data for the development of semi-empirical formulas which can be

used in a variety of situations. An interesting fact which has presented itself is the

correlation of flange failure load and the stress along the unloaded edge. It has been

found that failure occurs when stress along the unloaded edge reaches the compressive

54
yield strength of the material. In the research conducted by Stowell, it was found that for

eight different flange configurations, failure occurred at an edge stress within 1% of the

predicted compressive yield strength.

When the crippling of plate elements is considered, one characteristic presents

itself. The results of the theoretical work of Mayer & Budiansky, along with

experimental data indicate that a flat plate with unloaded edges which remain straight can

carry significantly greater loads than one where the unloaded edges are free to warp. An

example of this is a V-groove plate where the edge supports do not entirely prevent

lateral shortening at the centerline of the plate due to out-of-plane distortions.

Interestingly, the post-buckling behavior of compressed square tubes closely matches that

of plates tested in V-groove plates.

METHOD 1: NEEDHAM METHOD

The first of these methods which will be explored was developed by Robert

Needham of The University of California Los Angeles in 1954. In his work published in

the Journal of Aeronautical Sciences, he presents a method of predicting the maximum

average (crippling) stress of formed sheet metal structural shapes (Needham, 1954). His

empirical formulation is based on the assumption that formed structural shapes, which

consist of a series of flat plates, can be treated as a collection of angles possessing various

degrees of edge restraint parallel to the direction of loading. The crippling load of the

section is found by taking a weighted average of the crippling stress of the individual

angle sections.

55
 Figure 41: Needham sectioning description

The set of design curves presented by Needham is shown in the figure below.

Figure 42: Dimensionless Needham crippling curves (Needham, 1954)

These design curves can alternatively be expressed by the closed form equation:
଴.଻ହ
଴.ହ 1
‫ܨ‬௖௖ ᇱ ൌ ‫ܥ‬௘ ൫‫ܨ‬௖௬ ‫ܧ‬௖ ൯ ൭ ൱
ܾ′ൗ
‫ݐ‬

56
Here, the following definitions hold:

Fcc’: Crippling allowable of individual angle unit

b’/t: Equivalent b/t of section; (a + b)/2t
Ce: Coefficient dependent on fixity of angle edges
Two edges free: Ce = 0.316
One edge free: Ce = 0.342
No edges free: Ce = 0.366

Following the establishment of the angle unit allowables of the section, the weighted

average can be calculated as follows.

∑ሺ‫ݏ݈݁݃݊ܣ ݂݋ ݀ܽ݋ܮ ݈݃݊݅݌݌݅ݎܥ‬ሻ

‫ܨ‬௖௖_௡௘௘ௗ௛௔௠ ൌ
∑ሺ‫ݏ݈݁݃݊ܣ ݂݋ ܽ݁ݎܣ‬ሻ

A keen observer might notice

that the Needham method is only

applicable to a select number of

shapes. An I section or cruciform are

not able to be analyzed using this

method. The formulae shown above

can be implemented to establish the

crippling allowable of the hat stringer

considered here. The first step in the

process is to divide the stringer cross

section into a number of angles. Since

the section is symmetric, three angles

can be used to simulate the section.

Figure 43: Needham method calculations

57
 These areas, along with the design curves presented by Needham (shown on the

next page), can then be used to establish the crippling stress of each of the three angles

respectively.

Angle Unit 1

ܾଵ ሺܽ ൅ ܾሻ ሺ0.2485 ൅ 0.4655ሻ
ൌ ൌ ൌ 5. 6ത
‫ݐ‬ 2‫ݐ‬ 2ሺ0.063ሻ

-One Edge Free (Figure 42) ଵ ଵ

‫ܨ‬௖௖_ଵ ൌ 0.08ሺ‫ܨ‬௖௬ ‫ܧ‬ሻଶ ൌ 0.08ሾሺ40 ൈ 10.7ሻሺ10ଽ ሻሿଶ
‫ܨ‬௖௖
ൌ 0.08 ‫ܨ‬௖௖_ଵ ൌ 52,337 ‫ ݅ݏ݌‬ሺ‫ ݈݁݃݊ܣ‬1ሻ ሼ‫ܣ‬ଵ ൌ 0.03952455 ݅݊ଶ ሽ
ඥ‫ܨ‬௖௬ ‫ܧ‬௖
ܲ௖௖_ଵ ൌ 2,068.5 ݈ܾ

Angle Unit 2

ܾଵ ሺܽ ൅ ܾሻ ሺ0.4655 ൅ 0.8429ሻ
ൌ ൌ ൌ 10.38
‫ݐ‬ 2‫ݐ‬ 2ሺ0.063ሻ

-No Edge Free (Figure 42) ଵ ଵ

‫ܨ‬௖௖_ଶ ൌ 0.064 ሺ‫ܨ‬௖௬ ‫ܧ‬௖ ሻଶ ൌ 0.064ሾሺ40 ൈ 10.7ሻሺ10ଽ ሻሿଶ
‫ܨ‬௖௖
ൌ 0.064
ඥ‫ܨ‬௖௬ ‫ܧ‬௖ ‫ܨ‬௖௖_ଶ ൌ 41,869 ‫݅ݏ݌‬ ሼ‫ܣ‬ଶ ൌ 0.07706625 ݅݊ଶ ሽ

ܲ௖௖_ଶ ൌ 3,226.6 ݈ܾ

Angle Unit 3

ܾଵ ሺܽ ൅ ܾሻ ሺ0.8429 ൅ 0.6615ሻ
ൌ ൌ ൌ 11.94 ← ܴ‫ݕ݈݁ݒ݅ݐܽݒݎ݁ݏ݊݋ܥ ݌ݑ ݀݁݀݊ݑ݋‬
‫ݐ‬ 2‫ݐ‬ 2ሺ0.063ሻ

-No Edge Free (Figure 42) ଵ

‫ܨ‬௖௖_ଷ ൌ 0.057 ൫‫ܨ‬௖௬ ‫ܧ‬௖ ൯ ൌ 0.057 ሾሺ40 ൈ 10.7ሻሺ10ଽ ሻሿଶ
‫ܨ‬௖௖
ൌ 0.057
ඥ‫ܨ‬௖௬ ‫ܧ‬௖ ‫ܨ‬௖௖_ଷ ൌ 37,290 ‫݅ݏ݌‬ ሼ‫ܣ‬ଷ ൌ 0.08942685ሽ

ܲ௖௖_ଷ ൌ 3,334.7 ݈ܾ

58
 Following the establishment of the crippling strength of each of the angles, a

weighted average is taken to find the crippling strength of the section as a whole.

Σ ܲ௖௖_௜ 2ሾ2,068.5 ൅ 3,226.6 ൌ 3,334.7ሿ

‫ܨ‬௖௖_௡௘௘ௗ௛௔௠ ൌ ൌ
Σ ‫ܣ‬௜ 0.41196967

‫ܨ‬௖௖_௡௘௘ௗ௛௔௠ ൌ 41,895 ‫݅ݏ݌‬

[Needham crippling strength of stringer]

METHOD 2: GERARD METHOD

Following the work conducted by Needham, a thorough evaluation of the various

methods available for calculating crippling was researched by George Gerard and

published by NACA. His comprehensive evaluation of available research resulted in the

publication of parts I, III, IV & V of The Handbook of Structural Stability. Part IV of

this series was focused on the failure of plates and composite elements.

The method of establishing crippling of multi-corner sections presented by Gerard

was derived from a semi-empirical expression presented by G. L. Gallaher (Gallaher,

1948) and modified by Needham (Needham, 1954). Their work was conducted on angles,

Z & channel sections. This expression is shown below.

௠
‫ݐ‬ଶ
‫ܨ‬௖௖ ൌ ‫ ܥ‬ቆ ቇ
‫ܣ‬

Here, A represents the cross sectional area of the part, t represents sheet thickness

& C is determined by experiment. A value of m=3/4 was shown to be in good agreement

with test data presented by both Needham and Gallaher. This preliminary approach was

then adapted by Needham using a correlation approach developed by Schuette which

59
requires the calculation of the buckling stress of the member elements. This introduced a

bit of additional complexity but was found to be sufficiently accurate when compared to

crippling failure data of square tubes. The more accurate expression he developed is

shown below and is valid for stress levels below 70% of Fcy.

Here, b represents the developed length of the square tube, i.e. the length of the

centerline through the thickness of the tube wall.

ଵൗ ଴.଼ହ
‫ܨ‬௖௖ ௧ ா ଶ
ൌ 1.42 ቈቀ௕ቁ ൬ி ೎ ൰ ቉
‫ܨ‬௖௬ ೎೤

Followings Gerard’s review of the available test data and methods, he realized

that the expression presented by Needham for predicting the crippling failure stress of

square tubes could be generalized for application to all

multi-corner sections. Gerard defines multi-corner

sections all sections with more than two corners. His

generalized Needham expression is shown below.

Here, β is generalized crippling coefficient which has a

near 1 to 1 relationship with the number of corners.

This relationship is shown in Figure 44. The variable c

represents the number of corners present in the section.

Figure 44: Variation of
This expression was shown to fit the data presented in generalized crippling
coefficient with number of
NACA 3784 within 5% using a value of β=1.3. corners (Gerard, NACA
Technical Note 3784,
ଵൗ ଴.଼ହ Handbook of Structural
‫ܨ‬௖௖ ௖௧ మ ா ଶ Stability Part IV - Failure
ൌ 1.42 ቈቀ ஺ ቁ ൬ி ೎ ൰ ቉
‫ܨ‬௖௬ ೎೤ of plates and composite
elements, 1957)
One year after Gerard’s publication of part IV

of the structural stability handbook, he presented a paper to the Journal of Aeronautical

60
Sciences with an improved procedure (Gerard, The Compression Strength of

Compression Elements, 1958). In this he presents three equations which follow the

general form of that shown below.

ଵൗ ௠
‫ܨ‬௖௖ ௚௧ మ ா ଶ
ൌ ߚ ቈቀ ஺ ቁ ൬ ி ೎ ൰ ቉
‫ܨ‬௖௬ ೎೤

Each has been modified to match test data for a specific collection of member

cross section. These three expressions are shown below. Here the coefficients β & m have

been selected from empirical test data presented by Gerard. Gerard found that a factor g

could be introduced to the equation which would allow this closed form equation to be

applicable to a wide range of shapes. This factor is based on the division of a given cross

section by a number of cuts, establishing a number of effective flanges. The number of

cuts and flanges is then summed and is equal to g. A representation of this is shown

below.

For multi-corner sections: v-groove plates, tubes, angles, hats, etc.

ଵൗ ଴.଼ହ
‫ܨ‬௖௖ ௚௧ మ ா ଶ
ൌ 0.56 ቈቀ ஺ ቁ ൬ி ೎ ൰ ቉
‫ܨ‬௖௬ ೎೤

For sections with straight unloaded edges: plates, tee’s, cruciform, H’s, etc.

ଵൗ ଴.ସ଴
‫ܨ‬௖௖ ௚௧ మ ா ଶ
ൌ 0.67 ቈቀ ஺ ቁ ൬ி ೎ ൰ ቉
‫ܨ‬௖௬ ೎೤

For two corner sections: Z’s, J’s, channels, etc.

ଵൗ ଴.଻ହ
‫ܨ‬௖௖ ௧మ ா ଷ
ൌ 3.2 ቈቀ ஺ ቁ ൬ி ೎ ൰ ቉
‫ܨ‬௖௬ ೎೤

61
 Figure 45: Gerard method of cutting simple elements to determine g (Gerard, The
Compression Strength of Compression Elements, 1958)

In the above equations, the following definitions apply:

Fcc = Crippling strength of the section [psi]

Fcy = Compressive yield strength [psi]

t = Element thickness [in]

A = Cross sectional area [in2]

Ec = Young’s compressive modulus [psi]

g = number of flanges which compose the composite section, plus the number of

cuts necessary to divide the section into a series of flanges.

For the purposes of this evaluation, the top equation shown above is used to

establish the Gerard crippling allowable for hat sections. The coefficients used therein

were correlated by Gerard from test data presented by Needham (Needham, 1954). This

62
data is shown in the figure below for Al 2024. This shows that sections with greater than

two corners tend to have a similar crippling allowable.

Figure 46: Crippling data of Alclad Al 2024 multi-corner sections (Gerard, The
Compression Strength of Compression Elements, 1958)

The calculation of the Gerard crippling allowable for a hat section is shown

below.

଴.଼ହ
௚௧ మ ா
‫ܨ‬௖௖_௚௘௥௔௥ௗ ൌ ‫ܨ‬௖௬ ሺ0.56ሻ ቈቀ ஺ ቁ ටி ೎ ቉
೎೤

଴.଼ହ
ଵ଻∗଴.଴଺ଷమ ଵ଴,଻଴଴,଴଴଴
‫ܨ‬௖௖_௚௘௥௔௥ௗ ൌ ‫ܨ‬௖௬ 40,000ሺ0.56ሻ ൤ቀ ଴.ସଵଵଽ଻ ቁ ට ସ଴,଴଴଴ ൨

‫ܨ‬௖௖_௚௘௥௔௥ௗ ൌ 51,758 psi

[Gerard crippling allowable]

63
METHOD 3: McCOMB METHOD (McCombs, 1998)

A more generalized method of applying the Needham method was presented by

McComb in the supplement to Bruhn’s Analysis and Design of Flight Vehicle Structures.

In this, he generalizes Needhams method to allow for its application to members of any

cross section. His method divides the member cross section into individual flanges rather

than angle sections as Needham’s does. This method has been applied to the stringer

considered here and the calculations are contained in the table below.

b t Free Fcc_i bt btFcc_i

Element b/t
Edges
(in) (in) (psi) (in2) (lb)
1 0.249 0.063 3.94 1 70,635 0.01566 1106
2 0.931 0.063 14.78 0 61,818 0.05865 3626
3 1.686 0.063 26.76 0 38,444 0.10621 4083
4 1.323 0.063 21.00 0 46,669 0.08335 3890
5 1.686 0.063 26.76 0 38,444 0.10621 4083
6 0.931 0.063 14.78 0 61,818 0.05865 3626
7 0.249 0.063 3.94 1 70,635 0.01566 1106
∑ 0.44438 21519

Fcc_mccomb = ∑P / ∑bt
cc_i 48,425 psi
Pcc_mccomb = Fcc * Ast 19,950 psi
Figure 47: McComb method calculation

LIP FIXITY

Commonly, the free edge of a section is adorned with a short flange. In analysis,

the question arises regarding the level of fixity which this short flange provides the web

which it supports. A sufficiently large lip can be considered to provide simple support

fixity to its adjacent flange. As can be shown, the buckling coefficient of a simple

support/free flange is 0.43, as compared to 4.0 for a simple support/simple support plate.

64
The presence of a small lip can considerably increase the buckling coefficient above 0.43

in order for its strength to more closely resemble that of a plate.

Two methods of evaluating lip effectivity can be used. First, a theoretical

investigation conducted by D. F. Windenberg (Windenbeurg, 1938, September) produced

a method suitable for design for the establishment of adequate flange lip characteristics.

There in, his approach is premised on the idea that if a stiffening flange is proportioned

properly, it will develop the full compressive buckling strength as the plate which it is

supporting. Otherwise, the stiffener may fail in any combination of the five following

ways:

1. Column buckling of the stiffener in the plane of the web, carrying the skin

with it.

2. Column buckling of the stiffener normal to the web. This is typically

prevented by the attachments of the stiffer to the web and the high

stiffness the skin has to transverse loading from the stiffener.

3. Twisting of the stiffener normal to the web.

4. Plate buckling of the web, AKA local buckling.

5. Local buckling if the flange elements.

If the stiffener does not prematurely fail in any of these ways, the maximum buckling

strength of the web will be attained.

Windenberg began his evaluation of lip effectivity with the assumptions that the

stiffener would not fail by twisting of through column instability in the plane of the web.

The differential equation used which represents the deflection of the surface of the web

plate was presented by Timoshenko (Timoshenko, 1936)

65
 Additionally, in the supplement to Bruhn’s 1965 publication, Aircraft Analysis

and Design of Flight Vehicle (McCombs, 1998), an alternative method is presented. The

following expression can be used, by iterating bf until the expression becomes valid. This

will produce the minimum value of bf which provides a simple support fixity to the

flange edge. This expression assumes the lip thickness equals the flange thickness, which

in this case it does.

௕ ଷ ௕ ௕
0.91 ቀ௧ ೑ ቁ െ ௧ ೑ ൌ 5 ൬ ௧ೢ ൰
ೢ ೢ ೑

Figure 48: Lip effectivity

dimensions

From the iteration, a value for bf of 0.278” is found. The actual size of the flange (0.249”)

is less than this minimum required limit. This requires a modification be made to the

crippling strength of the outer most flanges when using the crippling method provided by

McComb. The steps in performing the reduction to Fcc are shown below.

1. Assume bf has the minimum value required and calculate an average Fcc for the

two elements as follows. The subscripts ‘1’ & ‘2’ refer to the two outer most

flanges of the hat section with measurements of bf & bw respectively

Fcc_1 = Fcc_2 = (b1t1Fcc_1+b2t2Fcc_2)/(b1t1+b2t2)

= (0.249*0.063*70,635 + 0.931*0.063*61,818)/(0.063[0.294+0.931])

= 61,339 psi

66
 2. Calculate Fcc for flange 2 assuming it has one free edge.
଴.଺଴ ଴.ସ଴
ᇱ 0.566‫ܨ‬௖௬ ‫ܧ‬௖ 0.566ሺ40,000ሻ଴.଺଴ 10,700,000଴.ସ଴
‫ܨ‬௖௖_ଶ ൌ ଴.଼଴ ൌ ଴.଼଴
൫௕௧൯ ଴.ଽଷଵ
൫଴.଴଺ଷ ൯

‫ܨ‬௖௖_ଶ ᇱ ൌ 24,554 psi

3. Using the actual value of bf, use a cubic interpolation between Fcc values in steps

1 & 2 to arrive at the final value of Fcc_1 & Fcc_2.

ଷ
௕೑
‫ܨ‬௖௖భ ൌ ‫ܨ‬௖௖మ ൌ ൬௕ ൰ ൫‫ܨ‬௖௖ሺଵሻ െ ‫ܨ‬௖௖ሺଶሻ ൯ ൅ ‫ܨ‬௖௖ሺଶሻ
೑_೘೔೙

଴.ଶସଽ ଷ
‫ܨ‬௖௖భ ൌ ‫ܨ‬௖௖మ ൌ ቀ଴.ଶ଻଼ቁ ሺ61,339 െ 24,554ሻ ൅ 24,554

‫ܨ‬௖௖భ ൌ ‫ܨ‬௖௖మ ൌ 50,986 ‫݅ݏ݌‬

4. Use this value for Fcc_1 & Fcc_2 in the crippling table calculated previously.

An updated evaluation of the crippling strength of the stringer using McCombs

method which incorporates the effects of short end flanges is shown below.

b t Free Fcc_i bt btFcc_i

Element b/t
(in) (in) Edges (psi) 2
(in ) (lb)
1 0.249 0.063 3.94 1 50,986 0.01566 798
2 0.931 0.063 14.78 0 50,986 0.05865 2990
3 1.686 0.063 26.76 0 38,444 0.10621 4083
4 1.323 0.063 21.00 0 46,669 0.08335 3890
5 1.686 0.063 26.76 0 38,444 0.10621 4083
6 0.931 0.063 14.78 0 50,986 0.05865 2990
7 0.249 0.063 3.94 1 50,986 0.01566 798
∑ 0.44438 19633

Fcc_mccomb = ∑P / ∑bt
cc_i 44,181 psi
Pcc_mccomb = Fcc * Ast 18,201 psi
Figure 49: Modified McComb method data
This shows that the incorporation of lip fixity considerations causes an 8.7% reduction of

load carrying capability of the stringer in pure compression.

67
CRIPPLING LIMITS

A common
Type of Section Max Fcc
industry standard is to
Angles 0.7 Fcy
V Groove Plates Fcy
limit the crippling
Multi-corner Sections, Including Tubes 0.8 Fcy
allowable to the limits Stiffened Panels Fcy
Tee, Cruciform & H Sections 0.8 Fcy
shown below. These 2 Corner Sections: Z, J, Channel 0.9 Fcy
Figure 50: Suggested crippling limits
limits are often viewed

as overly conservative and are therefore ignored for the purposes of this analysis.

LOCAL FAILURE SUMMARY

A summary of the variety of methods available for the calculation of the stringer

crippling allowable is shown below. For the purposes of this analysis, the Needham

method will be used elsewhere because it represents the most conservative allowable.

As previously mentioned, these

Stringer Crippling (Hat Section)
Needham Method 41,895 psi
crippling failure stresses assume the
Gerard Method 51,758 psi
McComb Method 44,181 psi
stringer acts alone and does not account
Local Buckling 56,292 psi
for the effects of the skin to which they Figure 51: Stringer crippling summary

are attached. Since the stringer and the skin must deform together, additional load

carrying capability is provided to the stringer by a portion of the skin which surrounds

each attachment point. If the critical loads calculated above were used as design limits,

designs would prove to be too conservative for use in the competitive aerospace market.

For this reason, the effects of the stringers attachment to the skin must be well

understood. This effect will be evaluated in the section which discusses the non-

monolithic failure of stringer stiffened panels.

68
5.3 EFFECTIVE SKIN WIDTH / PLATE POST-BUCKLING

During loading of a sheet-stringer panel, three distinct regions of panel behavior

are observed. When first loaded, prior to buckling of the skin, the panel can be considered

isotropic and the applied load is distributed essentially uniformly over the edge of the

panel. Following buckling of the skin panels between the stiffeners, load distribution

varies across the edge of the panel proportional to the relative stiffness of the specific

location. The third phase of panel loading is concerned with the circumstance when the

stiffeners do not completely restrain the buckled wave form of the skin; i.e. the stringers

no longer act as nodes of zero displacement for the skin. This arises in panels of

relatively large skin thickness and light stringers. Premature failure of the panel may

occur through tension failure of the attachment fasteners which are attempting to couple

the displacement of the skin and stiffener.

Given that the skin and stiffeners are rigidly connected at each of the fastener

attachment points, a portion of the skin can be assumed to act as an integrated part of the

stiffener when carrying compressive loads. The study of the amount of skin which is

assumed to act along with the stringer becomes pertinent following the compressive

buckling of the skin. This is often termed the ‘Post-buckling’ behavior of the skin. The

foundation of post buckling analysis utilizes the concepts of large deflection theory in

conjunction with empirical test data. This topic has been investigated by a number of

people including Von Karman, Sechler, Timoshenko, Newell, Frankland, Margurre,

Fischel, Gerard, Donnell and many others.

The first concentrated treatment of the ultimate load carrying capability of post-

buckled plates was published by J.S. Newell in 1930. As an expansion of the field,

69
experimental results regarding the ultimate strength of flat, rectangular plate under edge

compression was published in NACA Report 356 (L. Schuman, 1931). In these, two

significant points presented themselves. First, the loads obtained produced stresses

considerably above the critical buckling stress before any permanent deformation took

place. Second, the observed failure load was seemingly independent of the width of the

plate. This led to the conclusion that the failure load was solely dependent on the elastic

characteristics of the material and the square of the thickness of the sheet. A number of

theoretical approximations have been presented in an attempt to analytically explain this

experimentally observed behavior.

Timoshenko provides a method of approximation the post buckling behavior

which is based on an equation of the plate deflection normal to the plane of the plate

which takes the following form.

గ௫ గ௬
‫ ݓ‬ൌ ݂ cosሺଶ௔ ሻ cosሺ ଶ௕ ሻ

Timoshenko provides a solution to this

equation through use of the strain energy of

a simply supported buckled plate and

determining its deflection from the

condition of minimization of this strain

energy. The full derivation is presented in

Timoshenko’s Theory of Elastic Stability. Figure 53: Stress distribution of simply

supported plate axially compressed in
An alternative solution to this problem was y-direction & prevented from
deflecting in x-direction
presented by G. Schnadel in 1930. Figure (Timoshenko, 1936)

53 shows the distribution of plate stress as predicted by his theory. This shows that the

70
supported edges of the buckled plate provide the majority of the compressive load

carrying capability of the post buckled panel.

In an attempt to arrive at a more accurate solution, additional terms may be added

to the deflection equation to arrive at a second approximation. This equation takes the

following form.

గ௫ గ௬ ଷగ௫ ଷగ௬
‫ ݓ‬ൌ ݂ cosሺଶ௔ ሻ cos ቀ ଶ௕ ቁ ൅ ݂ଵ cosሺ ଶ௔ ሻ cosሺ ଶ௕ ሻ

However, the use of this equation introduces considerable additional calculations and

does not provide significant additional accuracy until the number of buckles exceeds 50.

Alternative methods have been proposed by J. M. Franklin & K. Marguerre.

These methods, along with Timoshenko’s were utilized by W. Ramberg, et al, in a

comparative evaluation of various theoretical effective width theories to experimental

results (W. Ramberg A. E., 1939).

The predicted value of

compressive strain of each of these

three methods as compared to test

data is shown in Figure 54, as

applied to sheet/stringer panels

presented in NACA TN 684.

The stress distribution

predicted by these methods proves

difficult to utilize directly in

practical design. A functional Figure 54: Axial compressive stain at median

fiber line (W. Ramberg A. E., 1939)

71
extrapolation of the results presented in NACA TN 356, it could be assumed that the

entire load of a post buckled plate is carried by portion of the plate, adjacent to the

unloaded edge, with a uniform stress distribution applied across its width. In other words,

an effective width of the sheet on each side of the plate can be assumed to carry the entire

load, with the center portion of the plate carrying little or no load in the buckled state.

The area under the square distributions is established to be equal to the area under the

actual stress distribution.

This idea was investigated theoretically in a paper by Von Karman (T. Von

Karman E. S., 1932). The results of which were utilized in a thesis by E.E. Sechler of

C.I.T. (Sechler, 1934). The basic principle consists of the idealization of the stress

distribution as shown in Figure 56 & Figure 55.

Weff Weff

2Weff 2Weff 2Weff

Weff Weff

Figure 56: Sheet effective width of

plate, simply supported on four
edges (Timoshenko, 1936)
Figure 55: Effective width idealization
of sheet/stringer panel (Bruhn, 1965)

72
 Figure 56 shows Von Karman’s stress distribution idealization of a plate, simply

supported on four sides, following elastic compressive buckling. This idea is extrapolated

to a skin/stringer panel in Figure 55; where Figure 55a shows the loactions of the

stiffeners on the panel. Figure 55b shows the stress distributions across the edge of the

pane, proior to sheet buckling. Following sheet buckling, a distribution similar to that

shown in Figure 55c develops. Figure 55d shows an idealization, using the effective sheet

width method. The development of an expression for the width of the effective skin can

be developed in the following way.

The section of plate near the supports, which is taken to carry the entire

compressive load, can be assumed to behave as a plate, simply supported on four edges.

In this case, the standard equation dictating plate buckling is used with a coefficient of 4.

The properties of the materials considered here are substituted into the expression, as well

as the substitution of the panel width (b) with the effective panel width (Weff). This

produces the following.

ଶ ଶ
‫ܭ‬௠ ߨ ଶ ‫ܧ‬௖ ‫ݐ‬௦ ଶ 4ߨ ଶ 10,700,000 ‫ݐ‬௦௞ ‫ݐ‬௦௞
‫ܨ‬௖_௖௥ ൌ ଶ
൬ ൰ ൌ ଶ
ቆ ቇ ൌ 3.69 ‫ܧ‬௖ ቆ ቇ
12ሺ1 െ ߥ௘ ሻ ܾ 12ሺ1 െ 0.33 ሻ 2ܹ௘௙௙_௦௧ 2ܹ௘௙௙_௦௧

Von Karman initially proposed establishing an effective width based on the yield

point of the material. However since the stiffener failure load can be higher than the yield

stress, the stiffener failure stress is used as the failure load. This produces the following

expression for effective width.

ଶ
‫ݐ‬௦௞
‫ܨ‬௖௖ ൌ 3.69 ‫ܧ‬௖ ቆ ቇ
2ܹ௘௙௙

‫ܧ‬௖
2ܹ௘௙௙_௦௧ ൌ 1.92 ‫ݐ‬௦௞ ඨ
‫ܨ‬௖௖
73
STRINGER EFFECTIVE SKIN WIDTH

If the values of the geometry considered here are input into this expression, the

following is produced:

‫ܧ‬௖ 10,700,000
ܹ௘௙௙_௦௧ ൌ 0.5 ∗ 1.92 ‫ݐ‬௦௞ ඨ ൌ 0.5 ∗ 1.92 ∗ ሺ0.063ሻඨ ൌ 0.965 ݄݅݊ܿ݁‫ݏ‬
‫ܨ‬௖௖ 41,895

Testing conducted at M.I.T & C.I.T. have found that the coefficient of 1.90

(ߥ=0.3) or 1.92 (ߥ=0.33) was too high for the coefficient in the effective width calculation

. A more accureate/consistent value of 1.73 was calculated and the value of 1.70 for light

stingers has been widely addopted. A detailed justification based on test data was

presented by Newell & Harrington (J.S Newell, 1939). Since a relatively heavy stringer is

used in the current evaluation, the value of 1.92 was presented above.

The above expression for effective sheet

width is widely used in the aviation industry,

despite the fact it is based on the conservative

assumption that the effective sheet behaves as a

plate simply supported on four edges. Test data

presented by G. Gerard indicates the critical

compressive stress of a stringer panel is between

that for simple and clamped support. The

analysis of these results indicate that as the

Figure 57: Transition of edge fixity
of plate with hat section stiffeners critical stress of a panel is increased, a transition
based on critical load (Gerard,
Effective Width of Elastically occurs from a clamped to a simple edge support
Supported Flat Plates, 1946)
(Gerard, Effective Width of Elastically

74
Supported Flat Plates, 1946). This transitional relationship between critical load and edge

fixity is shown in Figure 57. Gerard’s evaluation of the experimental data using the

method of least squares produced the following empirical equation for flat plate with a/b

> 5, & hat section stiffeners.

௧ ଵ.଼ହ଻
݂௖௥ ൌ 3.101‫ܧ‬௖ ቀ௕ቁ

When this is expressed in the usual form of plate instability where the geometric term is

squared, the following is produced.

ଶ ଴.ଵସଷ
݂௖௥ ൌ ‫ܧܭ‬௖ ൫್೟ ൯ ; ‫ ܭ‬ൌ 3.101൫್೟ ൯

Substituting 2Weff for the width of the panel (b), the following is produced.

ଶ ௄ா೎
݂௖௥ ൌ ‫ܧܭ‬௖ ቀమೈ ೟
ቁ ; ܹ௘௙௙ ൌ 0.5‫ݐ‬ට ; ܿ ൌ 0.5√‫ܭ‬
೐೑೑_ೞ೟ ௙೎ೝ

This definition allows the sheet effwctive width to be defined as follows. The value for

the coeeficiant c can be found by use of Figure 58.

‫ܧ‬௖
ܹ௘௙௙_௦௧ ൌ ܿ‫ݐ‬ඨ
݂௖௥

The curve expressed in Figure 58 can be

combined with the above expression to

produce an expression for effective width of a

flat panel with hat shaped stiffeners. Figure 58: Coefficient for establishing
effective width [Gerard method]
௕ ଴.଴଻ଶ ‫ܧ‬௖ (Gerard, Effective Width of Elastically
ܹ௘௙௙ ൌ 0.88 ቀ ௧ ቁ ‫ݐ‬ඨ Supported Flat Plates, 1946)
݂௖௥

75
If this equation is applied to the geometry considered here, a more accurate value for

effective sheet width can be established.

௕ ଴.଴଻ଶ ‫ܧ‬௖ ଼" ଴.଴଻ଶ 10,700,000 ‫݅ݏ݌‬

ܹ௘௙௙ ൌ 0.88 ቀ ௧ ቁ ‫ݐ‬ඨ ൌ 0.88 ቀ଴.଴଺ଷ"ቁ 0.063"ඨ
݂௖௥ 41,895 ‫݅ݏ݌‬

ܹ௘௙௙_௦௧ ൌ 1.25 ݄݅݊ܿ݁‫ݏ‬

[Updated stringer effective skin width (one side of fastener)]

It can be seen that the method proposed by Gerard, based on test data of panels

supported by hat section stiffeners, generated a larger value of effective sheet width than

does the conventional method of calculation.

Given that a portion of the skin which is attached to the stringer acts as part of the

stringer, the previously conducted column buckling allowable must be recalculated. This

is done using the Euler method used previously and will naturally result in a higher

number, given that the effective stinger colums is more robust.

ᇲ మ మ
ி೎೎ ቀಽഐ ቁ మమ
ସଵ,଼ଽହ൫బ.ళమభబ൯
‫ܨ‬௖ ൌ ‫ܨ‬௖௖ ൭1 െ ସగమ ா೎
൱ ൌ 41,895 ቆ1 െ ସగమ ଵ଴,଻଴଴,଴଴଴
ቇ ൌ 38,026 ‫݅ݏ݌‬

‫ܨ‬௖ ൌ 37,304 ‫݅ݏ݌‬

[Column buckling (Euler) of stringer with effective skin]

76
RADIUS OF GYRATION ON COLUMN BUCKLING ALLOWABLE

An interesting result presents itself when the relationship between stringer stress

and effective width is considered carefully. Since the effective width is a function of

stringer stress, which is in turn a function of radius of gyration, which is affected by the

effective width, a circular chain of logic presents itself. This effect was investigated by

R.J. White of C.I.T. where an iterative approach was utilized. If his approach is

implemented on the geometry considered here, the following is produced. In this method,

the less conservative approach to establishing effective width is used, rather than that

shown above.

ቈዷ ኔናህኚ ቩ ኔናቛ
ቚዹዺዺ ቭ ኔህኜቱ ዉ ቭ ኔህኜቛናህናኙኖቜዉ
቉ሇለቕዟዤ ኖኚሂኖናኗ

ቚዹዺዺ ቭ ንህናንኚንኘ

ቄዹዺዺ ቭ ናህኔንኚኚኔኚ ቦቫ቗ ቚቩቱ ቛንህናንኚቜቛናህናኙኖቜ

ቭ ቭ ናህኖናኜኜኚ
ቄሇለ ናህኗኔኔኜኙኜኙ
ቄሇለ ቭ ናህኗኔኔኜኙኜኙ ቦቫ቗
ቖ ኔህናናኚን
ቄዮሃለ ቭ ናህኘኖኜኙኛኙ ቦቫ቗ ቭ ቭ ኔህኘንኔኙኚኗኘ
ሊሇለ ናህኙኙኔኜናንኖ
ሊሂዹላ ሊሂዹላ ቗
ኍ ኑቭኍ ኑ ቭ ኔህኔንኘ
ሊሇለ ሊሃ

ሊሂዹላ ቭ ሊሇለ ዟኔህኔንኘ ቭ ናህኙኙኔኜናንኖ ዟኔህኔንኘ ቭ ናህኚናንናኘኖኗ

77
Now, the column stress (Fc) must be recalculated using the modified radius of gyration.

This is done using the Euler method. The Needham method of calculating the crippling

stress is used here.

቗ ቗
቉ዷሇ ቗ ቏ሒ ቛኗኔሂኛኜኘቜ቗ ንን
቉ዷ ቭ ቉ዷሇ ቧ ቧ ቨ ቭ ኗኔሂኛኜኘ ቧ ኍ ኑ
ኗሉ ቗ ቈዷ ሊሂዹላ ኗሉ ቗ ቛኔናህኚ ቩ ኔናቛ ቜ ናህኚናንናኘኖኗ

ቈዷ ኔናህኚ ቩ ኔናቛ
቉ዷቕሂዹላ ቭ ኖኚሂኛኔኗ ሃ ቚሂዹላ ቭ ኔህኜቱ ዉ ቭ ኔህኜ ቛናህናኙኖቜዉ ቭ ንህናኔኖኘ ቦቫ
቉ዷቕሂዹላ ኖኚሂኛኔኗ

ንህናኔኖኘ ቧ ንህናንኚንኘ
ዉ በብ቞ቫቤቢቡ ቭ ቭ ቧናህኙኚዉ
ንህናንኚንኘ

ዠቴ ቭ ሢንህናኔኖኘ ቧ ንህናንኚንኘሢ ቭ ናህናኔኖኚኘ቗

Figure 59: Curves for determining effects of radius of curvature change on column
strength (Bruhn, 1965)

A change of only 0.013” of effective skin width change occurs through the use of

the modified radius of gyration which can be considered negligible. This indicated this

method results in no change to the effective skin width and can therefore be ignored.

78
FRAME EFFECTIVE SKIN WIDTH

In order to establish the width of skin which acts with the frame, the standard

method is used based on stringer crippling, skin thickness and skin elastic modulus.

ቈዷ ኔናሂኚናናሂናናና
ቚዹዺዺ ቭ ናህኘ ዼ ኔህኜን ቱሇዿ ዉ ቭ ናህኘ ዼ ኔህኜን ዼ ቛናህናኙኖቜዉ ቭ ናህኜኙኘ ቦቫበብቢተ
቉ዷዷ ኗኔሂኛኜኘ

This effective skin width acts on each side of the fastener used to attach the frame

to the skin, making the total width of skin which acts with the frame equal to 1.93 inches.

79
5.4 STRINGER STIFFENED SKIN PANELS

Following the evaluation of the stringer allowables, attention can be focused on a

localized area of the fuselage structure, which includes a number of stringers as well as

associated skin. These sections are typically referred to as ‘panels’ and are comprised of

three types of members. Longitudinal stiffening members (stringers) which are primarily

intended to carry large tension & compressive loads. They can only carry small

secondary bending loads given that their bending rigidity is small compared to the

structure of which they are apart. Second, the skin, which is intended to carry loads only

within its plane. The skin is capable of transmitting tension, compression & shear loads.

However stiffeners of the skin are required for all but tension loads, due to the

compression and shear instability of thin plates. Third, transverse reinforcing members

(frames) are primarily intended to maintain the overall circular shell structure of the

fuselage. These act as the end supports for the particular panel section being evaluated.

They have large strength and stiffness in the plane of the member and are usually not

intended to carry large lateral loads. An example of a sample panel, stiffened by Z-

section stiffeners is shown Figure 60.

Figure 60: Short Sheet-Stringer Panel (J. W. Semonian, 1955, March)

80
PANEL FAILURE MODES

In practice, the evaluation of a stringer stiffened panel is a highly complex

problem which requires the judgment of an experienced engineer. This is due to the

variety of failure modes, number of dimensional parameters and the dependence of the

failure mode on the idiosyncrasies of the particular design. Extensive research has been

conducted in an attempt to establish the failure load of stringer stiffened panels, through

which a number of common failure have modes have

been observed. The most common of these are shown

below.

Torsional buckling of a skin-stringer panel:

Torsional instability of open section stringers Figure 61: Torsional buckling

of skin stringer panel (Niu,
can often drive the failure of a stiffened panel. Airframe Structural Design,
1988)
Torsional instability will cause the stringer to rotate

about its longitudinal axis in the plane of the skin. Small

amounts of stinger cross sectional distortion and skin

displacement normal to its plane will also occur.

Flexural and torsional buckling of a skin stringer panel:

If a torsionally unstable stringer cross section is

Figure 62: Flexural and
combined with a relatively thin skin, a combination of
torsional buckling of a skin
stringer panel (Niu, Airframe
flexural and torsional failure can occur, as shown in Figure
Structural Design, 1988)
62.

81
Wrinkling of a skin-stringer panel:

Wrinkling of a skin stringer panel occurs in

a similar fashion as IR buckling in that short

wavelength buckles present themselves. Here, the

stiffener flange tends to maintain contact with the

skin and deforms along with it.

Figure 63: Panel wrinkeling
(Niu, Airframe Structural
Design, 1988)

Inter-rivet buckling and wrinkling of a skin stringer panel:

IR buckling occurs either when the skin sheet

thickness is too low or when the fastener spacing is

too great. Pure IR buckling occurs when stiffener

deformation is minimal and fastener pitch scale

wavelength buckles develop in the skin. A

combination of IR buckling and wrinkling may occur

when stiffer flange deformation is appreciable. In this

case, separation between skin and stiffener will also

Figure 64: IR buckling and
occur. wrinkling of panel (Niu,
Airframe Structural Design,
1988)
Initial buckling:

Initial buckling is the first mode to develop and is a combination of local

instability and torsional instability. Theoretical values have been plotted in the chart

82
shown here. The initial buckling can be calculated as follows. This buckling mode does

not, however, represent failure of the structure. It indicates the point at which stress

redistribution takes place. For this reason, it is simply included here for illustration

purposes, but is not taken as a critical failure allowable.

ዛዿሀ ቕህ቙ቖ቗
ቭ ቝዼቕህቕቛቘ ሧ ናህኛ
ዶለዿሀ

ቱሇዿ
ቭኔ
ቱሇለ tsk/tst

቉ዶ
ቭ ኔህኔኙ
቉ዷቕዷሆ
Fb/Fc_cr
቉ዶ ቭ ኔህኔኙ ዼ ኔኘሂኙኚኖ ቭተቦ

቉ዶ ቭ ኔኛሂኔኛና ቭተቦ

Ast/btst
Figure 65: Panel initial
buckling (Niu, Airframe
Monolithic failure: Structural Design, 1988)

From the research conducted by Gerard, a method of establishing the monolithic

failure of a short sheet stringer stiffened panel can be utilized. In this method, the

Gerard crippling equation presented above is applied to a panel containing

multiple stiffeners. The coefficient g is calculated as shown in below. The

assumption is made here that with this rivet design the panel behaves

monolithically.

83
 g = 20 g = 20 g = 20 g = 20 g = 20 g = 19

gavg = 19.83
g = 20 Figure 66: Gerard method applied to
monolithic panel

It is interesting to note that Gerard indicates that the crippling strength analysis of

formed hat-stiffened panels is essentially the same as that used for Z-stiffened panels.

From the test data presented by Gerard, the monolithic failure allowable for a hat

stiffened panel can be established using the Gerard equation with an area representing the

stringer cross section plus the area of sheet between stringers

Fcc/Fcy

Figure 67: Crippling data on Z-stiffened panels

84
 ቖቸ ቕህቝቚ ቖ ቕህቝቚ
቉ዷዷ ዻለ ቏ ዟ ቗ ቖ቞ህቝቘዼቕህቕቛቘ቏ ቖቕሂቜቕቕሂቕቕቕ ቸ቗
ቭ ናህኘኙ ቩቡ ዛ ቢ ኍዠ ዯ ኑ ⊻ ቭ ናህኘኙ ቩቡቕህ቙ቖቖ቟ቝዼቕህቕቛቘቢ ቡ ቙ቕሂቕቕቕ ቢ ⊻ ቭ ናህኚኗኛ
቉ዷል ዯህ

ቄ ቉ዷል ቖሡ቗ ናህኗኔኔ ቦ ቛኛ ዼ ናህናኙኖቜ ኗናሂናናና ቖሡ቗

ኍ ኑ ቭ ኍ ኑ ቭ ናህኚኔኔ
ቤቱላ ቱሇዿ ቈዷ ኔኜህኛኖ ዼ ናህናኙኖ ዼ ናህናኙኖ ኔናሂኚናናሂናናና

቉ዷዷ
ሧ ናህኚኘ
቉ዷል

቉ዷዷ ቭ ኖናሂኙኛኛ ቭተቦ

[Monolithic failure of hat stiffened panel]

The above calculation ignores the additional strength provided by fuselage

curvature and is therefore only being shown for illustrative purposes.

When considering the strength of the skin acting alone, the strength of the sheet is

proportional to its flexural rigidity ([t/b]2, where t is the thickness of the plate) and the

aspect ratio of the plate (a/b) . This is due to the maximum strength value being driven by

the primary stability of the sheet when evaluated as a plate. The stability of the plate can

always be increased by an increase in thickness, however such design is not economically

feasible due to the associated increase in weight of the structure. A more viable design is

arrived at by minimizing the sheet thickness as much as possible and introducing

reinforcing members to bolster the stability of the section. The introduction of a small

stiffener in the location shown in Figure 68, has the effect of increasing the critical

strength of the plate by about four times. The weight of the rib installation will be

smaller than the increase in weight introduced by increasing the plate thickness to

achieve an equivalent increase in strength.

85
 The most common method of

attaching fuselage skin to the

stringers/frames, is through the use of

discrete attachment points. The

attachment hardware found on the

Figure 68: Plate reinforcement rib
majority of aircraft are solid rivets
location (Timoshenko, 1936)
which have been bucked into place. Alternative methods consist of spot welds, fasteners

or adhesive, although these are not commonly used. Early analysis methods primarily

consisted of rule-of-thumb methods for establishing the strength of these rivet joints.

Extensive research has been conducted (J. W. Semonian, 1955, March) with regard to

the influence this method of attachment plays toward the evaluation of riveted, short

sheet-stringer panels.

Through an analytic and experiment evaluation, NACA TN 3431 shows that the

strength of these panels is highly influenced by rivet pitch, diameter and location, as well

as the particular configuration and materials of the panel section. Three predominant

failure modes tend to manifest when the panels strength is plotted against rivet pitch.

These modes are the local mode, the wrinkling mode (also known as forced crippling) &

inter-rivet buckling. This relationship is shown in Figure 69. Since inter-rivet buckling is

the lowest of these three, it is usually used as the upper limit in design.

86
 Figure 69: The influence of rivet pitch on the strength of a short sheet-stringer panel
showing the three predominant modes of failure (J. W. Semonian, 1955, March)

In addition to the modes shown

above, the panel section may fail in

either a flexural mode, or through

torsional instability. Flexural instability

of the panel, also called the Euler mode,

is similar to column buckling where Figure 70: Euler mode skin-stringer

panel instability (Niu, 1988)
displacement of the entire panel occurs

normal to the plane of the skin. The half wavelength is generally equal to the frame

spacing. See Figure 70. Torsion instability manifests when the stringer section has a

small torsional stiffness. The stringer rotates about its longitudinal axis along with its skin

section. This is usually associated with small displacements of the skin normal to its

plane and small distortion of the stinger cross section, see Figure 72. A summary of the

variety of failure mode which can occur is shown in Figure 71.

87
 Figure 71: Modes of instability of panels with z section stringers
(W. Tye, 1952) Structural principals and data

The length of these panels is typically

one where the various local modes can occur

without appreciable end effects, while being

short enough that the overall column bending

effects can be neglected. When the rivet pitch

is small the panel displays failure in the local

mode. As rivet pitch increases, the panel

section will fail in either the wrinkling or inter

Figure 72: Torsional buckling of skin-
rivet mode. Failure in the inter rivet mode is stringer panel. (Niu, 1988)

typically not permitted in contemporary

design, whereas failure in the wrinkling mode is much more common. This has led much

attention to be focused on wrinkling mode failure.

88
 During failure in the wrinkling mode, the attachment flange of the stringer

follows the contour of the buckling skin panel. This caused the other plate elements of the

stringer to distort as well. This is in contrast to the inter rivet mode in which the skin and

the stringer separate, preventing deformation of the stringer plate elements. As described

by NACA TN 3431, during wrinkling mode failure, “As the initial buckles grow with an

increase in applied load, the plate buckle shape becomes more cylindrical until at failure

it can be assumed to be cylindrical and the plate may be treated as a column on an elastic

foundation.” The deformation idealization of the stinger elements during wrinkling mode

failure is shown in Figure 73.

Figure 73: Load and deformations used in the calculation of the deflection stiffness of
short Z-section stringers (J. W. Semonian, 1955, March)

Due to the similarity of the failures of these two modes, investigators have made

strength calculations using inter rivet type equations on panels which failed in the

wrinkling mode. The generally accepted equation describing failure in the wrinkling

89
mode are as shown below. These have been plotted for the purposes of design in Figure

76.

ቖ቗
ቸ቟ሇ ላ ሸቑ
ቡኖዶዺሃ ቦ ኔቢ ቸ቟ሇቘ
ቭ ቘ ሃ ቎ሁ ቭ ንዉ ቙
ሉ ቙ ቇሇ ሉ ቇሇ
ቡዶዺሃ ዻቢ ቡኖዶዺሃ ቦ ኗቢ

Here, ψ represent

the deflection

stiffness per

unit length (ksi)

Figure 74: Idealization of structure uses in the analysis of sheet
as stringer panel (J. W. Semonian, 1955, March) shown here

& f represents the effective rivet offset shown in Figure 73. The value of f has been

established experimentally and graphed in Figure 75.

The following equation can now be used to establish the maximum strength of the

panel section in the wrinkling mode.

pr: rivet pitch, in

dr: rivet diameter, in
bo: geometric rivet offset

Figure 75: Experimental determined values

of effective rivet offset (J. W. Semonian,
90
 ላሁ ቎ሁ ሉ ቗ ቈ ቱሇ ቗
ቭ ኍ ኑ
ሀ ኔንቛኔ ቧ ሆ ቗ ቜ ቟ሇ

The value for the plasticity factor (ሀ), which has shown good correlation with the

test data is shown below.

ቈሇዹዷ ኔ ኔ ቖ ቘዟሀይዺ
ብቭ ኍ ቦ ወ ቦ ኑ
ቈ ን ን ቙ ቙ ዟዿዱዯ

When the geometry considered here is entered into these expressions, and used

with the preceding charts, the following is produced. The evaluation shown here will

produce appropriately accurate results considering the research referenced was conducted

on Z sections instead of hat sections. It is noted in NACA TN 3782 that “ Hat and lipped

Z- channel sections are structurally equivalent” (Becker, NACA TN 3782, Handbook of

Structural Stability Part 2 - Buckling of Composite Elements, 1957, July).

pr = 1 in
pr/dr = 1/0.1875 = 5.333
dr = 3/16 in = 0.1875 in
bo/tw = 0.661/0.063 = 10.492
bo = 0.661 in
f = tw*9.0 = 0.063*9 = 0.567
bw = 1.749 in
f/bw = 0.567/1.749 = 0.324
bf = 1.323 in
bs/ts = 8.3/0.063 = 131.75
ba = 1.323 in
bw/tw = 1.749/0.063 = 27.76
bs = 8.3 in
tw/ts = 0.063/0.063 = 1
ra = 0.2 in
bf/bw = 1.323/1.749 = 0.75
tw = 0.063 in
቟ላ ዅቱላ ኔህኚኗኜዅናህናኙኖ
ts = 0.063 in ዻቭ ቭ ቭ ናህንኔናኚንን
቟ሇ ዅቱሇ ኛህኖዅናህናኙኖ
Km  10

91
 ቟ላ ዅቱላ
ዻቭ
቟ሇ ዅቱሇ

Figure 76: Maximum stress coefficients for sheet-stringer

panels during wrinkling failure (J. W. Semonian, 1955,
March)
The value of Km can then be entered into the following expression to arrive at the

panel failure load.

቎ሁ ሉ ቗ ቈዷ ሀ ሀ̅ ቱሇ ቗ ኔናሉ ቗ ኔናሂኚናናሂናናና ሀ ሀ̅ ናህናኙኖ቗ ቗

቉ላ ቭ ኍ ኑ ቭ ኍ ኑ ቭ ኖኜኔሂኜኚኖ ቭተቦ
ኔንቛኔ ቧ ሆዹ ቗ ቜ ቭሆ ኔንቛኔ ቧ ናህኖኖ቗ ቜ ኔ቗

Given the value of Km derived from Figure 76, and assuming elastic failure of the

panel, it can be seen that the panel wrinkling stress is greater than the stiffener failing

stress of 41,895 psi. The entire panel unit will not reach its failure stress when the

stiffener reaches its failure stress (41,896 psi) because the panel wrinkling stress (Fw) is

higher. A method of approximating panel failure load was presented by Gerard in part IV

of the Handbook of Structural Stability (Gerard, NACA Technical Note 3784, Handbook

of Structural Stability Part IV - Failure of plates and composite elements, 1957), where

the stiffener is assumed to carry the same stress as the skin up to Fst. Beyond this value ,

92
the stiffener carries no additional load. Gerard’s method allows for the calculation of the

panels failing stress (FF), assuming inter-rivet buckling does not occur.

This shows that the crippling strength of the stringer is far below the panel

wrinkling allowable. The stringer will therefore become unstable prior to the wrinkling

failure of the panel

INTER-RIVET BUCKLING

Next the panel is checked for inter rivet buckling. If the rivets used to fasten the

sheet to the stiffener are spaced too far apart, there exist the possibility of the section of

sheet between the rivets to buckle as a column. This can occur at a load which is lower

than the crippling stress of the stringer. This has the effect of decoupling the skin from

the stiffener and significantly reducing the load carrying capability of the assembly. This

will have the effect of removing the contribution of the effective skin width which acts

with the stringer. The spacing of rivets

(pitch) on aircraft are typically varied

depending on location. For example , the

rivet pitch on the upper surface of a wing will Figure 77: Inter-rivet skin buckling
(Niu, 1988)
typically be smaller than that on the lower

surface due to the higher compressive loads to which the upper surface is subject.

Research conducted by W.L. Howland (Howland, 1936, Oct) on the effects of

rivet spacing on stiffened thin sheets in compression, presents a method of establishing

the inter rivet buckling stress limit. He assumed the sheet acts as a wide column which is

attached with a fixity coefficient C, and a length equal to the rivet spacing. The value of

93
C varies depending on the type of fastener used to attach the skin to the stringer. The

accepted values of C are shown on the next page.

Howland Method:

The equation then becomes:

ቆሉ ቗ ቈዷ ሀ ሀ̅ ቱሇ ቗
቉ዽሆ ቭ ኍ ኑ
ኔንቛኔ ቧ ሆዹ ቗ ቜ ቭ

Where ሀ is the plasticity correction factor & ሀ̅ is the clad correction factor. This equation

can be calculated as follows.

በ ሉ ቗ ቈለ ቱሇ ቗ ኗሉ ቗ ቛኔናህኚ ቩ ኔናቛ ቜ ናህናኙኖ ቗

቉ዽሆ ቭ ኍ ኑ ቭ ኍ ኑ ቭ ኔኘኙሂኚኛኜ ቭተቦ
ኔንቛኔ ቧ ቙ዹ ቗ ቜ ቭ ኔንቛኔ ቧ ናህኖኖ቗ ቜ ኔ

Two alternative methods of calculating inter-rivet buckling stress are presented by

Niu and & Bruhn and are shown below respectively.

Niu Method: (Niu, Airframe Stress Analysis and Sizing, 1997)

ለ ቗ ቕህቕቛቘ቗ ቗
቉ዽሆ ቭ ናህኜበ ቡሇቢ ቭ ናህኜ ዼ ኗ ዼ ቡ ቖ቗
ቢ ቭ ኔኘንሂኛኛኘ ቭተቦ

Bruhn Method: (Bruhn, 1965)

Bruhn’s method of inter-rivet buckling is based on the idealization of the skin

between the rivets as a column. Here, the fastener pitch is taken as the column length. A 1

inch section of skin is used as the panel width.

94
 ቆሉ ቗ ቈለ
቉ዽሆ ቭ ቗
ቡሹዦ ቢ

቏
቏ሒ ቭ
ዟቆ

ሉ ቗ ቈለ
቉ዽሆ ቭ ቗
ሓ
ቡዦሹ ቢ

ሉ ቗ ቈለ
቉ዽሆ ቭ ቗
ዪ
ቧዟዝቹቕህ቗቞ለቨ

Since universal head rivets are used in the sample geometry, a fixity coefficient of

4 is used. This assumption incorporated the idea that the head of a universal fastener

prevents all rotation of the column at its ends. If a different method of attachment is used,

one of the following values should be used:

C = 3.5 [Spot welds]

C = 3 [Brazier head rivets]
C = 1 [Counter-sunk or dimpled rivets]
If buckling is assumed to occur in the elastic range of the material, the following can be

written.

ሉ ቗ ቈለ ሉ ቗ ኔናሂኚናናሂናናና
቉ዽሆ ቭ ቗ ቭ ቗ ቭ ኔኗኔሂናናና ቭተቦ
ዪ
ኌቕህቚቝለ ነ ቖ
ቡቕህቚቝቛቕህቕቛቘ቗ቜቢ

A summary of the three methods of establishing IR buckling of the skin sheet

between fasteners is shown below.

Description Allowable Unit

Howland Method 156,789 psi
Niu Method 152,885 psi
Bruhn Method 141,000 psi
Figure 78: Summary of IR buckling values

95
5.5 FLAT PLATE COMPRESSIVE BUCKLING

Extensive research has been conducted regarding the buckling of flat and curved

plates under compression, shear & combined loading. From the methods of general

instability theory (Timoshenko, 1936), it may be considered that the critical value of the

force acting on the midplane of a plate are established by assuming that some initial

curvature or lateral loading exists within the plate. The critical value of load is then

considered the point at which deflections tend to become infinitely large. In this case, the

term ‘plate’ refers to a portion of skin, bound to both longitudinal and transverse

supporting members, i.e. stringers and frames. This is in contrast to the term ‘panel’

which refers to a structure consisting of a number of stringers, frames and skin.

The early development of light aircraft structure consisted of the use of relatively

thin skins and sturdy stringers. This construction was able to be analyzed with relative

ease with respect to both initial buckling and ultimate failure. The exact determination of

the initial instability stress was not of particular importance due to the failing stress being

significantly higher. The advent of thick skins used in ‘laminar-flow wings’ considerably

complicated the matters of analysis. The establishment of the initial buckling stress

became necessary to produce efficient designs. This idea was initially pointed out by

Argyris in 1943 (W. Tye, 1952). He realized the panel needed to be evaluated as a single,

elastic body.

When considering the condition of a flat plate under uniaxial compression, pinned

on the edges of load application and free on the others, an investigation can begin with

the equations described by the generalized Hooke’s law for isotropic homogenous

materials, shown below: (A. C. Ugural, 2003)

96
 ዿ዇ወ
ሥዏ ሰ ኚሑቇዎዏ ሪ ሯ቏ዎዐ ሩ ዎዑ ቓቋ ኿ዏዐ ሰ
ኤ

ዿወዉ
ሥዐ ሰ ኚሑቇዎዐ ሪ ሯሞዎዏ ሩ ዎዑ ሟቋ ኿ዐዑ ሰ ኤ

ዿ዇ዉ
ሥዑ ሰ ኚሑቇዎዑ ሪ ሯ቏ዎዏ ሩ ዎዐ ቓቋ ኿ዏዑ ሰ ኤ

When subject to uniaxial compression,

a flat plate cannot simply be treated as

a collection of thin columns, as shown

in Figure 79 (a). If this were the case,

the compression experienced by the top

Figure 79: Flat plate buckling
portion of the beam would induce a idealization (Peery, Aircraft
Structures, 1950)
lateral expansion due to Poisson

effects. Similarly, the bottom portion of the beam, subjected to tension stress, would

experience lateral contraction, as shown in Figure 79 (b). This however cannot be so,

given that the cross section of these thin regions remains rectangular, excluding the

extreme lateral edges of the wide plate. If the shaded portion of Figure 79 (a) is

considered, and the only stresses acting on the plane are as shown in Figure 79 (c), the

generalized Hooke’s law equations can be simplified to the following.

ሙ
ሥዏ ሰ ኢቇዎዏ ሪ ሯዎዐ ቋ

ሙ
ሥዐ ሰ ኢቇዎዐ ሪ ሯዎዏ ቋ

If the plate is to have zero deformation along the free edges and no curvature in the y-

direction, strain in the y-direction (ey) must be equal to zero at all locations. When this

condition is applied to the equations above, the following is obtained:

97
 ዎዐ ሰ ሯዎዏ

ዽ዇
ሥዐ ሰ ኢ
ሢ቗ ሪ ሯሚ ሣ

This is the genesis of the commonly seen expression (1-ዉ2), found throughout

wide plate buckling analysis. This indicates that when a flat plate experiences a single

curvature, it undergoes a smaller deformation as compared to a corresponding narrow

beam by the factor (1-ዉ2). When a Poisson’s ratio of 0.33 is used, this factor becomes:

ሢ቗ ሪ ሯሚ ሣ ሰ ሢ቗ ሪ ቖወ቙቙ሚ ሣ ሰ ቖወ቞቟቗቗ ዪ ቖወ቞቟

If the term M/EI of general beam-deflection theory is replaced by M(1-ዉ2)/EI, and

inserted in to Euler’s buckling equation, the

following is obtained:

ዌ ሚ ላሏ
ሖኺመኺዉ ሰ
ሞ቗ ሪ ዉኼ ሚ ሟሒሚ

This expression holds for the configuration

shown in Figure 80. When the values of I for a

rectangle (I=bt3/12) and L=a are inserted into

the above equation, it can be rewritten in a Figure 80: Simply supported plate
with free edges subject to uniaxial
stress form as follows: compression (Peery, Aircraft
Structures, 1950)

ዌሚላ ሴ ሚ
ሌኺመኺዉ ሰ ቐ ቔ
቗ቘ ሞ቗ ሪ ዉኼ ሚ ሟ ሡ

Given an understanding of this basic form of plate buckling, solutions to plates of

various edge constraint conditions can be developed. As a continuation of this approach,

Timoshenko presented a solution to the double series solved by G.H. Bryan in 1891

(Bryan, 1890, Dec 11) in order to solve for the critical buckling load of a uniaxialy
98
loaded plate with four simply supported edges. Perry provides a rearrangement of

Timoshenko’s equation (Timoshenko, 1936) (Peery, Aircraft Structures, 1950), which is

shown below:

ዻሒ ኢ ኹዄ ኸ ሚ ዋ ሚ
ሌኺመኺዉ ሰ ሤ ሩ ቁ ሤኹቁ
ሙሚ቏ሙሣሯሒ ቓ ኴ ኸ ኹዄ

Here, m represents the number of half-

wavelength of the particular buckling mode shape. The

above equation stems from an understanding that a

plate may have several half-wavelengths in the

direction of load application, but only one half-

wavelength in the perpendicular direction. When

attempting to formulate a simplification of the above

equation, it can be found that variations in ዉe produce Figure 81: Four edge
simply supported plate
very slight changes in Fc_cr. Therefore, the above subject to uniaxial
compression (Peery,
expression can be rewritten as follows, assuming Kc Aircraft Structures, 1950)

represents the constants of the equation.

ላኺ ዌ ሚ ሴ ሚ
ሌኺመኺዉ ሰ ሑኺ ቐ ቔ
቗ቘ ሞ቗ ሪ ዉኼ ሚ ሟ ሢ

ኹዄ ኸ ሚ
ሑኺ ሰ ሤ ኸ
ሩ ኹዄቁ

99
 This expression of Kc can be plotted against a/b ratios for various values m to

produce the following:

ዕ ሴ ሚ
ሌኺመኺዉ ሰ ሑኺ ላኺ ቐ ቔ
ሢ

‘
c

Figure 82: Buckling stress coefficients for flat plates in compression with a variety of
edge constraints (W. Tye, 1952)

100
 Figure 83: Buckling coefficient of flat plate, simply supported on four sides, subject to
uniaxial compression

This shows that the buckling stress of a plate is minimum when the length of the

plate is an integer multiple of the plate width. The expression of the critical buckling load

for flat plates shown above can be used for plates with a variety of edge constraints,

given the correct value of K is used. These values are presented in a number of sources,

including The Handbook of Aeronautics (W. Tye, 1952), those of which are presented

below.

ላኺ ዌ ሚ ሴ ሚ
ሌኺመኺዉ ሰ ሑኺ ቐ ቔ
቗ቘ ሞ቗ ሪ ዉኼ ሚ ሟ ሢ

When utilizing these relationships for application to aircraft structure, edge

constraint determination must be made judiciously. The true fixity cannot be calculated in

most cases. The particular support structure must be considered when approximating

edge-fixity, similar to the case of establishing column end-fixity. If skin sections are

fixed to stringers with relatively low torsional rigidity, the stringer will rotate when the
101
skin panel buckles, providing in effect, a simple support. If more ridged stringers are

chosen such as a hat section, an almost fully clamped condition can be assumed.

Common industry practice is to assume an edge-fixity which represents a conservative

approximation of the structure. This is done in this evaluation for all sheet calculations

shown where a four edge pinned condition is assumed.

ላኺ ዌ ሚ ሴ ሚ ዌ ሚ ቗ቖዅቝቖቖዅቖቖቖ ቖወቖቜ቙ ሚ
ሌኺመኺዉ ሰ ሑኺ ቐ ቔ ሰ ቚ ቐ ቔ
቗ቘ ሞ቗ ሪ ዉኼ ሚ ሟ ሢ ቗ቘ ሞ቗ ሪ ቖወ቙቙ሚ ሟ ቞

ሌኺመኺዉመኽዃኸዋ ሰ ቘዅቚቚ቟ ሰሳሩ

[Compressive buckling of flat plate without pressure]

102
5.6 FLAT PLATE SHEAR BUCKLING

Buckling of thin flat plates may also occur under other types of loading other than

axial compression, namely, under shear or bending loads. The bend buckling of plates

pertains to the application of a moment oriented normal to the plane. This type of loading

occurs on the skin coincident to the bending neutral axis of the fuselage, when the

fuselage is subject to a bending moment. The effects of bend buckling are typically

neglected in the design of aircraft fuselage due to their low magnitude and are therefore

ignored here. The application of shear

loading to the skin however is highly

relevant in design and must therefore be

examined closely.

An examination of the theoretical

critical buckling load is presented by Figure 84: Applied shear load to flat
rectangular plate (Timoshenko, 1936)
Timoshenko in the Theory of Elastic

Stability (Timoshenko, 1936). He presents a solution based on energy methods, which

has at its foundation a deflection equation of the following form.

ዻዐ ዻ
ሷ ሰ ሇሳሩሮ ኹ ሳሩሮ ዊ ሞዏሣዬዐሟ

Here, s represents the half wavelength of the buckled plate and α represents the

slope of the nodal line. This equation represents an approximation to shape of a buckled

plate subject to pure applied shear load. An exact solution to this was presented by R.V.

Southwell in 1924 (R.V. Southwell, 1924) which showed that nodal lines are not straight

and that the buckled plate will take the form shown in Figure 85.

103
 Figure 85: Out of plane deformation contour plot of flat plate subject to a pure applied
compression (Timoshenko, 1936)

An exact solution of the above deflection equation results in the following

expression for an infinitely long, flat, thin plate with simply supported and clamped

edges, subject a pure shear load. These are shown below, with the simply supported

edges equation shown on the left.

ዌ ሚ ላኺ ሴ ሚ ዌ ሚ ላኺ ሴ ሚ
ሌዊመኺዉመዃ዆ዅኾዅኽዃኸዋመኰኰ ሰ ቛወ቙ቛ ቐ ቔ ዆ ሌዊመኺዉመዃ዆ዅኾዅኽዃኸዋመአኩኞኪክኢኡ ሰ ቞ወ቟቞ ቐ ቔ
቗ቘሞ቗ ሪ ዉ ሚ ሟ ሢ ቗ቘሞ቗ ሪ ዉ ሚ ሟ ሢ

An interpolation of the value of the shear buckling coefficient (Ks) for plates with

various values of edge restraint is presented in NACA TN 3781 and shown below. The

term Ks∞ represents the coefficient for an infinitely long plate.

104
 Where intermediate values of

a/b ratio are concerned, considerable

theoretical research has been conducted

to arrive at reasonable values for Ks.

Cox provided a solution based on the

Rayleigh-Ritz energy method. Iguchi

derives approximate results using a

series method. However, the results

published by these researchers differ by

as much as 10 percent at some plate Figure 86: Ks∞ as a function of plate edge
restraint (Timoshenko, 1936)
aspect ratios.

A more accurate method of predicting the shear buckling coefficient for plates

with both simply supported and clamped edges is presented in NACA TN 1222 and

NACA TN 1559 respectively (M. Stein, 1947) (B. Budiansky, 1948). In contrast to

previously derived solutions, the effects of both the symmetric and anti-symmetric

buckling modes were accounted for. The symmetric mode is one in which the buckled

pattern is symmetric about the plate diagonal. It was found that for certain aspect ratios,

the antisymmetric mode dominates. A graphic representation of these modes is shown in

Figure 87.

105
 Symmetric Mode Anti-symmetric Mode
One large buckle Two large buckles
Aspect Ratio = 1.5 Aspect Ratio = 2.5

Figure 87: Buckling configurations of simply supported flat plate in shear

(M. Stein, 1947)

For the purpose of design the above mentioned NACA reports present curves

from which the shear buckling coefficient for a variety of aspect ratios may be

established. These curves account for the effects of both the symmetric and anti-

symmetric buckling modes. These curves are shown in Figure 88 & Figure 89. These are

now used to establish the shear carrying capability of the skin of the sample geometry.

The skin sections are taken as simply supported at the edges due to the ability of the plate

edges to deflect along with movement of the stiffeners. Additionally, this provides a

slightly conservative approximation to the load carrying capability of the fuselage skin. It

can be seen from Figure 89 that the anti-symmetric buckling mode governs the behavior

of a simply supported flat plate with an aspect ratio of 2.75 (22”/8”). These methods are

applied to the geometry considered here and the results are shown below.

ሑዊ ዌ ሚ ላኺ ሴ ሚ ቜ ዌ ሚ ቗ቖዅቝቖቖዅቖቖቖ ቖወቖቜ቙ ሚ
ሌዊመኺዉመኽዃኸዋ ሰ ቐ ቔ ሰ ቐ ቔ
቗ቘ ሞ቗ ሪ ዉኼ ሚ ሟ ሢ ቗ቘ ሞ቗ ሪ ቖወ቙቙ሚ ሟ ቞

ሌዊመኺዉመኽዃኸዋ ሰ ቙ዅቜቝቚ ሰሳሩ

[Flat plate shear buckling, without pressure]

106
 8.98 @ ∞

Figure 88: Shear buckling stress coefficient for flat plates with clamped edges
(B. Budiansky, 1948)

5.35 @ ∞

Figure 89: Shear buckling stress coefficient for flat plates with simply supported edges
(M. Stein, 1947)

107
5.7 FLAT PLATE COMBINED SHEAR & COMPRESSION

Given the variety of maneuvers it is

possible for an aircraft to execute, a combination

of elementary loads are often simultaneously

applied to individual structural members. A

common method of evaluating the effects of

multiple loading on the strength of a given

member is to take the loads in pairs, and find an

interaction curve based on the relationship

produced during testing. This analysis is Figure 90: Interaction curves for plate
subject to the simultaneous application of
primarily concerned with the simultaneous shear, bending & transverse compression
(A.E. Johnson, 1951)
application of compressive and shear loading, therefore these relationships are described

here. The presentation of these interactions is due to the dominant presence of this

loading pair in aircraft fuselage. However, a method of evaluating the simultaneous

application of bending, shear & transverse compression for flat plates was presented by

A.E. Johnson et al in NACA TN 2536 (A.E. Johnson, 1951).

The problem of buckling of infinitely long plates subject to applied shear and

compression loads was first solved using energy methods by Stowell and Schwartz (E.Z.

Stowell, 1943) in NACA ARR 3K13. Therein, Appendix B shows that if the elastic

restraint supplied to the sheet from the stiffener is independent of the wavelength of the

buckles, the following relationship holds true.

ሚ ሌኺመኺዊ ሌዊመኺዊ ሚ
መኺ ሩ መዊ ሰ቗ሰቐ ቔሩቐ ቔ
ሌኺ ሌዊ

108
 Here, Rc represents the ratio of applied normal stress when buckling occurs in

combined shear and direct stress to compressive stress when buckling occurs in pure

compression. Here, tension is regarded as a negative compression. Rs represents the ratio

of shear stress when buckling occurs in combined shear and normal stress to the shear

stress when buckling occurs in pure shear. The above equation is considered acceptable

for engineering purposes by Stowell and Schwartz.

A method of implementing this approach is presented by Timoshenko, results of

which are shown in Figure 90. This relationship can be used to find the constant Ks, used

to establish the shear buckling allowable of a plate subject to combined loading.

s_cs

Figure 91: Interaction curves for plate

subject to the simultaneous application of
shear & compression (Timoshenko, 1936)

109
5.8 CURVED PLATE COMPRESSIVE BUCKLING

To ensure an accurate representation of the fuselage structure is being used when

calculating the strength of skin panels, the effects of panel curvature must be accounted

for. A detailed description of the currently accepted industry methods of accounting for

panel curvature are presented in The Handbook of Structural Stability, Part III (G.

Gerard, NACA Technical Note 3783-Handbook of Structural Stability Part III - Buckling

of Curved Plates and Shells, 1957). In this, the methods of classical linear stability as

applied to flat plates and monocoque cylinders, and are adapted to match test data of

curved panels with a variety of geometric characteristics. The general properties of

curved panels fall into the categories shown below.

Figure 92: Geometric parameters and ranges of curved plates (G. Gerard, NACA
Technical Note 3783-Handbook of Structural Stability Part III - Buckling of Curved
Plates and Shells, 1957)

In general, the close correlation between the theory and experimental data derived

for flat plates was not found to exist for curved elements, particularly for intermediate

values of panel curvature. The poor agreement of linear theory to test data for curved

element has motivated considerable research into its causes. Some investigators maintain

that curved elements are particularly sensitive to initial imperfection, whereas others have
110
abandoned classical buckling concepts altogether and have found that large deflection

theory provided the best correlations.

It seems appropriate to initially assume a curved plate would behave similarly to a

cylinder under compression. This is in fact true for long plates with sufficient curvature

where both will tend to form diamond shaped buckles. When panel curvature is small,

failure occurs essentially as a flat plate.

The evaluation of curved plates differs from that of circular cylinders with regard

to the application of boundary conditions. A cylinder has two edges along which

boundaries occur whereas a curved plate has four. This increases the complexity of

strength prediction, and requires addition parameters to describe behavior.

The current methods of analytically establishing the load carrying capability of

cylinders are based on Donnell’s equation, presented in NACA Report No 479 (Donnell,

NACA Report No 479_Stability of Thin-Walled Tubes Under Torsion, 1933). Donnell

proposed a solution, validated by testing, for the resistance of thin cylindrical shells to

resist torsional stability failure. Donnell’s approach was modified by Batdorf to apply to

simply supported cylinders subject to a variety of loading conditions. Batdorf’s results

are published in NACA Technical Note 1341 (Batdorf, 1947).

Batdorf’s formulation for the critical stress of circular cylinders subject to axial

compression is based on the equations of small deflection theory. His equation is

presented as follows:

‫ܧݐ‬
‫ܨ‬௖_௖௥ ൌ
‫ ݎ‬ቀඥ3ሺ1 െ ߥ ଶ ሻቁ

111
 Empirical test data shows that this expression predicts failure stresses which are

considerably higher than measured. A possible explanation of this phenomenon was

provided by Von Karman & Hsue-Shen (T. Von Karman T. H.-S., 1941). He suggested

that when a cylinder has an initial imperfection or is subjected to a shock, it may pass into

a buckled state without having reached the critical load given by the above equation. The

use of large deflection theory was used in an attempt to rectify this issue, however this

method falls short in two regards. Firstly, the theory is formulated for use for long

cylinders only, and seriously underestimates the critical stress of short cylinders.

Secondly, experimental attempts to establish buckling coefficients resulted in appreciable

experimental scatter. This scatter is primarily attributed to the inherent imperfections

which exist in all real cylinders.

Because of the absence of satisfactory theoretical solutions for the critical stress in

circular cylinders, a number of researchers have presented equations based on empirical

formulations. One such formulation was presented by Ballerstedt and Wangner which

accounts for the length of the cylinder. The first parameter represent the contribution of a

flat sheet where the second accounts for the effects of curvature.

‫ܨ‬௖_௖௥ ‫ ݐ‬ଶ ‫ݐ‬

ൌ 3.3 ൬ ൰ ൅ 0.2 ൬ ൰
‫ܧ‬ ‫ܮ‬ ‫ݎ‬

This was followed by a compilation of existing test data by Wagner and

Ballerstedt and the generation of an equation which produced better agreement with the

experimental results.

‫ܨ‬௖_௖௥ ‫ ݐ‬ଵ.ଷ ‫ ݐ‬ଵ.଺

ൌ 0.16 ൬ ൰ ൅ 9 ൬ ൰
‫ܧ‬ ‫ܮ‬ ‫ݎ‬

112
 This expression in only applicable to a limited range of cylinders and has the

additional drawback of having no rational basis except for its agreement with test data,

making it a purely empirical formula. This complete deviation from a theoretical basis

upon which the critical load is based cannot be considered a long term solution to the

problem of cylinder buckling.

These problems were finally rectified by Batdorf, et al, in the publication of

NACA Report 887 (S.B. Batdorf M. S.). In this, empirical data are used as the principal

guide in determining the critical compressive stress of long cylinders (large values of Z).

Theoretical formulations are used to supplement experimental data in determining the

critical stress in very short columns (small values of Z). In addition, the experimental

scatter is reduced through the presentation of a family of curves distinguished by the ratio

of cylinder radius to wall thickness. This is based on the assumption that for long

cylinders, this ratio provides an indication of the initial imperfection in the cylinder. This

presentation is based on the parameters derived in cylinder theory which are shown

below.

‫ܨ‬௖௥ ‫ܮݐ‬ଶ ‫ܮ‬ଶ

‫ܭ‬௖ ൌ ; ܼൌ ඥ1 െ ߥ ଶ
‫ ߨܦ‬ଶ ‫ݐݎ‬

Here, D represents the flexural stiffness of the plate per unit length, L is

the length of the cylinder, Kc is the compressive buckling coefficient & Z is the curvature

parameter. The equation for D is shown below.

‫ ݐܧ‬ଷ
‫ܦ‬ൌ
12ሺ1 െ ߥ ଶ ሻ

113
The results of NACA Report 887 are shown in Figure 93.

‫ܨ‬௖௥ ‫ܮݐ‬ଶ
‫ ߨܦ‬ଶ
‫ܭ‬௖ ൌ

‫ܮ‬ଶ
ܼൌ ඥ1 െ ߥ ଶ
‫ݐݎ‬

Figure 93: Critical stress coefficients for thin-walled circular cylinders subjected to axial
compression (S.B. Batdorf M. S.)

Figure 94: Types of cylinder buckling (G. Gerard, NACA Technical Note 3783-
Handbook of Structural Stability Part III - Buckling of Curved Plates and Shells, 1957)
114
 The data shown in Figure 93 was slightly modified in the seminal publication by

E.F. Bruhn in 1965. Bruhn’s showed that this data was applicable to the analysis of

curved plates by substituting the short dimension of the plate for the length term of the

cylinder theory parameters. This produced the following terms which can be rearranged

to allow for the critical buckling stress to be solved for explicitly.

‫ܨ‬௖௥ ‫ ܾݐ‬ଶ ܾଶ
‫ܭ‬௖ ൌ ; ܼൌ ඥ1 െ ߥ ଶ
‫ ߨܦ‬ଶ ‫ݐݎ‬

‫ܭ‬௖ ߨ ଶ ‫ܧ‬௖ ‫ ݐ‬ଶ

‫ܨ‬௖_௖௥ ൌ ൬ ൰
12ሺ1 െ ߥ ଶ ሻ ܾ

The properties of the geometry considered here are input into the above equation

to produce the following curved sheet compressive buckling allowable.

‫ܭ‬௖ ߨଶ ‫ܧ‬௖ ‫ ݐ‬ଶ

‫ܨ‬௖೎ೝ ൌ ൬ ൰
12 ሺ1 െ ߥ௘ ଶ ሻ ܾ

‫ݐ‬ 0.063 ݅݊ ‫ݎ‬ 100

ൌ ൌ 0.007875 ; ൌ ൌ 1,587
ܾ 8 ݅݊ ‫ݐ‬ 0.063

ܾଶ ሺ8ሻଶ
Ζൌ ඥ1 െ ߥ ଶ ൌ ඥ1 െ ሺ0.33ሻଶ ൌ 9.5896
‫ݐݎ‬ ሺ100ሻሺ0.063ሻ

Κ ௖ ൌ 5.9 ሾܴ݂݁. ܰ‫ ܰܶ ܣܥܣ‬887ሿ

ሺ5.9ሻߨ ଶ ሺ10.7 ൈ 10଺ ሻ 0.063 ଶ

‫ܨ‬௖_௖௥ ൌ ൬ ൰
12ሺ1 െ ሾ0.33ሿଶ ሻ 8

‫ܨ‬௖_௖௥_௖௨௥௩௘ௗ ൌ 3,613 ‫݅ݏ݌‬

[Compressive buckling stress of curved sheet]

Following the establishment of the curved sheets ability to carry a pure applied

compressive load, the shear carrying capability of the panel may now be investigated.

115
5.9 CURVED PLATE SHEAR BUCKLING

The convention when evaluating curved plates loaded in shear, is to set the

variable b to represent the short side of the plate. This can lead to a certain amount of

confusion given that the plate may have curvature oriented along either the long or the

short dimension of the plate as shown below.

Figure 95: Shear loaded plate aspect ratio relative to curvature direction

For clarity, a long curved plate is one where the strait edge is parallel to the axis

of the imaginary cylinder from which the plate is a section, i.e. the panel shown on the

left of Figure 95.

The investigations into the shear buckling capability of curved panels has been

undertaken by a number of researchers. Leggett analyzed long plates with small

curvature, simply supported on the edges, where displacement along the edges of the

panel was restricted (Leggett, 1937). This research was expanded upon by Kromm who

analyzed similar plates, while allowing for displacement along the plate edges to occur.

116
This resulted in lower buckling stress, as would be expected. Both of these results agreed

with research conducted by Batdorf, Schildcrout and Stein (S.B. Batdorf M. S., 1947),

which was developed on the basis of Donnell’s equation. In contrast to the behavior of

curved plated under axial compression, good correlation has been found between

theoretical work and experimental data conducted by Rafel &Sandlin, Moore & Wescoat,

Kuhn & Levin and Chiarito.

As expected, a curved plate subject to a pure applied shear load will buckle at a

greater stress that an equally sized flat plate. This is due to the restraint of radial

deflection provided by the existence of curvature. For long plates, the restraint imposed

by the axial edge is of primary importance to the plate strength. However, as the length of

the plate is reduced, the buckling strength begins to be influenced by the conditions of the

circumferential edge as well. As the length of the plate becomes small relative to the

width, the plate begins to behave like a short cylinder or flat plate, which is the lower

bound of short cylinder strength. This constrains the behavior of curved plates between

the two limiting cases, cylindrical behavior at small values of Z and that of an infinitely

long plates at large values of Z.

Due to the strong correlation of theoretical work with test data, the following form

of the critical shear stress for curved plates can be used in conjunction with the Ks (Shear

buckling coefficient) curves provided in NACA Technical Note 3783, shown in Figure
‫ܭ‬௦ ߨଶ ‫ܧ‬௖ ‫ ݐ‬ଶ
96. Additional curves are shown therein which ‫ܨ‬௦_௖௥ ൌ ൬ ൰
12 ሺ1 െ ߥ௘ ଶ ሻ ܾ
describe the behavior of plate with other

configurations of loading and edge condition. For the purposed of the analysis conducted

117
to the sample geometry considered here, the Ks curve, representing long plates with

simply supported edges is utilized.

ܾଶ
ܼൌ ඥ1 െ ߥ ଶ
‫ݐݎ‬
Figure 96: Shear buckling coefficient for long curved panels with simply
supported edges (G. Gerard, 1957)

Figure 97: Critical shear stress coefficients for simply supported

cylinders subjected to torsion (Batdorf, 1947)

118
 It can be seen here that the shear buckling coefficient curves correspond to the

torsional buckling curves presented by Batdorf in NACA TN 1341, shown in Figure 97.

This acts to further substantiate the use of the linear theory of torsional buckling of

cylinders (i.e. Donnell’s equation) in predicting the behavior of curved elements.

The shear carrying capability of the curved skin panels can now be established for

the geometry considered here. ‫ݐ‬௦௞ ൌ 0.063 ݄݅݊ܿ݁‫ݏ‬

‫ܭ‬௦ ߨଶ ‫ܧ‬௖ ‫ݐ‬௦௞ ଶ ܾ ൌ 8 ݅݊

‫ܨ‬௦_௖௥ ൌ ൬ ൰
12ሺ1 െ ߥ௘ ଶ ሻ ܾ
ߥ௘ ൌ 0.33
௕మ ଼మ
ܼൌ
௥௧
ඥሺ1 െ ߥ௘ ଶ ሻ ൌ ሺଵ଴଴ሻሺ଴.଴଺ଷሻ
ඥ1 െ ሺ0. 33ଶ ሻ ൌ 9.589 ‫ܧ‬௖ ൌ 10.7 ൈ 10଺ ‫݅ݏ݌‬

‫ܭ‬௦ ≅ 6.5 [Figure 96] ܽ 22

ൌ ൌ 2.75
ܾ 8
ሺ6.5ሻߨ ଶ ሺ10.7 ൈ 10଺ ሻ 0.063" ଶ
‫ܨ‬௦_௖௥ ൌ ൬ ൰
12ሺ1 െ ሺ0. 33ଶ ሻሻ 8"

‫ܨ‬௦_௖௥_௖௨௥௩௘ௗ ൌ 3,981 ‫݅ݏ݌‬

[Shear buckling of curved panel without pressure]

An interesting relationship is shown in the Handbook of Structural Stability, Part

III (NACA TN 3783) (G. Gerard, NACA Technical Note 3783-Handbook of Structural

Stability Part III - Buckling of Curved Plates and Shells, 1957), regarding the relationship

of curved plate allowables to that of flat plates. For small values of Z, the shear allowable

equation shown above becomes the flat plate equation, where the value of Ks can be

found from curves provided in Part I of the stability handbook (NACA TN 3781).

Research conducted in Batdorf, et al, (S.B. Batdorf M. S., 1947) found that the

critical shear load expression can be written in the following form for Z > 30.

119
 ‫ܭ‬௦ ߨଶ ‫ܧ‬௖ ‫ݐ‬௦௞ ଶ
‫ܨ‬௦_௖௥ ൌ ൬ ൰ √ܼ
12ሺ1 െ ߥ௘ ଶ ሻ ܾ

The ratio of the curved plate buckling stress to the flat plate buckling stress was

shown to equal the following regardless of the amount of rotational restraint considered

at the edges.

‫ܨ‬௦_௖௥_௖௨௥௩௘ௗ
ൌ 0.37√ܼ
‫ܨ‬௦_௖௥_௙௟௔௧

Which can be rearranged to produce:

‫ܨ‬௦_௖௥_௖௨௥௩௘ௗ ൌ 0.37‫ܨ‬ௌ_௖௥__௙௟௔௧ √ܼ

This expression holds for long, curved plates where Z > 30.

120
5.10 CURVED PLATE COMBINED SHEAR & COMPRESSION

The effects of the simultaneous application of axial compression and shear to a

curved plate was first investigated by Kromm (Kromm, 1939). With the use of Donnell’s

equation, Batdorf, Schildcrout & Stein have extended this research (S.B. Batdorf M. S.,

1947) (M. Schildcrout, 1949).

As indicated previously, the theoretical evaluation of the stability of curved

elements differs from that of flat plates when subject to compressive loads. Plates with

significant curvature do not show good correlation with test data. Batdorf et al, in NACA

TN 1347, conducted an investigation into the modification of the existing theoretical

interaction curves to incorporate the empirical results. The theoretical form of the

interaction equation is shown below.

ሺܴ௖ ሻ௧௛ ൅ ሺܴ௦ ሻ௧௛ ଶ ൌ 1

Since a lack of availability of information regarding the buckling capability of

curved sheet under combined compression and shear, the following interaction equation

was provisionally recommended by Batdorf, et. al.

ሺܴ௖ ሻ௘௫௣ ൅ ሺܴ௦ ሻ௧௛ ଶ ൌ 1

Here, the experimentally derived compression allowable is substituted for the

theoretical value. This expression has been widely accepted by industry and can be

confidently utilized where the buckling allowable for simple loading is established using

the methods presented here.

121
 A qualitative representation of the variation of the above interaction equations is
shown in Figure 87.

Figure 98: Comparison of theoretical interaction

curve, probable empirical curve (exact location
unknown), and empirical interaction equation
curve recommended for design of curved plates
buckling under combined action of axial
compression and shear

Figure 99: Comparison of test data with parabolic interaction curves for simply supported,
curved plates under combined shear and axial compression (G. Gerard, NACA Technical Note
3783-Handbook of Structural Stability Part III - Buckling of Curved Plates and Shells, 1957)
Additionally, a comparison of the theoretical parabolic interaction curve with test

data, presented in NACA TN 3783 is shown in Figure 99. This provides additional

justification for the use of the modified interaction equation presented by Batdorf et al.

122
5.11 EFFECTS OF PRESSURE ON PLATE STABILITY

A semi-monocoque structure obtains significant structural integrity from the

presence of pressure within the fuselage. Pressurization has the ancillary effect of

providing a pleasant environment to the flight crew and passengers at the altitude of

typical airtravel. An aircraft fuselage can be considered a sealed pressure vessel which

must perform a variety of tasks including: the transmission of significant tail and internal

dead loads, sustain a number of non-structural cut outs including doors and windows,

provide a sufficient shape for aerodynamic purposes all while maintaining a minimal

weight.

The evaluation of the effects of

pressurization often begin with an understanding

of membrane stresses. These stresses are

considered those which lie entirely tangential to

the surface of the skin at each point and where

the walls of the structure are assumed to possess

zero bending stiffness. An ideal pressure vessel

would be one in which all pressure loads are

Figure 100: Pressure vessel formed
carried by membrane stresses such as those in a from body revolution (Bruhn,
1965)
rubber balloon. An efficient pressure vessel design is one which mitigates the need to

depart from an ideal structure, allowing the bending stiffness which exists in any real

shell to be neglected in the analysis.

The basic principles of membrane stress can be visualized by evaluating the

equilibrium state of a differential element cut from a shell of complex curvature. The
123
applied pressure load (P,[psi]) is assumed to be uniform in the tangential direction for the

body of revolution shown in Figure 100. The differential element representing the loads

applied to the point shown is represented in Figure 102, where Nm & Nt are the running

load (lb/in) in the median and tangential direction respectively. Figure 101 shows a

diagram of the loads applied to the differential element, where a uniformly distributed

load P (psi) is taken to be applied to the internal surface of the shell acting outward.

Figure 102: Differential element Figure 101:

of pressure vessel Equilibrium diagram
of element

Writing a force balance in the horizontal direction of Figure 101 results in the following.

ௗ௦ ௗ௦
∑‫ܨ‬: 2 ቀ݀‫ݏ‬௧ ܰ௠ ଶோ೘ ቁ ൅ 2 ቀ݀‫ݏ‬௠ ܰ௧ ଶோ೟ ቁ ൌ ܲ݀‫ݏ‬௠ ݀‫ݏ‬௧
೘ ೟

ܰ௠ ܰ௧
൅ ൌܲ
ܴ௠ ܴ௧

124
This equation is, however, not a complete description of the membrane stresses at a point,

given there exist two unknowns and only a single equation. In order to complete the

solution, an additional equilibrium equation can be derived from a circular section cut of

the vessel. This results in the following if equilibrium about the vertical direction is

taken.

Figure 103: Equilibrium diagram second required

section cut (Bruhn, 1965)

ܴܽ݀݅‫ ݐݑܥ ݎ݈ܽݑܿݎ݅ܥ ݂݋ ݏݑ‬ൌ ܴ௧ sin ߶

‫ ݐݑܿ ݂݋ ݁ܿ݊ܽݎ݂݁݉ݑܿݎ݅ܥ‬ൌ 2ߨܴ௧ sin ߶

ܸ݁‫ ݏݏ݁ݎݐܵ ݁݊ܽݎܾ݉݁ܯ ݂݋ ݐ݊݁݊݋݌݉݋ܥ ݈ܽܿ݅ݐݎ‬ൌ ܰ௠ sin ߶

∑‫ܨ‬: ߨܲሺܴ௧ sin ߶ሻଶ ൌ 2ߨܴ௧ sin ߶ ሺܰ௠ sin ߶ሻ

ܴ௧
ܰ௠ ൌ ܲ
2

Conclusion:

ܰ݉ ܰ‫ݐ‬ ܴ௧
൅ ൌܲ ; ܰ௠ ൌ ܲ
ܴ݉ ܴ‫ݐ‬ 2

These equations can now be combined to establish the membrane stress at any

point of a pressure vessel with complex curvature. It should be noted that the second of
125
these is not applicable to all surfaces of revolution since it was derived for the specific

shape shown in Figure 103. The particular relationship between these two equations must

be derived on a case-by-case basis.

The equations shown above represent the state of stress of an idealized pressure

vessel. An aircraft fuselage, constructed as a semi-monocoque, does not behave as a

simple pressure vessel due to the existence of stiffening members, i.e. frames and

stringers. The membrane stresses shown above can be considered the primary stresses on

the skin. However, the presence of stiffeners impose boundary conditions which induce

localized secondary stress peaks at the constraints. Static strength analysis often ignores

these peaks, arguing that local yielding occurs, diminishing their effects. These peaks do,

however, become relevant when cyclic loading of the structure is considered. As a

simplification for the analysis considered here, effects due to end constraint of the

pressure vessel are neglected.

Following a discussion of membrane stresses, the extent to which applied pressure

effects the buckling stress of the fuselage sections can be investigated. As previously

stated, the application of pressure to the surface of a flat or curved plate has the effect of

increasing the stress which will cause buckling in that plate. The combination of the

simultaneous application of axial compression and normal pressure was investigated

Norman Rafel at Langley Memorial Aeronautics Laboratory (Rafel, NACA WRL 258 -

Effects of Normal Pressure on the Critical Compressive Stress of Curved Sheet, 1942).

In his publication, NACA WRL 258, he provided experimental data showing the

correlation between buckling and the application of these loads. Rafel’s results were

expanded upon by S. Levi et al. in NACA TN 949 (S. Levy, 1944) where the buckling
126
load was found to increase by as much as a factor 3.1 for some aspect ratios following the

application of normal pressure. This research was further expanded upon by McPherson

et. al. in NACA TN 1041 (A.E. McPherson, 1946), were the effects of pressure on the

axial compressive allowable of sheet-stringer panels was investigated. The effects of

pressure on the shear buckling and combined shear/compression buckling of plates was

investigated in NACA RB & NACA ARR L5B10 respectively (Rafel, NACA RB - Effect

of Normal Pressure on the Critical Shear Stress of Curved Sheet, 1943), (N. Rafel, 1945).

The culmination of the research listed above resulted in two closed form

equations which have been widely adopted by industry. These are presented in the

Handbook of Structural Stability-Part 3 (G. Gerard, NACA Technical Note 3783-

Handbook of Structural Stability Part III - Buckling of Curved Plates and Shells, 1957)

and are shown below.

ܴ௖ ଶ ൅ ܴ௣ ൌ 1

ܴ௦ ଶ ൅ ܴ௣ ൌ 1

These equations are similar to the interaction equations which are used for

combined loading of flat & curved plates. Here Rp represents the ratio of applied internal

pressure to the external pressure which would buckle the cylinder of which the plate is a

section. Both Rc and Rp can be taken as negative for tension or external pressure

respectively.

The value of Rp can be established using the research of Batdorf related to the

stress of the cylinder under external radial pressure.

127
 Figure 104: Buckling coefficient of cylinder under external radial pressure

If the value of Ky is established from Figure 104, it can be used to find the

buckling This buckling stress can then be used with the rearrangement of the elementary

hoop stress equation to find the pressure which would cause buckling.

‫ܭ‬௬ ߨ ଶ ‫ܧ‬௖ ‫ ݐ‬ଶ ‫ܨ‬௖_௖௥

‫ܨ‬௖_௖௥ ൌ ൬ ൰ ; ܲൌ ‫ݐ‬
12ሺ1 െ ߥ ଶ ሻ ܾ ‫ ݎ‬௦௞

This approach can now be applied to the geometry considered here to establish

the shear and compressive buckling allowables for the skin panels under the influence of

9 psi of internal pressure.

ܴ௖ ଶ ൅ ܴ௣ ൌ 1

݂௖ ‫݁ݎݑݏݏ݁ݎܲ ݈ܽ݊ݎ݁ݐ݊ܫ‬
ܴ௖ ൌ ; ܴ௣ ൌ
‫ܨ‬௖_௖௥ ‫݈݀ݑ݋ݓ ݐ݄ܽݐ ݁ݎݑݏݏ݁ݎܲ ݈ܽ݅݀ܽݎ ݀ݎܽݓ݊ܫ ݈ܽ݊ݎ݁ݐݔܧ‬
‫݀݁ݒݎݑܿ ݄݁ݐ ݄݄ܿ݅ݓ ݂݋ ݎ݈݁݀݊݅ݕܥ ݄݁ݐ ݈݁݇ܿݑܤ‬
݈ܲܽ݊݁ ݅‫݊݋݅ݐܿ݁ܵ ܽ ݏ‬

ܴ௣ :

‫ݎ‬ ଵ 100 ଵ
ቀ ቁ ሺ1 െ ߥ௘ ଶ ሻଶ ൌ ൬ ൰ ሺ1 െ ሾ.33ሿଶ ሻଶ ≅ 1,500
‫ݐ‬ 0.063

128
 ‫ܮ‬ଶ ሺ22ሻଶ ଵ
Ζ௅ ൌ ଶ
ඥ1 െ ߥ௘ ൌ ሺ1 െ ሾ0.33ሿଶ ሻଶ ൌ 72.5217
‫ݐݎ‬ ሺ100ሻሺ0.063ሻ

‫ܭ‬௬ ≅ 11 ሾFigure 104ሿ

‫ܭ‬௬ ߨଶ ‫ܧ‬ ‫ ݐ‬ଶ ሺ11ሻߨ ଶ ሺ10.7 ൈ 10଺ ሻ 0.063 ଶ

‫ܨ‬௖_௖௥ ൌ ൬ ൰ ൌ ൬ ൰ ൌ 890.84 ‫݅ݏ݌‬
12 ሺ1 െ ߥ௘ మ ሻ ‫ܮ‬ 12ሺ1 െ ሾ. 33ଶ ሿሻ 22

‫ܨ‬௖_௖௥ ‫ݐ‬ ሺ890.84 ‫݅ݏ݌‬ሻሺ0.063ሻ

ܲൌ ൌ ൌ 0.561 ‫݅ݏ݌‬
‫ݎ‬ 100
ଽ ௣௦௜
ܴ௣ ൌ ൌ 16.03
଴.ହ଺ ௣௦௜

ܴ௖ :
ଶ
݂௖
ቆ ቇ െ ܴ௣ ൌ 1
‫ܨ‬௖೎ೝ

ܴ௖ ଶ ൌ 1 ൅ ܴ௣

ܴ௖ ൌ ට1 ൅ ܴ௣

Flat Sheet:

݂௖ ൌ ‫ܨ‬௖_௖௥ ට1 ൅ ܴ௣ ൌ ሺ2,449ሻ √17.03 ൌ 10,106 ‫݅ݏ݌‬

݂௖ ൌ 10,106 ‫݅ݏ݌‬

[Compressive buckling allowable of flat sheet with Pressure]

Curved Sheet:

݂௖ ൌ ‫ܨ‬௖_௖௥ ට1 ൅ ܴ௣ ൌ ሺ3,613ሻ √17.03 ൌ 15,027

݂௖ ൌ 15,673 ‫݅ݏ݌‬

[Compressive buckling allowable of curved sheet with Pressure]

129
 This shows that a significant increase in load carrying capability of the skin

panels is provided by the application of internal fuselage pressure. A similar process can

now be applied to find the increase in the shear buckling allowable of the skin panels.

ܴ௦ ଶ െ ܴ௣ ൌ 1

ܴ௦ ൌ ට1 ൅ ܴ௣ ൌ √1 ൅ 16.03

ܴ௦ ൌ 4.126

݂௦
ൌ 4.126
‫ܨ‬௦_௖௥

Flat Sheet:

݂௦ ൌ ሺ4.126ሻሺ3,674 ‫݅ݏ݌‬ሻ

݂௦ ൌ 15,158 ‫݅ݏ݌‬

[Shear buckling allowable of flat sheet with Pressure]

Curved Sheet:

݂௦ ൌ ሺ4.126ሻሺ3,981 ‫݅ݏ݌‬ሻ

݂௦ ൌ 16,425 ‫݅ݏ݌‬

[Shear buckling allowable of curved sheet with Pressure]

130
5.12 PLATE LOAD SUMMARY

A summary of the plate buckling allowables calculated above is shown here. The

values which most accurately represent the configuration of the skin panels of a fuselage

are the allowables for a curved plate with pressure. These values are therefore used as the

panel allowables in the hand analysis of the fuselage shown in in the Analysis Summary

section of this document.

Flat Panel
Unpressurized Pressurized
Compression
2,449 psi 10,106 psi
Only
Shear
3,674 psi 15,158 psi
Only

Curved Panel
Unpressurized Pressurized
Compression
3,613 psi 15,673 psi
Only
Shear
3,981 psi 16,425 psi
Only

131
6.0 MODEL GEOMETRY SUMMARY ANALYSIS

Following the detailed evaluation of individual structural member strength in

section 6, a comprehensive evaluation of the ultimate moment carrying capability of the

model fuselage can be developed. This is done be developing the member stresses

developed using classical beam theory as applied to semi-monocoque structure. Two

methods of member stress establishment are used. First, the classical approach is used by

tabulating member stress as shown in Appendix A4. Second, the results of a coarse mesh

finite element analysis are developed and compared to the results of the classical

methods.

Member stresses using the classical method were established using the member

allowables developed in section 6. The ultimate compressive strength of the stringers was

calculated as 41,895 psi using the Needham method. The effective skin width acting with

each stinger is 1.25” on each side of the fastener line. These values, along with the cross

sectional properties developed in Section 3 and the material properties shown in

Appendix A are used to establish the ultimate moment carrying capability of the model

fuselage. The table shown in Appendix A4 was developed by setting the maximum

allowable compressive of any string equal to 41,895. The goal seek function built into

Microsoft Excel was then used to iterate the applied moment until the maximum stringer

stress in the crown stinger reached to allowable value.

In order to establish the ultimate moment carrying capability of the fuselage, an

iterative approach is utilized where the instability of the skin panels is accounted for. As a

moment is applied to the fuselage, stress will begin to increase on each member which

carries tension/compression loads. Using the principles of classical beam theory as

132
applied to semi-monocoque structures, this load is carried by both the stringers and the

skin which spans each bay. For the model used here, the moment is applied such that

tension is developed on the lower section of the fuselage, and compression on the upper

portion of the fuselage. Given that the effects of shear lag are neglected, all of the

structure on the tension side of the fuselage, full skin & stringers, are considered to be

fully effective in carrying this tension load. This is however not the case for the

compression portion of the aircraft. As described in previous sections, members subject

to compression are often limited by their compressive stability allowables. This is

particularly true for the skin which spans each bay. As an increasing moment is applied to

the fuselage, the skin panels near the crown will begin to buckle as their compressive

buckling allowable is reached. This has the effect of changing the area which is effective

in carrying compressive load. This change in area influences the moment of inertia,

which in turn affects the stresses in each member. As a secondary effect of the reduction

of effective area, the centroid of the fuselage effective area shifts, in this case, down to

balance the load acting on each side of the neutral axis.

To account for these effects, a simple model can be used in which two trials are

conducted in order to establish the new location of the area centroid and the

corresponding element stresses. In order to account for the load carrying capability of the

buckled panels, a correction factor K has been applied which allows for the section of

buckled skin between the effective widths of skin at the stringers to carry a portion of

load based on the magnitude of stress which is applied at that location. Additionally, the

effective width of skin calculated previously is then modified based on the applied stress

at that particular bay.

133
 From the input parameters shown here, as Model Parameters
Ec 10,700,000 psi
well as the tables shown in Appendix A4, the σs t_cr ‐41,895 psi
ts k 0.063 in
following conclusions can be found. The first w 1.250 in
Bay Width 8.053 in
iteration of this method form a centroid offset of - Rmi d_s ki n 99.969 in
M 108,005,762 inlb
11.69 inches from the center-waterline of the
Figure 105: Excel model input
parameters
fuselage. Following the correction made by trial

two, an offset of only 0.76 inches was found which is acceptable to provide sufficiently

accurate results given it is only 0.38% of the diameter of the fusel age.
Trial 1 Trial 2
∑a 61.5 in2 ∑a 63.4 in2
∑az' ‐718.9 in3 ∑az 48.3 in3
∑ ௔௭ᇱ ∑ ௔௭
z̅ ‐11.69 in = z̅ 0.76 in =
∑௔ ∑௔

INA_1 285,061 in4 I NA_2 288,369 in4

From this, it can be seen that the modified effective moment of inertial of the

fuselage (288,369 in4) differs from that of the fully effective fuselage (355,102

[AutoCAD]) by approximately 18.8%. This indicates that if the effects of skin panel

stability are ignored, a highly misrepresented stress distribution would be achieved.

From the calculation of this second trial in the establishment of the ultimate moment

carrying capability of 108,005,762 in-lb is established.

This method is then compared to the results of the coarse mesh FEA by applying

this moment to the model described in in Appendix B. The section properties of the FEM

are set to match those of trial two of the classical analysis. When this is done, the

maximum stringer stress of 46,978 psi is found. This varies for the maximum stinger

stress set in the classical analysis by 12%, indicating a close correlation between the two

methods.
134
7.0 CONCLUSION

This evaluation began by focusing on the tenants of structural member stability as

applied to the analysis of lightweight flight vehicles. Through the use of a simplified

fuselage model, convergence of the results of classical hand analysis and FEA was found.

By incorporating the methods of classical stability for the generation of geometry which

was used to generate a coarse mesh FEM, a linear static solution produced results to

within 12% of the classical hand analysis. This indicates the power of classical methods

in the analysis of lightweight vehicle structure. However, since most structures have

complexities that are difficult to characterize by hand analysis alone, FEA remains highly

useful. The judicious application of classical hand methods is a wise first step in the

process of modern lightweight vehicle analysis. The skilled analyst embraces the

classical methods of his forefathers while striving to incorporate modern techniques in an

effort to master his trade.

135
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143
APPENDIX A

144
 APPENDIX A1 – Material Properties

Material properties of Skin, frame and stringers:

Al 2024‐T3 (AMS 4037 & AMS‐QQ‐A‐250/4a ) [Properties established by MIL‐QQ‐A‐250/a, Revised Apr. 2014]
Source: MMPDS‐09_Table 3.2.4.0(b1) [B‐basis]
Ftu 64 ksi (LT) Fbru_e/D=1.5 106 ksi
Fty 43 ksi (LT) Fbru_e/D=2.0 131 ksi
Fcy 40 ksi (L) Fbry_e/D=1.5 75 ksi
Fsu 40 ksi (?) Fbry_e/D=2.0 90 ksi
E 10.5 103 ksi G 4 103 ksi
Ec 10.7 103 ksi νe 0.33

Fastener properties:

Al 2024‐T4
Source: MMPDS‐09_Table 3.2.4.0(b1) [B‐basis]
Un‐driven Driven
Rivet Fsu (ksi) Rivet Rivet
Material Material Designation
Min Fsu (ksi)
2024‐T4 24 2024‐T31 41 DD

Rivet Diameter 0.25 in

Rivet Shear Strength 2,125 lb
Rivet Pitch 1 fastener/in

145
APPENDIX A1 (Continued)

Data for various rivet types and sheet thicknesses are shown below.

146
APPENDIX A2 - Structural Member Terminology Description

A general understanding of the types of structural members used in aircraft should

be maintained by the analyst. A brief description of a number of these is provided below.

Strut: This is a member which can only transmit axial loads along their center

line. They cannot transmit any load perpendicular to their centerline. In

other sources, these are also called Rods, String or two force member.

Beam: A beam is a body in which two dimensions are “small” relative to the

other. Beams may transmit transverse shear, bending and axial loads. This

is the one dimensional analogue of a plate.

Curved Beam: A curved beam is a beam in which the normals of adjacent cross

sections are non-collinear. A curved bean can transmit the same forces as a

straight beam. This is the one dimensional analogue of a shell.

Membrane: A membrane may be either curved or flat, and has a geometric

definition equivalent to a plate. These are defined as a body which may

only carry stresses within its surface. A load may be applied perpendicular

to the surface of the membrane, e.g. the surface of a balloon with internal

pressure. A membrane cannot carry either transverse bending or shear

loads. Typically, membranes are intended to carry only tensile loads. This

is the two dimensional analog of a strut.

Additionally, a membrane is taken as a shape which will not

deform appreciably under the application of applied pressure. There exist

certain structures where even the slight application of pressure would cause

147
APPENDIX A2 (Continued)

significant deformation. An example is provided by Den Hartog (Den

Hartog, 1952) . If a garden hose with an elliptic cross section is imagined,

is can be clearly seen that the application of even a relatively small internal

pressure would cause the hose to deform into a circular cross section, prior

to the development of hoop tension membrane stress. The application of

the initial pressure induces an initial bending stress into the surface of the

hose. A discussion of membranes is typically limited to those

circumstances where the structure can be considered a true membrane, with

zero flexural stiffness. This includes most notably, all shells of revolution.

Plate: This is a member in which one of the dimensions is “small” with respect to

the other two. A plate is always taken as flat and can transmit transverse

bending as well as shear and normal loads which lie in the plane of the two

larger dimensions. This is the two dimensional analogue of a straight beam.

Shell: A shell is a hybrid term which may refer to either a plate, if the structure is

flat, or membrane, or curved plate, depending on the idealization utilized.

Typically the term shell will refer to a curved, two dimensional element

which is intended to carry complex loading, including transverse shear and

bending, i.e. a curved plate. However, typical shells have very thin

surfaces, with low flexural stiffness, which will usually carry applied loads

as tensile/compressive stresses only. If the boundary conditions exist such

as to prevent the required deformation for the development of

tensile/compressive stresses, local bending will occur.

148
APPENDIX A2 (Continued)

An additional point should be noted regarding the approach of static structural

analysis. An assumption which is built into the analysis conducted here is that

appreciable deformation of the loaded member does not occur. This is a fundamental of

small deflection theory, which is conducted in the elastic stress range of the material. The

implication here is that as the structure is loaded, no appreciable geometric changes take

place in the structure. The loading vector remains constant in both magnitude and

direction. In other words, the structure behaves as if remains undeformed under the

influence of the applied loading.

This idea manifests itself in what is known as simple beam theory, or Euler-

Bernoulli beam theory. In this, the assumption is made that deflections are very small,

within the range of applied loading. Additionally, each cross section of the beam is taken

to remain plainer and with a fixed orientation with respect to the beam axis.

149
APPENDIX A3 – V-n Diagram Data

Below is shown the data used to generate the V-n Diagram shown in section 4.0
MANUEVER GUST
V
(mph) +nz_Ma n ‐nz_Ma n +nz_max ‐nz_ma x +nz ‐nz +nz_G ‐nz_G Delta n
0 0.00 0.00 3.8 ‐1 0.00 0.00 1.00000 1.00000 0
20 0.02 ‐0.02 3.8 ‐1 0.02 ‐0.02 1.04708 0.95292 0.047084
25 0.03 ‐0.03 3.8 ‐1 0.03 ‐0.03 1.05886 0.94114 0.058855
40 0.07 ‐0.08 3.8 ‐1 0.07 ‐0.08 1.09417 0.90583 0.094168
60 0.16 ‐0.18 3.8 ‐1 0.16 ‐0.18 1.14125 0.85875 0.141253
70 0.22 ‐0.24 3.8 ‐1 0.22 ‐0.24 1.16479 0.83521 0.164795
80 0.29 ‐0.32 3.8 ‐1 0.29 ‐0.32 1.18834 0.81166 0.188337
100 0.45 ‐0.50 3.8 ‐1 0.45 ‐0.50 1.23542 0.76458 0.235421
120 0.64 ‐0.72 3.8 ‐1 0.64 ‐0.72 1.28251 0.71749 0.282505
140 0.88 ‐0.98 3.8 ‐1 0.88 ‐0.98 1.32959 0.67041 0.329589
150 1.01 ‐1.12 3.8 ‐1 1.01 ‐1.00 1.35313 0.64687 0.353131
160 1.15 ‐1.28 3.8 ‐1 1.15 ‐1.00 1.37667 0.62333 0.376673
170 1.29 ‐1.44 3.8 ‐1 1.29 ‐1.00 1.40022 0.59978 0.400216
180 1.45 ‐1.62 3.8 ‐1 1.45 ‐1.00 1.42376 0.57624 0.423758
190 1.62 ‐1.80 3.8 ‐1 1.62 ‐1.00 1.44730 0.55270 0.4473
200 1.79 ‐2.00 3.8 ‐1 1.79 ‐1.00 1.47084 0.52916 0.470842
210 1.97 ‐2.20 3.8 ‐1 1.97 ‐1.00 1.49438 0.50562 0.494384
220 2.17 ‐2.42 3.8 ‐1 2.17 ‐1.00 1.51793 0.48207 0.517926
230 2.37 ‐2.64 3.8 ‐1 2.37 ‐1.00 1.54147 0.45853 0.541468
240 2.58 ‐2.88 3.8 ‐1 2.58 ‐1.00 1.56501 0.43499 0.56501
250 2.80 ‐3.12 3.8 ‐1 2.80 ‐1.00 1.58855 0.41145 0.588552
260 3.03 ‐3.37 3.8 ‐1 3.03 ‐1.00 1.61209 0.38791 0.612094
270 3.26 ‐3.64 3.8 ‐1 3.26 ‐1.00 1.63564 0.36436 0.635637
280 3.51 ‐3.91 3.8 ‐1 3.51 ‐1.00 1.65918 0.34082 0.659179
290 3.77 ‐4.20 3.8 ‐1 3.77 ‐1.00 1.68272 0.31728 0.682721
300 4.03 ‐4.49 3.8 ‐1 3.80 ‐1.00 1.70626 0.29374 0.706263
310 4.30 ‐4.80 3.8 ‐1 3.80 ‐1.00 1.72980 0.27020 0.729805
320 4.59 ‐5.11 3.8 ‐1 3.80 ‐1.00 1.75335 0.24665 0.753347
330 4.88 ‐5.44 3.8 ‐1 3.80 ‐1.00 1.77689 0.22311 0.776889
340 5.18 ‐5.77 3.8 ‐1 3.80 ‐1.00 1.80043 0.19957 0.800431
350 5.49 ‐6.12 3.8 ‐1 3.80 ‐1.00 1.82397 0.17603 0.823973
360 5.80 ‐6.47 3.8 ‐1 3.80 ‐1.00 1.84752 0.15248 0.847515
370 6.13 ‐6.83 3.8 ‐1 3.80 ‐1.00 1.87106 0.12894 0.871057
380 6.47 ‐7.21 3.8 ‐1 3.80 ‐1.00 1.89460 0.10540 0.8946
390 6.81 ‐7.59 3.8 ‐1 3.80 ‐1.00 1.91814 0.08186 0.918142
400 7.16 ‐7.99 3.8 ‐1 3.80 ‐1.00 1.94168 0.05832 0.941684
410 7.53 ‐8.39 3.8 ‐1 3.80 ‐1.00 1.96523 0.03477 0.965226
420 7.90 ‐8.81 3.8 ‐1 3.80 ‐1.00 1.98877 0.01123 0.988768
430 8.28 ‐9.23 3.8 ‐1 3.80 ‐1.00 2.01231 ‐0.01231 1.01231
440 8.67 ‐9.66 3.8 ‐1 3.80 ‐1.00 2.03585 ‐0.03585 1.035852
450 9.07 ‐10.11 3.8 ‐1 3.80 ‐1.00 2.05939 ‐0.05939 1.059394
460 9.48 ‐10.56 3.8 ‐1 3.80 ‐1.00 2.08294 ‐0.08294 1.082936
470 9.89 ‐11.03 3.8 ‐1 3.80 ‐1.00 2.10648 ‐0.10648 1.106478
480 10.32 ‐11.50 3.8 ‐1 3.80 ‐1.00 2.13002 ‐0.13002 1.13002
490 10.75 ‐11.99 3.8 ‐1 3.80 ‐1.00 2.15356 ‐0.15356 1.153563
500 11.20 ‐12.48 3.8 ‐1 3.80 ‐1.00 2.17710 ‐0.17710 1.177105
510 11.65 ‐12.98 3.8 ‐1 3.80 ‐1.00 2.20065 ‐0.20065 1.200647
520 12.11 ‐13.50 3.8 ‐1 3.80 ‐1.00 2.22419 ‐0.22419 1.224189
530 12.58 ‐14.02 3.8 ‐1 3.80 ‐1.00 2.24773 ‐0.24773 1.247731
540 13.06 ‐14.56 3.8 ‐1 3.80 ‐1.00 2.27127 ‐0.27127 1.271273
550 13.55 ‐15.10 3.8 ‐1 3.80 ‐1.00 2.29482 ‐0.29482 1.294815
560 14.04 ‐15.65 3.8 ‐1 3.80 ‐1.00 2.31836 ‐0.31836 1.318357
579 15.01 ‐16.73 3.8 ‐1 3.80 ‐1.00 2.36309 ‐0.36309 1.363087
580 15.06 ‐16.79 3.8 ‐1 0.00 0.00 0.00000 0.00000 1.365441

Relative Design Load Factors Data

150
APPENDIX A4 – Classical Analysis of Model Fuselage

The tables below show the stress distribution on each of the stringer and skin

elements of the fuselage.

STRINGER + EFFECTIVE SHEET
Trial 1 Trial 2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Effective
Assumed Effective Revised
Stringer Stringer Arm 2 Updated 2
Str. No. Effective [az'] [az' ] z = z' ‐ z̅ σb=Mz/INA Skin Area Effective az az
Area Area [z'] Effective Skin
Width a=wt Area
[a]
2 2 3 4 2 2 3 4
‐ (in ) (in) (in ) (in) (in ) (in ) (in) (psi) (in) (in ) (in ) (in ) (in )
2 0.41197 1.250 0.569 98.88 56.3 5568 110.57 ‐41895 1.26 0.158 0.570 63 6972
4 0.41197 1.250 0.569 98.24 55.9 5496 109.93 ‐41652 1.26 0.159 0.571 63 6897
6 0.41197 1.250 0.569 96.96 55.2 5354 108.65 ‐41168 1.27 0.160 0.572 62 6749
8 0.41197 1.250 0.569 95.05 54.1 5145 106.75 ‐40445 1.28 0.161 0.573 61 6530
10 0.41197 1.250 0.569 92.53 52.7 4876 104.22 ‐39489 1.29 0.163 0.575 60 6246
12 0.41197 1.250 0.569 89.41 50.9 4552 101.10 ‐38305 1.31 0.166 0.578 58 5903
14 0.41197 1.250 0.569 85.70 48.8 4183 97.40 ‐36902 1.34 0.169 0.581 57 5508
16 0.41197 1.250 0.569 81.44 46.4 3777 93.14 ‐35288 1.37 0.172 0.584 54 5070
18 0.41197 1.250 0.569 76.66 43.7 3346 88.35 ‐33474 1.41 0.177 0.589 52 4598
20 0.41197 1.250 0.569 71.37 40.6 2901 83.06 ‐31472 1.45 0.183 0.595 49 4103
22 0.41197 1.250 0.569 65.62 37.4 2452 77.32 ‐29294 1.50 0.189 0.601 46 3594
24 0.41197 1.250 0.569 59.45 33.9 2013 71.14 ‐26955 1.57 0.197 0.609 43 3084
26 0.41197 1.250 0.569 52.89 30.1 1593 64.58 ‐24470 1.64 0.207 0.619 40 2582
28 0.41197 1.250 0.569 45.99 26.2 1204 57.68 ‐21855 1.74 0.219 0.631 36 2100
30 0.41197 1.250 0.569 38.79 22.1 857 50.48 ‐19127 1.86 0.234 0.646 33 1647
32 0.41197 1.250 0.569 31.34 17.8 559 43.03 ‐16304 2.01 0.254 0.666 29 1233
34 0.41197 1.250 0.569 23.68 13.5 319 35.38 ‐13403 2.22 0.280 0.692 24 866
36 0.41197 1.250 0.569 15.87 9.0 144 27.57 ‐10445 2.52 0.317 0.729 20 554
38 0.41197 1.250 0.569 7.96 4.5 36 19.66 ‐7447 2.98 0.375 0.787 15 304
40 0.41197 1.250 0.569 0.00 0.0 0 11.69 ‐4430 3.86 0.487 0.899 11 123
42 0.41197 8.053 0.919 ‐7.96 ‐7.3 58 3.73 ‐1413 6.84 0.507 0.919 3 13
44 0.41197 8.053 0.919 ‐15.87 ‐14.6 232 ‐4.18 1584 8.05 0.507 0.919 ‐4 16
46 0.41197 8.053 0.919 ‐23.68 ‐21.8 516 ‐11.99 4543 8.05 0.507 0.919 ‐11 132
48 0.41197 8.053 0.919 ‐31.34 ‐28.8 903 ‐19.65 7443 8.05 0.507 0.919 ‐18 355
50 0.41197 8.053 0.919 ‐38.79 ‐35.7 1383 ‐27.10 10267 8.05 0.507 0.919 ‐25 675
52 0.41197 8.053 0.919 ‐45.99 ‐42.3 1944 ‐34.30 12995 8.05 0.507 0.919 ‐32 1081
54 0.41197 8.053 0.919 ‐52.89 ‐48.6 2572 ‐41.20 15610 8.05 0.507 0.919 ‐38 1560
56 0.41197 8.053 0.919 ‐59.45 ‐54.7 3249 ‐47.76 18095 8.05 0.507 0.919 ‐44 2097
58 0.41197 8.053 0.919 ‐65.62 ‐60.3 3959 ‐53.93 20434 8.05 0.507 0.919 ‐50 2674
60 0.41197 8.053 0.919 ‐71.37 ‐65.6 4683 ‐59.68 22611 8.05 0.507 0.919 ‐55 3274
62 0.41197 8.053 0.919 ‐76.66 ‐70.5 5402 ‐64.96 24614 8.05 0.507 0.919 ‐60 3880
64 0.41197 8.053 0.919 ‐81.44 ‐74.9 6098 ‐69.75 26428 8.05 0.507 0.919 ‐64 4473
66 0.41197 8.053 0.919 ‐85.70 ‐78.8 6752 ‐74.01 28042 8.05 0.507 0.919 ‐68 5035
68 0.41197 8.053 0.919 ‐89.41 ‐82.2 7348 ‐77.71 29445 8.05 0.507 0.919 ‐71 5552
70 0.41197 8.053 0.919 ‐92.53 ‐85.1 7871 ‐80.84 30628 8.05 0.507 0.919 ‐74 6007
72 0.41197 8.053 0.919 ‐95.05 ‐87.4 8306 ‐83.36 31585 8.05 0.507 0.919 ‐77 6388
74 0.41197 8.053 0.919 ‐96.96 ‐89.1 8643 ‐85.27 32307 8.05 0.507 0.919 ‐78 6684
76 0.41197 8.053 0.919 ‐98.24 ‐90.3 8872 ‐86.55 32792 8.05 0.507 0.919 ‐80 6886
78 0.41197 8.053 0.919 ‐98.88 ‐90.9 8988 ‐87.19 33035 8.05 0.507 0.919 ‐80 6988
∑ 28.856 ‐429.5 142155 30.133 ‐46.64 138434

151
 BUCKLED SHEET
Trial 1 Trial 2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Σσc_cr Revised
Sheet Asumed Effectivit Effective Revised Revised
Curved Effectivity
Element b' t r Plate σb y Factor Area z' az' az'2 z = z' ‐ z̅ σb =Mz/INA Width Effective az az2
Buckling
Factor
Number (Linear) K=σcr/σb a=Ktb' b' Area a=Ktb'
Allowabl e K=σc_cr/σb
‐ (in) (in) (in) (psi) (psi) ‐ (in2) (in) (in3) (in4) (in) (psi) ‐ (in) (in2) (in3) (in4)
1 3.401 0.063 99.9685 3613 ‐41,895 0.086 0.0185 99.969 1.85 184.7 111.661 42307 0.0854 3.3982 0.018 2 228
3 6.803 0.063 99.9685 3613 ‐41,759 0.087 0.0371 99.644 3.69 368.2 111.337 42184 0.0856 6.79 0.037 4 454
5 6.803 0.063 99.9685 3613 ‐41,352 0.087 0.0374 98.674 3.69 364.6 110.367 41817 0.0864 6.79 0.037 4 450
7 6.803 0.063 99.9685 3613 ‐40,678 0.089 0.0381 97.064 3.69 358.6 108.756 41206 0.0877 6.77 0.037 4 443
9 6.803 0.063 99.9685 3613 ‐39,739 0.091 0.0390 94.824 3.69 350.4 106.517 40358 0.0895 6.76 0.038 4 432
11 6.803 0.063 99.9685 3613 ‐38,543 0.094 0.0402 91.969 3.69 339.8 103.662 39276 0.0920 6.74 0.039 4 420
13 6.803 0.063 99.9685 3613 ‐37,096 0.097 0.0417 88.518 3.69 327.1 100.210 37968 0.0952 6.71 0.040 4 404
15 6.803 0.063 99.9685 3613 ‐35,409 0.102 0.0437 84.492 3.69 312.2 96.185 36443 0.0991 6.68 0.042 4 386
APPENDIX A4 (continued)

17 6.803 0.063 99.9685 3613 ‐33,493 0.108 0.0462 79.919 3.69 295.3 91.612 34711 0.1041 6.65 0.044 4 366
19 6.803 0.063 99.9685 3613 ‐31,359 0.115 0.0494 74.827 3.69 276.5 86.520 32781 0.1102 6.60 0.046 4 343
21 6.803 0.063 99.9685 3613 ‐29,022 0.124 0.0534 69.251 3.69 255.9 80.943 30668 0.1178 6.55 0.049 4 319
23 6.803 0.063 99.9685 3613 ‐26,496 0.136 0.0584 63.225 3.69 233.6 74.917 28385 0.1273 6.49 0.052 4 292
25 6.803 0.063 99.9685 3613 ‐23,799 0.152 0.0651 56.789 3.69 209.8 68.481 25947 0.1392 6.41 0.056 4 264
27 6.803 0.063 99.9685 3613 ‐20,948 0.172 0.0739 49.984 3.69 184.7 61.677 23369 0.1546 6.31 0.061 4 234
29 6.803 0.063 99.9685 3613 ‐17,960 0.201 0.0862 42.856 3.69 158.3 54.548 20668 0.1748 6.19 0.068 4 203
31 6.803 0.063 99.9685 3613 ‐14,856 0.243 0.1042 35.449 3.69 131.0 47.142 17862 0.2023 6.04 0.077 4 171
33 6.803 0.063 99.9685 3613 ‐11,656 0.310 0.1328 27.813 3.69 102.8 39.506 14968 0.2414 5.83 0.089 4 138

152
35 6.803 0.063 99.9685 3613 ‐8,380 0.431 0.1848 19.996 3.69 73.9 31.689 12007 0.3009 5.54 0.105 3 105
37 6.803 0.063 99.9685 3613 ‐5,050 0.715 0.3066 12.050 3.69 44.5 23.743 8996 0.4016 5.07 0.128 3 72
39 6.803 0.063 99.9685 3613 ‐1,687 1.000 0.4286 4.025 1.73 6.9 15.718 5955 0.6067 4.19 0.160 3 40
41 Tension Tension Tension Tension Tension Tension Tension ‐4.025 Tension Tension 7.667 2905 Tension 1.21 0.000 0 0
43 Tension Tension Tension Tension Tension Tension Tension ‐12.050 Tension Tension ‐0.357 ‐135 Tension 0.00 0.000 0 0
45 Tension Tension Tension Tension Tension Tension Tension ‐19.996 Tension Tension ‐8.304 ‐3146 Tension 0.00 0.000 0 0
47 Tension Tension Tension Tension Tension Tension Tension ‐27.813 Tension Tension ‐16.120 ‐6108 Tension 0.00 0.000 0 0
49 Tension Tension Tension Tension Tension Tension Tension ‐35.449 Tension Tension ‐23.757 ‐9001 Tension 0.00 0.000 0 0
51 Tension Tension Tension Tension Tension Tension Tension ‐42.856 Tension Tension ‐31.163 ‐11807 Tension 0.00 0.000 0 0
53 Tension Tension Tension Tension Tension Tension Tension ‐49.984 Tension Tension ‐38.292 ‐14508 Tension 0.00 0.000 0 0
55 Tension Tension Tension Tension Tension Tension Tension ‐56.789 Tension Tension ‐45.096 ‐17086 Tension 0.00 0.000 0 0
57 Tension Tension Tension Tension Tension Tension Tension ‐63.225 Tension Tension ‐51.532 ‐19525 Tension 0.00 0.000 0 0
59 Tension Tension Tension Tension Tension Tension Tension ‐69.251 Tension Tension ‐57.558 ‐21808 Tension 0.00 0.000 0 0
61 Tension Tension Tension Tension Tension Tension Tension ‐74.827 Tension Tension ‐63.135 ‐23921 Tension 0.00 0.000 0 0
63 Tension Tension Tension Tension Tension Tension Tension ‐79.919 Tension Tension ‐68.226 ‐25850 Tension 0.00 0.000 0 0
65 Tension Tension Tension Tension Tension Tension Tension ‐84.492 Tension Tension ‐72.800 ‐27583 Tension 0.00 0.000 0 0
67 Tension Tension Tension Tension Tension Tension Tension ‐88.518 Tension Tension ‐76.825 ‐29108 Tension 0.00 0.000 0 0
69 Tension Tension Tension Tension Tension Tension Tension ‐91.969 Tension Tension ‐80.276 ‐30416 Tension 0.00 0.000 0 0
71 Tension Tension Tension Tension Tension Tension Tension ‐94.824 Tension Tension ‐83.131 ‐31497 Tension 0.00 0.000 0 0
73 Tension Tension Tension Tension Tension Tension Tension ‐97.064 Tension Tension ‐85.371 ‐32346 Tension 0.00 0.000 0 0
75 Tension Tension Tension Tension Tension Tension Tension ‐98.674 Tension Tension ‐86.981 ‐32956 Tension 0.00 0.000 0 0
77 Tension Tension Tension Tension Tension Tension Tension ‐99.644 Tension Tension ‐87.952 ‐33324 Tension 0.00 0.000 0 0
79 Tension Tension Tension Tension Tension Tension Tension ‐99.969 Tension Tension ‐88.276 ‐33447 Tension 8.05 0.000 0 0
∑ 1.8853 70.08 4578.6 1.22 73.60 5764
APPENDIX A4 (continued)

Below is provided a brief description of the columns which are used in the preceding

tables.

Stringer + Effective Sheet Table Description

Column 1: Stringer number
Column 2: Area of stringer alone
Column 3: Initial assumed effective width of skin acting at each stringer (from
calculations)
Column 4: Effective area acting at each stringer location (2+3)
Column 5: Location of effective stringer area relative to waterline at center of
fuselage
Column 6: 4*5
Column 7: 4*52
Column 8: Updated location of effective stringer area based on new centroid
location
Column 9: Bending stress at stringer
Column 10: Effective width based on applied stresses; w=.88*(b/tsk))tsk√E/σb
Column 11: 8*10
Column 12: 2*11
Column 13: 8*12
Column 14: 12*82

Buckled Sheet Table Column Description

Column 1: Sheet number
Column 2: Sheet width between effective widths
Column 3: Sheet thickness
Column 4: Fuselage radius
Column 5: Curved plate buckling allowable
Column 6: Bending stress based on linear distribution
Column 7: Effectivity factor
Column 8: Effective area
Column 9: Location of skin above waterline at center of fuselage
Column 10: 8*9
Column 11: 8*92
Column 12: Updated location of sheet area based on new centroid location
Column 13: Bending stress at sheet
Column 14: Revised effectivity factor
Column 15: Revised effective width
Column 16: Revised effective area
Column 17: 12*16
Column 18: 16*122

153
APPENDIX A5 – Allowable Summary
SYMBOL ALLOWABLE UNIT DESCRIPTION
Mmax_gen 174,494,234 inlb General fuselage bending instability
V 54,888 lb Max allowable shear load
Torsional general instability stress of
‫ܨ‬௦் 221,186 psi
fuselage
Transverse shear general instability
‫ܨ‬௦ 188,008 psi
stress of fuselage

‫ܨ‬௖௥_௟௢௖ି௕௨௖ 42,918 psi Local buckling of hat section stringer

‫ܨ‬௖௖_௡௘௘ௗ௛௔௠ 41,895 psi Needham Crippling
‫ܨ‬௖௖_௚௘௥௔௥ௗ 51,758 psi Gerard crippling
‫ܨ‬௖௖_௠௖௖௢௠௕ 44,181 psi Mccomb crippling
Effective width of skin acting with
ܹ௘௙௙_௦௧ 1.25 inches
stringer )one side of fastener)
ܹ௘௙௙_௙௥ 0.965 inches

Euler-Johnson buckling allowable of

‫ܨ‬௖ 37,304 psi stringer column with no effective
skin
Euler-Johnson buckling allowable of
‫ܨ‬௖ 38,026 psi
stringer column with effective skin
‫ܨ‬௖ 36,075 psi Column curve compressive buckling
‫ܨ‬௜௥_௛௢௪௟௔௡ௗ 156,789 psi Howland inter-rivet buckling
‫ܨ‬௜௥_௡௜௨ 152,885 psi Niu inter-rivet buckling
‫ܨ‬௜௥_௕௥௨௛௡ 141,000 psi Bruhn inter-rivet buckling
Flat panel shear buckling allowable
‫ܨ‬௦_௖௥ 3,674 psi
(unpressurized fuselage)
Flat panel compressive buckling
‫ܨ‬௖_௖௥ 2,449 psi
allowable (unpressurized fuselage)
Curved panel shear buckling
‫ܨ‬௦_௖௥ 3,981 psi
allowable (unpressurized fuselage)
Curved panel compressive buckling
‫ܨ‬௖_௖௥ 3,613 psi
allowable (unpressurized fuselage)
Flat panel shear buckling allowable
‫ܨ‬௦_௖௥ 15,158 psi
(pressurized fuselage)
Flat panel compressive buckling
‫ܨ‬௖_௖௥ 10,106 psi
allowable (pressurized fuselage)
Curved panel shear buckling
‫ܨ‬௦_௖௥ 16,425 psi
allowable (pressurized fuselage)
Curved panel compressive buckling
‫ܨ‬௖_௖௥ 15,673 psi
allowable (pressurized fuselage)

154
APPENDIX B

155
Appendix B shows a summary of the data used to generate the finite element model used
for this evaluation.

ELEMENT PROPRTY CARD DEFINITION

156
ELEMENT PROPRTY CARD DEFINITION (continued)

157
ELEMENT PROPRTY CARD DEFINITION (continued)

158
FEM MATERIAL PROPERTY CARD

FEM GEOMETRY

159
FEM STRESS

DEFLECTED GEOMETRY

160
NASTRAN INPUT FILE (DAT File)

INIT MASTER(S)
NASTRAN SYSTEM(442)=-1,SYSTEM(319)=1
ID Polar,Femap
SOL SESTATIC
CEND
TITLE = Run_1
ECHO = NONE
DISPLACEMENT(PRINT) = ALL
SPCFORCE(PRINT) = ALL
OLOAD(PRINT) = ALL
FORCE(PRINT,CORNER) = ALL
STRESS(PRINT,CORNER) = ALL
LOAD = 1
SUBCASE 1
SUBTITLE = Fixed Wagon Center - End Moment
SPC = 1
LOAD = 1
SUBCASE 2
SUBTITLE = Fixed Wagon Center - End Force
SPC = 1
LOAD = 2
BEGIN BULK
$
*****************************************************************
**********
$ Written by : Femap with NX Nastran
$ Version : 11.3.1
$ Translator : NX Nastran
$ From Model : C:\Users\saeedi\Documents\Polar Coordinates\Polar
Coordinates_171017.modfem
$ Date : Tue Oct 17 05:50:42 2017
$
*****************************************************************
**********
$
PARAM,POST,-1
PARAM,OGEOM,NO
PARAM,AUTOSPC,YES
PARAM,AUTOMPC,YES
PARAM,K6ROT,100.
PARAM,GRDPNT,0
PARAM,BAILOUT,-1
CORD2C 1 0 0. 0. 0. 0. 0.
1.+FEMAPC1
+FEMAPC1 1. 0. 1.
CORD2S 2 0 0. 0. 0. 0. 0.
1.+FEMAPC2
+FEMAPC2 1. 0. 1.
$ Femap with NX Nastran Load Set 1 : End Moment
MOMENT 1 4363 0 1. -1.08+8 0. 0.
$ Femap with NX Nastran Load Set 2 : End Force
FORCE 2 4363 0 1. 0. -54888. 0.
161
$ Femap with NX Nastran Constraint Set 1 : Fixed Wagon Center
SPC1 1 123456 4842
$ Femap with NX Nastran Property 1 : STRD_Stringer ROD_A=0.412
PROD 1 1 .412 .1 0. 0.
$ Femap with NX Nastran Property 2 : Frame ROD
PROD 2 1 .3733 .1 0. 0.
$ Femap with NX Nastran Property 3 : Shear Panel_LOWER_t=.000001
PSHEAR 3 1 .063 0. 0. 0.
$ Femap with NX Nastran Property 4 : Waggon Wheel Beam
$ Femap with NX Nastran PropShape 4 : 5,0,0.1,0.,0.,0.,0.,0.
$ Femap with NX Nastran PropOrient 4 : 5,0,0.,1.,2.,3.,4.,-1.,0.,0.
PBEAM 4 1.0314159 100. 100. 0.1.5695-4
0.+
+ 0. -.1 .1 0. 0. .1 -.1
0.+
+ YESA 1.
+
+ .8861787.8861755
$ Femap with NX Nastran Property 5 : STR_2_A=0.570+.018
PROD 5 1 .588 0. 0. 0.
$ Femap with NX Nastran Property 6 : STR_4_A=0.571+.037
PROD 6 1 .608 0. 0. 0.
$ Femap with NX Nastran Property 7 : STR_6_A=0.572+.037
PROD 7 1 .609 0. 0. 0.
$ Femap with NX Nastran Property 8 : STR_8_A=0.573+.037
PROD 8 1 .61 0. 0. 0.
$ Femap with NX Nastran Property 9 : STR_10_A=0.575+.038
PROD 9 1 .613 0. 0. 0.
$ Femap with NX Nastran Property 10 : STR_12_A=0.578+.039
PROD 10 1 .617 0. 0. 0.
$ Femap with NX Nastran Property 11 : STR_14_A=0.581+.040
PROD 11 1 .621 0. 0. 0.
$ Femap with NX Nastran Property 12 : STR_16_A=0.584+.042
PROD 12 1 .626 0. 0. 0.
$ Femap with NX Nastran Property 13 : STR_18_A=0.589+.044
PROD 13 1 .633 0. 0. 0.
$ Femap with NX Nastran Property 14 : STR_20_A=0.595+.046
PROD 14 1 .641 0. 0. 0.
$ Femap with NX Nastran Property 15 : STR_22_A=0.601+.049
PROD 15 1 .65 0. 0. 0.
$ Femap with NX Nastran Property 16 : STR_24_A=0.609+.052
PROD 16 1 .661 0. 0. 0.
$ Femap with NX Nastran Property 17 : STR_26_A=0.619+.056
PROD 17 1 .675 0. 0. 0.
$ Femap with NX Nastran Property 18 : STR_28_A=0.631+.061
PROD 18 1 .692 0. 0. 0.
$ Femap with NX Nastran Property 19 : STR_30_A=0.646+.068
PROD 19 1 .714 0. 0. 0.
$ Femap with NX Nastran Property 20 : STR_32_A=0.666+.077
PROD 20 1 .743 0. 0. 0.
$ Femap with NX Nastran Property 21 : STR_34_A=0.692+.089
PROD 21 1 .781 0. 0. 0.
$ Femap with NX Nastran Property 22 : STR_36_A=0.729+.105
PROD 22 1 .834 0. 0. 0.
$ Femap with NX Nastran Property 23 : STR_38_A=0.787+.128
162
PROD 23 1 .915 0. 0. 0.
$ Femap with NX Nastran Property 24 : STR_40_A=0.899+.160
PROD 24 1 1.059 0. 0. 0.
$ Femap with NX Nastran Property 25 : STR_LOWER_A=0.919
PROD 25 1 .919 0. 0. 0.
$ Femap with NX Nastran Property 26 : PANEL_1_t=0.003
PSHEAR 26 1 .003 0. 0. 0.
$ Femap with NX Nastran Property 27 : PANEL_3_t=0.005
PSHEAR 27 1 .005 0. 0. 0.
$ Femap with NX Nastran Property 28 : PANEL_5_t=0.005
PSHEAR 28 1 .005 0. 0. 0.
$ Femap with NX Nastran Property 29 : PANEL_7_t=0.005
PSHEAR 29 1 .005 0. 0. 0.
$ Femap with NX Nastran Property 30 : PANEL_9_t=0.005
PSHEAR 30 1 .005 0. 0. 0.
$ Femap with NX Nastran Property 31 : PANEL_11_t=0.005
PSHEAR 31 1 .005 0. 0. 0.
$ Femap with NX Nastran Property 32 : PANEL_13_t=0.005
PSHEAR 32 1 .005 0. 0. 0.
$ Femap with NX Nastran Property 33 : PANEL_15_t=0.006
PSHEAR 33 1 .006 0. 0. 0.
$ Femap with NX Nastran Property 34 : PANEL_17_t=0.006
PSHEAR 34 1 .006 0. 0. 0.
$ Femap with NX Nastran Property 35 : PANEL_19_t=0.006
PSHEAR 35 1 .006 0. 0. 0.
$ Femap with NX Nastran Property 36 : PANEL_21_t=0.006
PSHEAR 36 1 .006 0. 0. 0.
$ Femap with NX Nastran Property 37 : PANEL_23_t=0.006
PSHEAR 37 1 .006 0. 0. 0.
$ Femap with NX Nastran Property 38 : PANEL_25_t=0.007
PSHEAR 38 1 .007 0. 0. 0.
$ Femap with NX Nastran Property 39 : PANEL_27_t=0.008
PSHEAR 39 1 .008 0. 0. 0.
$ Femap with NX Nastran Property 40 : PANEL_29_t=0.009
PSHEAR 40 1 .009 0. 0. 0.
$ Femap with NX Nastran Property 41 : PANEL_31_t=0.0010
PSHEAR 41 1 .01 0. 0. 0.
$ Femap with NX Nastran Property 42 : PANEL_33_t=0.011
PSHEAR 42 1 .011 0. 0. 0.
$ Femap with NX Nastran Property 43 : PANEL_35_t=0.013
PSHEAR 43 1 .013 0. 0. 0.
$ Femap with NX Nastran Property 44 : PANEL_37_t=0.016
PSHEAR 44 1 .016 0. 0. 0.
$ Femap with NX Nastran Property 45 : PANEL_39_t=0.020
PSHEAR 45 1 .02 0. 0. 0.
$ Femap with NX Nastran Material 1 : 2024-T351 Al Plate .25-.5
MAT1 1 1.07+7 .332.5906-4 1.255-5 70.
+
+ 42000. 40000. 38000.
MAT4 1.0016435 83.0762.5906-4
GRID 4363 0 0. 0. 0. 0
GRID 4842 0 0. 0. 220. 0
GRID 5309 0-4.02659 99.9189 0. 0
GRID 5311 0-12.053799.27089 0. 0
GRID 5313 0-20.002697.97907 0. 0
163
GRID 5315 0-27.821796.05181 0. 0
GRID 5317 0-35.460593.50162 0. 0
GRID 5319 0-42.869390.34504 0. 0
GRID 5321 0 -50.86.60254 0. 0
GRID 5323 0-56.806582.29839 0. 0
GRID 5325 0-63.2445 77.4605 0. 0
GRID 5327 0-69.272472.12024 0. 0
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GRID 7265 0-42.8693 -90.345 66. 0
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GRID 7485 04.026594-99.9189 220. 0
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175
GRID 7925 091.99794-39.1967 176. 0
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GRID 8033 099.67573-8.04666 66. 0
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GRID 8065 0 100.-5.33-14 66. 0
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176
GRID 8145 098.7050316.04113 154. 0
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GRID 8365 074.8510766.31227 132. 0
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GRID 8385 069.2724472.12024 66. 0
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GRID 8417 063.24454 77.4605 66. 0
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GRID 8509 0 50.86.60254 220. 0
GRID 8513 042.8692690.34504 66. 0
GRID 8517 042.8692690.34504 88. 0
GRID 8521 042.8692690.34504 110. 0
GRID 8525 042.8692690.34504 132. 0
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GRID 8533 042.8692690.34504 176. 0
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GRID 8541 042.8692690.34504 220. 0
GRID 8545 035.4604993.50162 66. 0
GRID 8549 035.4604993.50162 88. 0
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GRID 8557 035.4604993.50162 132. 0
GRID 8561 035.4604993.50162 154. 0
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GRID 8569 035.4604993.50162 198. 0
GRID 8573 035.4604993.50162 220. 0
GRID 8577 027.8217596.05181 66. 0
GRID 8581 027.8217596.05181 88. 0
178
GRID 8585 027.8217596.05181 110. 0
GRID 8589 027.8217596.05181 132. 0
GRID 8593 027.8217596.05181 154. 0
GRID 8597 027.8217596.05181 176. 0
GRID 8601 027.8217596.05181 198. 0
GRID 8605 027.8217596.05181 220. 0
GRID 8609 020.0025797.97907 66. 0
GRID 8613 020.0025797.97907 88. 0
GRID 8617 020.0025797.97907 110. 0
GRID 8621 020.0025797.97907 132. 0
GRID 8625 020.0025797.97907 154. 0
GRID 8629 020.0025797.97907 176. 0
GRID 8633 020.0025797.97907 198. 0
GRID 8637 020.0025797.97907 220. 0
GRID 8641 012.0536799.27089 66. 0
GRID 8645 012.0536799.27089 88. 0
GRID 8649 012.0536799.27089 110. 0
GRID 8653 012.0536799.27089 132. 0
GRID 8657 012.0536799.27089 154. 0
GRID 8661 012.0536799.27089 176. 0
GRID 8665 012.0536799.27089 198. 0
GRID 8669 012.0536799.27089 220. 0
GRID 8673 04.026594 99.9189 66. 0
GRID 8677 04.026594 99.9189 88. 0
GRID 8681 04.026594 99.9189 110. 0
GRID 8685 04.026594 99.9189 132. 0
GRID 8689 04.026594 99.9189 154. 0
GRID 8693 04.026594 99.9189 176. 0
GRID 8697 04.026594 99.9189 198. 0
GRID 8701 04.026594 99.9189 220. 0
CBEAM 1 4 5309 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2 4 5311 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 3 4 5313 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 4 4 5315 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 5 4 5317 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 6 4 5319 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 7 4 5321 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 8 4 5323 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 9 4 5325 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 10 4 5327 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 11 4 5329 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 12 4 5331 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 13 4 5333 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 14 4 5335 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 15 4 5337 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 16 4 5339 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 17 4 5341 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 18 4 5343 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 19 4 5345 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 20 4 5347 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 21 4 5349 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 22 4 5351 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 23 4 5353 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 24 4 5355 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 25 4 5357 4363 0. 0. 1.
179
CBEAM 26 4 5359 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 27 4 5361 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 28 4 5363 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 29 4 5365 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 30 4 5367 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 31 4 5369 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 32 4 5371 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 33 4 5373 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 34 4 5375 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 35 4 5377 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 36 4 5379 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 37 4 5381 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 38 4 5383 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 39 4 5385 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 40 4 5387 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 41 4 5389 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 42 4 5391 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 43 4 5393 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 44 4 5395 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 45 4 5397 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 46 4 5399 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 47 4 5401 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 48 4 5403 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 49 4 5405 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 50 4 5407 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 51 4 5409 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 52 4 5411 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 53 4 5413 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 54 4 5415 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 55 4 5417 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 56 4 5419 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 57 4 5421 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 58 4 5423 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 59 4 5425 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 60 4 5427 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 61 4 5429 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 62 4 5431 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 63 4 5433 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 64 4 5435 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 65 4 5437 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 66 4 5439 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 67 4 5441 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 68 4 5443 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 69 4 5445 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 70 4 5447 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 71 4 5449 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 72 4 5451 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 73 4 5453 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 74 4 5455 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 75 4 5457 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 76 4 5459 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 77 4 5461 4363 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 78 4 5463 4363 0. 0. 1.
CROD 79 5 5309 5464
CROD 80 6 5311 5465
180
CROD 81 7 5313 5466
CROD 82 8 5315 5467
CROD 83 9 5317 5468
CROD 84 10 5319 5469
CROD 85 11 5321 5470
CROD 86 12 5323 5471
CROD 87 13 5325 5472
CROD 88 14 5327 5473
CROD 89 15 5329 5474
CROD 90 16 5331 5475
CROD 91 17 5333 5476
CROD 92 18 5335 5477
CROD 93 19 5337 5478
CROD 94 20 5339 5479
CROD 95 21 5341 5480
CROD 96 22 5343 5481
CROD 97 23 5345 5482
CROD 98 24 5347 5483
CROD 99 25 5349 5484
CROD 100 25 5351 5485
CROD 101 25 5353 5486
CROD 102 25 5355 5487
CROD 103 25 5357 5488
CROD 104 25 5359 5489
CROD 105 25 5361 5490
CROD 106 25 5363 5491
CROD 107 25 5365 5492
CROD 108 25 5367 5493
CROD 109 25 5369 5494
CROD 110 25 5371 5495
CROD 111 25 5373 5496
CROD 112 25 5375 5497
CROD 113 25 5377 5498
CROD 114 25 5379 5499
CROD 115 25 5381 5500
CROD 116 25 5383 5501
CROD 117 25 5385 5502
CROD 118 25 5387 5503
CROD 119 25 5389 5504
CROD 120 25 5391 5505
CROD 121 25 5393 5506
CROD 122 25 5395 5507
CROD 123 25 5397 5508
CROD 124 25 5399 5509
CROD 125 25 5401 5510
CROD 126 25 5403 5511
CROD 127 25 5405 5512
CROD 128 25 5407 5513
CROD 129 25 5409 5514
CROD 130 25 5411 5515
CROD 131 25 5413 5516
CROD 132 25 5415 5517
CROD 133 25 5417 5518
CROD 134 25 5419 5519
CROD 135 25 5421 5520
181
CROD 136 25 5423 5521
CROD 138 5 5463 5541
CROD 139 6 5461 5540
CROD 140 7 5459 5539
CROD 141 8 5457 5538
CROD 142 9 5455 5537
CROD 143 10 5453 5536
CROD 144 11 5451 5535
CROD 145 12 5449 5534
CROD 146 13 5447 5533
CROD 147 14 5445 5532
CROD 148 15 5443 5531
CROD 149 16 5441 5530
CROD 150 17 5439 5529
CROD 151 18 5437 5528
CROD 152 19 5435 5527
CROD 153 20 5433 5526
CROD 154 21 5431 5525
CROD 155 22 5429 5524
CROD 156 23 5427 5523
CROD 157 24 5425 5522
CROD 159 2 5309 5311
CROD 162 2 5464 5465
CROD 188 2 5311 5313
CROD 191 2 5465 5466
CROD 193 2 5313 5315
CROD 196 2 5466 5467
CROD 198 2 5315 5317
CROD 201 2 5467 5468
CROD 203 2 5317 5319
CROD 206 2 5468 5469
CROD 208 2 5319 5321
CROD 211 2 5469 5470
CROD 213 2 5321 5323
CROD 216 2 5470 5471
CROD 218 2 5323 5325
CROD 221 2 5471 5472
CROD 223 2 5325 5327
CROD 226 2 5472 5473
CROD 228 2 5327 5329
CROD 231 2 5473 5474
CROD 233 2 5329 5331
CROD 236 2 5474 5475
CROD 238 2 5331 5333
CROD 241 2 5475 5476
CROD 243 2 5333 5335
CROD 246 2 5476 5477
CROD 248 2 5335 5337
CROD 251 2 5477 5478
CROD 253 2 5337 5339
CROD 256 2 5478 5479
CROD 258 2 5339 5341
CROD 261 2 5479 5480
CROD 263 2 5341 5343
CROD 266 2 5480 5481
182
CROD 268 2 5343 5345
CROD 271 2 5481 5482
CROD 273 2 5345 5347
CROD 276 2 5482 5483
CSHEAR 277 3 5347 5483 5484 5349
CROD 278 2 5347 5349
CROD 281 2 5483 5484
CSHEAR 282 3 5349 5484 5485 5351
CROD 283 2 5349 5351
CROD 286 2 5484 5485
CSHEAR 287 3 5351 5485 5486 5353
CROD 288 2 5351 5353
CROD 291 2 5485 5486
CSHEAR 292 3 5353 5486 5487 5355
CROD 293 2 5353 5355
CROD 296 2 5486 5487
CSHEAR 297 3 5355 5487 5488 5357
CROD 298 2 5355 5357
CROD 301 2 5487 5488
CSHEAR 302 3 5357 5488 5489 5359
CROD 303 2 5357 5359
CROD 306 2 5488 5489
CSHEAR 307 3 5359 5489 5490 5361
CROD 308 2 5359 5361
CROD 311 2 5489 5490
CSHEAR 312 3 5361 5490 5491 5363
CROD 313 2 5361 5363
CROD 316 2 5490 5491
CSHEAR 317 3 5363 5491 5492 5365
CROD 318 2 5363 5365
CROD 321 2 5491 5492
CSHEAR 322 3 5365 5492 5493 5367
CROD 323 2 5365 5367
CROD 326 2 5492 5493
CSHEAR 327 3 5367 5493 5494 5369
CROD 328 2 5367 5369
CROD 331 2 5493 5494
CSHEAR 332 3 5369 5494 5495 5371
CROD 333 2 5369 5371
CROD 336 2 5494 5495
CSHEAR 337 3 5371 5495 5496 5373
CROD 338 2 5371 5373
CROD 341 2 5495 5496
CSHEAR 342 3 5373 5496 5497 5375
CROD 343 2 5373 5375
CROD 346 2 5496 5497
CSHEAR 347 3 5375 5497 5498 5377
CROD 348 2 5375 5377
CROD 351 2 5497 5498
CSHEAR 352 3 5377 5498 5499 5379
CROD 353 2 5377 5379
CROD 356 2 5498 5499
CSHEAR 357 3 5379 5499 5500 5381
CROD 358 2 5379 5381
CROD 361 2 5499 5500
183
CSHEAR 362 3 5381 5500 5501 5383
CROD 363 2 5381 5383
CROD 366 2 5500 5501
CSHEAR 367 3 5383 5501 5502 5385
CROD 368 2 5383 5385
CROD 371 2 5501 5502
CSHEAR 372 3 5385 5502 5503 5387
CROD 373 2 5385 5387
CROD 376 2 5502 5503
CSHEAR 377 3 5387 5503 5504 5389
CROD 378 2 5387 5389
CROD 381 2 5503 5504
CSHEAR 382 3 5389 5504 5505 5391
CROD 383 2 5389 5391
CROD 386 2 5504 5505
CSHEAR 387 3 5391 5505 5506 5393
CROD 388 2 5391 5393
CROD 391 2 5505 5506
CSHEAR 392 3 5393 5506 5507 5395
CROD 393 2 5393 5395
CROD 396 2 5506 5507
CSHEAR 397 3 5395 5507 5508 5397
CROD 398 2 5395 5397
CROD 401 2 5507 5508
CSHEAR 402 3 5397 5508 5509 5399
CROD 403 2 5397 5399
CROD 406 2 5508 5509
CSHEAR 407 3 5399 5509 5510 5401
CROD 408 2 5399 5401
CROD 411 2 5509 5510
CSHEAR 412 3 5401 5510 5511 5403
CROD 413 2 5401 5403
CROD 416 2 5510 5511
CSHEAR 417 3 5403 5511 5512 5405
CROD 418 2 5403 5405
CROD 421 2 5511 5512
CSHEAR 422 3 5405 5512 5513 5407
CROD 423 2 5405 5407
CROD 426 2 5512 5513
CSHEAR 427 3 5407 5513 5514 5409
CROD 428 2 5407 5409
CROD 431 2 5513 5514
CSHEAR 432 3 5409 5514 5515 5411
CROD 433 2 5409 5411
CROD 436 2 5514 5515
CSHEAR 437 3 5411 5515 5516 5413
CROD 438 2 5411 5413
CROD 441 2 5515 5516
CSHEAR 442 3 5413 5516 5517 5415
CROD 443 2 5413 5415
CROD 446 2 5516 5517
CSHEAR 447 3 5415 5517 5518 5417
CROD 448 2 5415 5417
CROD 451 2 5517 5518
CSHEAR 452 3 5417 5518 5519 5419
184
CROD 453 2 5417 5419
CROD 456 2 5518 5519
CSHEAR 457 3 5419 5519 5520 5421
CROD 458 2 5419 5421
CROD 461 2 5519 5520
CSHEAR 462 3 5421 5520 5521 5423
CROD 463 2 5421 5423
CROD 466 2 5520 5521
CSHEAR 467 3 5423 5521 5522 5425
CROD 468 2 5423 5425
CROD 471 2 5521 5522
CROD 473 2 5425 5427
CROD 476 2 5522 5523
CROD 478 2 5427 5429
CROD 481 2 5523 5524
CROD 483 2 5429 5431
CROD 486 2 5524 5525
CROD 488 2 5431 5433
CROD 491 2 5525 5526
CROD 493 2 5433 5435
CROD 496 2 5526 5527
CROD 498 2 5435 5437
CROD 501 2 5527 5528
CROD 503 2 5437 5439
CROD 506 2 5528 5529
CROD 508 2 5439 5441
CROD 511 2 5529 5530
CROD 513 2 5441 5443
CROD 516 2 5530 5531
CROD 518 2 5443 5445
CROD 521 2 5531 5532
CROD 523 2 5445 5447
CROD 526 2 5532 5533
CROD 528 2 5447 5449
CROD 531 2 5533 5534
CROD 533 2 5449 5451
CROD 536 2 5534 5535
CROD 538 2 5451 5453
CROD 541 2 5535 5536
CROD 543 2 5453 5455
CROD 546 2 5536 5537
CROD 548 2 5455 5457
CROD 551 2 5537 5538
CROD 553 2 5457 5459
CROD 556 2 5538 5539
CROD 558 2 5459 5461
CROD 561 2 5539 5540
CROD 563 2 5461 5463
CROD 566 2 5540 5541
CROD 568 2 5463 5309
CROD 571 2 5541 5464
CROD 572 2 5652 5653
CROD 597 2 5653 6301
CROD 622 2 6301 6333
CROD 647 2 6333 6365
185
CROD 672 2 6365 6397
CROD 697 2 6397 6429
CROD 722 2 6429 6461
CROD 747 2 6461 6493
CROD 772 2 6493 6525
CROD 797 2 6525 6557
CROD 822 2 6557 6589
CROD 847 2 6589 6621
CROD 872 2 6621 6653
CROD 897 2 6653 6685
CROD 922 2 6685 6717
CROD 947 2 6717 6749
CROD 972 2 6749 6781
CROD 997 2 6781 6813
CROD 1022 2 6813 6845
CROD 1047 2 6845 6877
CROD 1072 2 6877 6909
CROD 1097 2 6909 6941
CROD 1122 2 6941 6973
CROD 1147 2 6973 7005
CROD 1172 2 7005 7037
CROD 1197 2 7037 7069
CROD 1222 2 7069 7101
CROD 1247 2 7101 7133
CROD 1272 2 7133 7165
CROD 1297 2 7165 7197
CROD 1322 2 7197 7229
CROD 1347 2 7229 7261
CROD 1372 2 7261 7293
CROD 1397 2 7293 7325
CROD 1422 2 7325 7357
CROD 1447 2 7357 7389
CROD 1472 2 7389 7421
CROD 1497 2 7421 7453
CROD 1522 2 7453 7485
CROD 1547 2 7485 7517
CROD 1572 2 7517 7549
CROD 1597 2 7549 7581
CROD 1622 2 7581 7613
CROD 1647 2 7613 7645
CROD 1672 2 7645 7677
CROD 1697 2 7677 7709
CROD 1722 2 7709 7741
CROD 1747 2 7741 7773
CROD 1772 2 7773 7805
CROD 1797 2 7805 7837
CROD 1822 2 7837 7869
CROD 1847 2 7869 7901
CROD 1872 2 7901 7933
CROD 1897 2 7933 7965
CROD 1922 2 7965 7997
CROD 1947 2 7997 8029
CROD 1972 2 8029 8061
CROD 1997 2 8061 8093
CROD 2022 2 8093 8125
186
CROD 2047 2 8125 8157
CROD 2072 2 8157 8189
CROD 2097 2 8189 8221
CROD 2122 2 8221 8253
CROD 2147 2 8253 8285
CROD 2172 2 8285 8317
CROD 2197 2 8317 8349
CROD 2222 2 8349 8381
CROD 2247 2 8381 8413
CROD 2272 2 8413 8445
CROD 2297 2 8445 8477
CROD 2322 2 8477 8509
CROD 2347 2 8509 8541
CROD 2372 2 8541 8573
CROD 2397 2 8573 8605
CROD 2422 2 8605 8637
CROD 2447 2 8637 8669
CROD 2472 2 8669 8701
CROD 2497 2 8701 5652
CBEAM 2498 4 5652 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2499 4 5653 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2500 4 6301 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2501 4 6333 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2502 4 6365 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2503 4 6397 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2504 4 6429 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2505 4 6461 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2506 4 6493 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2507 4 6525 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2508 4 6557 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2509 4 6589 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2510 4 6621 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2511 4 6653 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2512 4 6685 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2513 4 6717 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2514 4 6749 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2515 4 6781 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2516 4 6813 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2517 4 6845 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2518 4 6877 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2519 4 6909 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2520 4 6941 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2521 4 6973 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2522 4 7005 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2523 4 7037 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2524 4 7069 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2525 4 7101 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2526 4 7133 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2527 4 7165 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2528 4 7197 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2529 4 7229 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2530 4 7261 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2531 4 7293 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2532 4 7325 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2533 4 7357 4842 0. 0. 1.
187
CBEAM 2534 4 7389 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2535 4 7421 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2536 4 7453 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2537 4 7485 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2538 4 7517 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2539 4 7549 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2540 4 7581 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2541 4 7613 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2542 4 7645 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2543 4 7677 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2544 4 7709 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2545 4 7741 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2546 4 7773 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2547 4 7805 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2548 4 7837 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2549 4 7869 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2550 4 7901 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2551 4 7933 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2552 4 7965 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2553 4 7997 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2554 4 8029 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2555 4 8061 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2556 4 8093 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2557 4 8125 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2558 4 8157 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2559 4 8189 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2560 4 8221 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2561 4 8253 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2562 4 8285 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2563 4 8317 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2564 4 8349 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2565 4 8381 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2566 4 8413 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2567 4 8445 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2568 4 8477 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2569 4 8509 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2570 4 8541 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2571 4 8573 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2572 4 8605 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2573 4 8637 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2574 4 8669 4842 0. 0. 1.
CBEAM 2575 4 8701 4842 0. 0. 1.
CROD 2576 5 5464 5620
CROD 2577 6 5465 5621
CROD 2578 7 5466 5661
CROD 2579 8 5467 5669
CROD 2580 9 5468 5677
CROD 2581 10 5469 5685
CROD 2582 11 5470 5693
CROD 2583 12 5471 5701
CROD 2584 13 5472 5709
CROD 2585 14 5473 5717
CROD 2586 15 5474 5725
CROD 2587 16 5475 5733
CROD 2588 17 5476 5741
188
CROD 2589 18 5477 5749
CROD 2590 19 5478 5757
CROD 2591 20 5479 5765
CROD 2592 21 5480 5773
CROD 2593 22 5481 5781
CROD 2594 23 5482 5789
CROD 2595 24 5483 5797
CROD 2596 25 5484 5805
CROD 2597 25 5485 5813
CROD 2598 25 5486 5821
CROD 2599 25 5487 5829
CROD 2600 25 5488 5837
CROD 2601 25 5489 5845
CROD 2602 25 5490 5853
CROD 2603 25 5491 5861
CROD 2604 25 5492 5869
CROD 2605 25 5493 5877
CROD 2606 25 5494 5885
CROD 2607 25 5495 5893
CROD 2608 25 5496 5901
CROD 2609 25 5497 5909
CROD 2610 25 5498 5917
CROD 2611 25 5499 5925
CROD 2612 25 5500 5933
CROD 2613 25 5501 5941
CROD 2614 25 5502 5949
CROD 2615 25 5503 5957
CROD 2616 25 5504 5965
CROD 2617 25 5505 5973
CROD 2618 25 5506 5981
CROD 2619 25 5507 5989
CROD 2620 25 5508 5997
CROD 2621 25 5509 6005
CROD 2622 25 5510 6013
CROD 2623 25 5511 6021
CROD 2624 25 5512 6029
CROD 2625 25 5513 6037
CROD 2626 25 5514 6045
CROD 2627 25 5515 6053
CROD 2628 25 5516 6061
CROD 2629 25 5517 6069
CROD 2630 25 5518 6077
CROD 2631 25 5519 6085
CROD 2632 25 5520 6093
CROD 2633 25 5521 6101
CROD 2634 5 5541 6261
CROD 2635 6 5540 6253
CROD 2636 7 5539 6245
CROD 2637 8 5538 6237
CROD 2638 9 5537 6229
CROD 2639 10 5536 6221
CROD 2640 11 5535 6213
CROD 2641 12 5534 6205
CROD 2642 13 5533 6197
CROD 2643 14 5532 6189
189
CROD 2644 15 5531 6181
CROD 2645 16 5530 6173
CROD 2646 17 5529 6165
CROD 2647 18 5528 6157
CROD 2648 19 5527 6149
CROD 2649 20 5526 6141
CROD 2650 21 5525 6133
CROD 2651 22 5524 6125
CROD 2652 23 5523 6117
CROD 2653 24 5522 6109
CROD 2655 2 5620 5621
CROD 2657 2 5621 5661
CROD 2659 2 5661 5669
CROD 2661 2 5669 5677
CROD 2663 2 5677 5685
CROD 2665 2 5685 5693
CROD 2667 2 5693 5701
CROD 2669 2 5701 5709
CROD 2671 2 5709 5717
CROD 2673 2 5717 5725
CROD 2675 2 5725 5733
CROD 2677 2 5733 5741
CROD 2679 2 5741 5749
CROD 2681 2 5749 5757
CROD 2683 2 5757 5765
CROD 2685 2 5765 5773
CROD 2687 2 5773 5781
CROD 2689 2 5781 5789
CROD 2691 2 5789 5797
CSHEAR 2692 3 5483 5797 5805 5484
CROD 2693 2 5797 5805
CSHEAR 2694 3 5484 5805 5813 5485
CROD 2695 2 5805 5813
CSHEAR 2696 3 5485 5813 5821 5486
CROD 2697 2 5813 5821
CSHEAR 2698 3 5486 5821 5829 5487
CROD 2699 2 5821 5829
CSHEAR 2700 3 5487 5829 5837 5488
CROD 2701 2 5829 5837
CSHEAR 2702 3 5488 5837 5845 5489
CROD 2703 2 5837 5845
CSHEAR 2704 3 5489 5845 5853 5490
CROD 2705 2 5845 5853
CSHEAR 2706 3 5490 5853 5861 5491
CROD 2707 2 5853 5861
CSHEAR 2708 3 5491 5861 5869 5492
CROD 2709 2 5861 5869
CSHEAR 2710 3 5492 5869 5877 5493
CROD 2711 2 5869 5877
CSHEAR 2712 3 5493 5877 5885 5494
CROD 2713 2 5877 5885
CSHEAR 2714 3 5494 5885 5893 5495
CROD 2715 2 5885 5893
CSHEAR 2716 3 5495 5893 5901 5496
CROD 2717 2 5893 5901
190
CSHEAR 2718 3 5496 5901 5909 5497
CROD 2719 2 5901 5909
CSHEAR 2720 3 5497 5909 5917 5498
CROD 2721 2 5909 5917
CSHEAR 2722 3 5498 5917 5925 5499
CROD 2723 2 5917 5925
CSHEAR 2724 3 5499 5925 5933 5500
CROD 2725 2 5925 5933
CSHEAR 2726 3 5500 5933 5941 5501
CROD 2727 2 5933 5941
CSHEAR 2728 3 5501 5941 5949 5502
CROD 2729 2 5941 5949
CSHEAR 2730 3 5502 5949 5957 5503
CROD 2731 2 5949 5957
CSHEAR 2732 3 5503 5957 5965 5504
CROD 2733 2 5957 5965
CSHEAR 2734 3 5504 5965 5973 5505
CROD 2735 2 5965 5973
CSHEAR 2736 3 5505 5973 5981 5506
CROD 2737 2 5973 5981
CSHEAR 2738 3 5506 5981 5989 5507
CROD 2739 2 5981 5989
CSHEAR 2740 3 5507 5989 5997 5508
CROD 2741 2 5989 5997
CSHEAR 2742 3 5508 5997 6005 5509
CROD 2743 2 5997 6005
CSHEAR 2744 3 5509 6005 6013 5510
CROD 2745 2 6005 6013
CSHEAR 2746 3 5510 6013 6021 5511
CROD 2747 2 6013 6021
CSHEAR 2748 3 5511 6021 6029 5512
CROD 2749 2 6021 6029
CSHEAR 2750 3 5512 6029 6037 5513
CROD 2751 2 6029 6037
CSHEAR 2752 3 5513 6037 6045 5514
CROD 2753 2 6037 6045
CSHEAR 2754 3 5514 6045 6053 5515
CROD 2755 2 6045 6053
CSHEAR 2756 3 5515 6053 6061 5516
CROD 2757 2 6053 6061
CSHEAR 2758 3 5516 6061 6069 5517
CROD 2759 2 6061 6069
CSHEAR 2760 3 5517 6069 6077 5518
CROD 2761 2 6069 6077
CSHEAR 2762 3 5518 6077 6085 5519
CROD 2763 2 6077 6085
CSHEAR 2764 3 5519 6085 6093 5520
CROD 2765 2 6085 6093
CSHEAR 2766 3 5520 6093 6101 5521
CROD 2767 2 6093 6101
CSHEAR 2768 3 5521 6101 6109 5522
CROD 2769 2 6101 6109
CROD 2771 2 6109 6117
CROD 2773 2 6117 6125
CROD 2775 2 6125 6133
191
CROD 2777 2 6133 6141
CROD 2779 2 6141 6149
CROD 2781 2 6149 6157
CROD 2783 2 6157 6165
CROD 2785 2 6165 6173
CROD 2787 2 6173 6181
CROD 2789 2 6181 6189
CROD 2791 2 6189 6197
CROD 2793 2 6197 6205
CROD 2795 2 6205 6213
CROD 2797 2 6213 6221
CROD 2799 2 6221 6229
CROD 2801 2 6229 6237
CROD 2803 2 6237 6245
CROD 2805 2 6245 6253
CROD 2807 2 6253 6261
CROD 2809 2 6261 5620
CROD 2810 5 5620 5624
CROD 2811 6 5621 5625
CROD 2812 7 5661 6273
CROD 2813 8 5669 6305
CROD 2814 9 5677 6337
CROD 2815 10 5685 6369
CROD 2816 11 5693 6401
CROD 2817 12 5701 6433
CROD 2818 13 5709 6465
CROD 2819 14 5717 6497
CROD 2820 15 5725 6529
CROD 2821 16 5733 6561
CROD 2822 17 5741 6593
CROD 2823 18 5749 6625
CROD 2824 19 5757 6657
CROD 2825 20 5765 6689
CROD 2826 21 5773 6721
CROD 2827 22 5781 6753
CROD 2828 23 5789 6785
CROD 2829 24 5797 6817
CROD 2830 25 5805 6849
CROD 2831 25 5813 6881
CROD 2832 25 5821 6913
CROD 2833 25 5829 6945
CROD 2834 25 5837 6977
CROD 2835 25 5845 7009
CROD 2836 25 5853 7041
CROD 2837 25 5861 7073
CROD 2838 25 5869 7105
CROD 2839 25 5877 7137
CROD 2840 25 5885 7169
CROD 2841 25 5893 7201
CROD 2842 25 5901 7233
CROD 2843 25 5909 7265
CROD 2844 25 5917 7297
CROD 2845 25 5925 7329
CROD 2846 25 5933 7361
CROD 2847 25 5941 7393
192
CROD 2848 25 5949 7425
CROD 2849 25 5957 7457
CROD 2850 25 5965 7489
CROD 2851 25 5973 7521
CROD 2852 25 5981 7553
CROD 2853 25 5989 7585
CROD 2854 25 5997 7617
CROD 2855 25 6005 7649
CROD 2856 25 6013 7681
CROD 2857 25 6021 7713
CROD 2858 25 6029 7745
CROD 2859 25 6037 7777
CROD 2860 25 6045 7809
CROD 2861 25 6053 7841
CROD 2862 25 6061 7873
CROD 2863 25 6069 7905
CROD 2864 25 6077 7937
CROD 2865 25 6085 7969
CROD 2866 25 6093 8001
CROD 2867 25 6101 8033
CROD 2868 5 6261 8673
CROD 2869 6 6253 8641
CROD 2870 7 6245 8609
CROD 2871 8 6237 8577
CROD 2872 9 6229 8545
CROD 2873 10 6221 8513
CROD 2874 11 6213 8481
CROD 2875 12 6205 8449
CROD 2876 13 6197 8417
CROD 2877 14 6189 8385
CROD 2878 15 6181 8353
CROD 2879 16 6173 8321
CROD 2880 17 6165 8289
CROD 2881 18 6157 8257
CROD 2882 19 6149 8225
CROD 2883 20 6141 8193
CROD 2884 21 6133 8161
CROD 2885 22 6125 8129
CROD 2886 23 6117 8097
CROD 2887 24 6109 8065
CROD 2889 2 5624 5625
CROD 2891 2 5625 6273
CROD 2893 2 6273 6305
CROD 2895 2 6305 6337
CROD 2897 2 6337 6369
CROD 2899 2 6369 6401
CROD 2901 2 6401 6433
CROD 2903 2 6433 6465
CROD 2905 2 6465 6497
CROD 2907 2 6497 6529
CROD 2909 2 6529 6561
CROD 2911 2 6561 6593
CROD 2913 2 6593 6625
CROD 2915 2 6625 6657
CROD 2917 2 6657 6689
193
CROD 2919 2 6689 6721
CROD 2921 2 6721 6753
CROD 2923 2 6753 6785
CROD 2925 2 6785 6817
CSHEAR 2926 3 5797 6817 6849 5805
CROD 2927 2 6817 6849
CSHEAR 2928 3 5805 6849 6881 5813
CROD 2929 2 6849 6881
CSHEAR 2930 3 5813 6881 6913 5821
CROD 2931 2 6881 6913
CSHEAR 2932 3 5821 6913 6945 5829
CROD 2933 2 6913 6945
CSHEAR 2934 3 5829 6945 6977 5837
CROD 2935 2 6945 6977
CSHEAR 2936 3 5837 6977 7009 5845
CROD 2937 2 6977 7009
CSHEAR 2938 3 5845 7009 7041 5853
CROD 2939 2 7009 7041
CSHEAR 2940 3 5853 7041 7073 5861
CROD 2941 2 7041 7073
CSHEAR 2942 3 5861 7073 7105 5869
CROD 2943 2 7073 7105
CSHEAR 2944 3 5869 7105 7137 5877
CROD 2945 2 7105 7137
CSHEAR 2946 3 5877 7137 7169 5885
CROD 2947 2 7137 7169
CSHEAR 2948 3 5885 7169 7201 5893
CROD 2949 2 7169 7201
CSHEAR 2950 3 5893 7201 7233 5901
CROD 2951 2 7201 7233
CSHEAR 2952 3 5901 7233 7265 5909
CROD 2953 2 7233 7265
CSHEAR 2954 3 5909 7265 7297 5917
CROD 2955 2 7265 7297
CSHEAR 2956 3 5917 7297 7329 5925
CROD 2957 2 7297 7329
CSHEAR 2958 3 5925 7329 7361 5933
CROD 2959 2 7329 7361
CSHEAR 2960 3 5933 7361 7393 5941
CROD 2961 2 7361 7393
CSHEAR 2962 3 5941 7393 7425 5949
CROD 2963 2 7393 7425
CSHEAR 2964 3 5949 7425 7457 5957
CROD 2965 2 7425 7457
CSHEAR 2966 3 5957 7457 7489 5965
CROD 2967 2 7457 7489
CSHEAR 2968 3 5965 7489 7521 5973
CROD 2969 2 7489 7521
CSHEAR 2970 3 5973 7521 7553 5981
CROD 2971 2 7521 7553
CSHEAR 2972 3 5981 7553 7585 5989
CROD 2973 2 7553 7585
CSHEAR 2974 3 5989 7585 7617 5997
CROD 2975 2 7585 7617
CSHEAR 2976 3 5997 7617 7649 6005
194
CROD 2977 2 7617 7649
CSHEAR 2978 3 6005 7649 7681 6013
CROD 2979 2 7649 7681
CSHEAR 2980 3 6013 7681 7713 6021
CROD 2981 2 7681 7713
CSHEAR 2982 3 6021 7713 7745 6029
CROD 2983 2 7713 7745
CSHEAR 2984 3 6029 7745 7777 6037
CROD 2985 2 7745 7777
CSHEAR 2986 3 6037 7777 7809 6045
CROD 2987 2 7777 7809
CSHEAR 2988 3 6045 7809 7841 6053
CROD 2989 2 7809 7841
CSHEAR 2990 3 6053 7841 7873 6061
CROD 2991 2 7841 7873
CSHEAR 2992 3 6061 7873 7905 6069
CROD 2993 2 7873 7905
CSHEAR 2994 3 6069 7905 7937 6077
CROD 2995 2 7905 7937
CSHEAR 2996 3 6077 7937 7969 6085
CROD 2997 2 7937 7969
CSHEAR 2998 3 6085 7969 8001 6093
CROD 2999 2 7969 8001
CSHEAR 3000 3 6093 8001 8033 6101
CROD 3001 2 8001 8033
CSHEAR 3002 3 6101 8033 8065 6109
CROD 3003 2 8033 8065
CROD 3005 2 8065 8097
CROD 3007 2 8097 8129
CROD 3009 2 8129 8161
CROD 3011 2 8161 8193
CROD 3013 2 8193 8225
CROD 3015 2 8225 8257
CROD 3017 2 8257 8289
CROD 3019 2 8289 8321
CROD 3021 2 8321 8353
CROD 3023 2 8353 8385
CROD 3025 2 8385 8417
CROD 3027 2 8417 8449
CROD 3029 2 8449 8481
CROD 3031 2 8481 8513
CROD 3033 2 8513 8545
CROD 3035 2 8545 8577
CROD 3037 2 8577 8609
CROD 3039 2 8609 8641
CROD 3041 2 8641 8673
CROD 3043 2 8673 5624
CROD 3044 5 5624 5628
CROD 3045 6 5625 5629
CROD 3046 7 6273 6277
CROD 3047 8 6305 6309
CROD 3048 9 6337 6341
CROD 3049 10 6369 6373
CROD 3050 11 6401 6405
CROD 3051 12 6433 6437
195
CROD 3052 13 6465 6469
CROD 3053 14 6497 6501
CROD 3054 15 6529 6533
CROD 3055 16 6561 6565
CROD 3056 17 6593 6597
CROD 3057 18 6625 6629
CROD 3058 19 6657 6661
CROD 3059 20 6689 6693
CROD 3060 21 6721 6725
CROD 3061 22 6753 6757
CROD 3062 23 6785 6789
CROD 3063 24 6817 6821
CROD 3064 25 6849 6853
CROD 3065 25 6881 6885
CROD 3066 25 6913 6917
CROD 3067 25 6945 6949
CROD 3068 25 6977 6981
CROD 3069 25 7009 7013
CROD 3070 25 7041 7045
CROD 3071 25 7073 7077
CROD 3072 25 7105 7109
CROD 3073 25 7137 7141
CROD 3074 25 7169 7173
CROD 3075 25 7201 7205
CROD 3076 25 7233 7237
CROD 3077 25 7265 7269
CROD 3078 25 7297 7301
CROD 3079 25 7329 7333
CROD 3080 25 7361 7365
CROD 3081 25 7393 7397
CROD 3082 25 7425 7429
CROD 3083 25 7457 7461
CROD 3084 25 7489 7493
CROD 3085 25 7521 7525
CROD 3086 25 7553 7557
CROD 3087 25 7585 7589
CROD 3088 25 7617 7621
CROD 3089 25 7649 7653
CROD 3090 25 7681 7685
CROD 3091 25 7713 7717
CROD 3092 25 7745 7749
CROD 3093 25 7777 7781
CROD 3094 25 7809 7813
CROD 3095 25 7841 7845
CROD 3096 25 7873 7877
CROD 3097 25 7905 7909
CROD 3098 25 7937 7941
CROD 3099 25 7969 7973
CROD 3100 25 8001 8005
CROD 3101 25 8033 8037
CROD 3102 5 8673 8677
CROD 3103 6 8641 8645
CROD 3104 7 8609 8613
CROD 3105 8 8577 8581
CROD 3106 9 8545 8549
196
CROD 3107 10 8513 8517
CROD 3108 11 8481 8485
CROD 3109 12 8449 8453
CROD 3110 13 8417 8421
CROD 3111 14 8385 8389
CROD 3112 15 8353 8357
CROD 3113 16 8321 8325
CROD 3114 17 8289 8293
CROD 3115 18 8257 8261
CROD 3116 19 8225 8229
CROD 3117 20 8193 8197
CROD 3118 21 8161 8165
CROD 3119 22 8129 8133
CROD 3120 23 8097 8101
CROD 3121 24 8065 8069
CROD 3123 2 5628 5629
CROD 3125 2 5629 6277
CROD 3127 2 6277 6309
CROD 3129 2 6309 6341
CROD 3131 2 6341 6373
CROD 3133 2 6373 6405
CROD 3135 2 6405 6437
CROD 3137 2 6437 6469
CROD 3139 2 6469 6501
CROD 3141 2 6501 6533
CROD 3143 2 6533 6565
CROD 3145 2 6565 6597
CROD 3147 2 6597 6629
CROD 3149 2 6629 6661
CROD 3151 2 6661 6693
CROD 3153 2 6693 6725
CROD 3155 2 6725 6757
CROD 3157 2 6757 6789
CROD 3159 2 6789 6821
CSHEAR 3160 3 6817 6821 6853 6849
CROD 3161 2 6821 6853
CSHEAR 3162 3 6849 6853 6885 6881
CROD 3163 2 6853 6885
CSHEAR 3164 3 6881 6885 6917 6913
CROD 3165 2 6885 6917
CSHEAR 3166 3 6913 6917 6949 6945
CROD 3167 2 6917 6949
CSHEAR 3168 3 6945 6949 6981 6977
CROD 3169 2 6949 6981
CSHEAR 3170 3 6977 6981 7013 7009
CROD 3171 2 6981 7013
CSHEAR 3172 3 7009 7013 7045 7041
CROD 3173 2 7013 7045
CSHEAR 3174 3 7041 7045 7077 7073
CROD 3175 2 7045 7077
CSHEAR 3176 3 7073 7077 7109 7105
CROD 3177 2 7077 7109
CSHEAR 3178 3 7105 7109 7141 7137
CROD 3179 2 7109 7141
CSHEAR 3180 3 7137 7141 7173 7169
197
CROD 3181 2 7141 7173
CSHEAR 3182 3 7169 7173 7205 7201
CROD 3183 2 7173 7205
CSHEAR 3184 3 7201 7205 7237 7233
CROD 3185 2 7205 7237
CSHEAR 3186 3 7233 7237 7269 7265
CROD 3187 2 7237 7269
CSHEAR 3188 3 7265 7269 7301 7297
CROD 3189 2 7269 7301
CSHEAR 3190 3 7297 7301 7333 7329
CROD 3191 2 7301 7333
CSHEAR 3192 3 7329 7333 7365 7361
CROD 3193 2 7333 7365
CSHEAR 3194 3 7361 7365 7397 7393
CROD 3195 2 7365 7397
CSHEAR 3196 3 7393 7397 7429 7425
CROD 3197 2 7397 7429
CSHEAR 3198 3 7425 7429 7461 7457
CROD 3199 2 7429 7461
CSHEAR 3200 3 7457 7461 7493 7489
CROD 3201 2 7461 7493
CSHEAR 3202 3 7489 7493 7525 7521
CROD 3203 2 7493 7525
CSHEAR 3204 3 7521 7525 7557 7553
CROD 3205 2 7525 7557
CSHEAR 3206 3 7553 7557 7589 7585
CROD 3207 2 7557 7589
CSHEAR 3208 3 7585 7589 7621 7617
CROD 3209 2 7589 7621
CSHEAR 3210 3 7617 7621 7653 7649
CROD 3211 2 7621 7653
CSHEAR 3212 3 7649 7653 7685 7681
CROD 3213 2 7653 7685
CSHEAR 3214 3 7681 7685 7717 7713
CROD 3215 2 7685 7717
CSHEAR 3216 3 7713 7717 7749 7745
CROD 3217 2 7717 7749
CSHEAR 3218 3 7745 7749 7781 7777
CROD 3219 2 7749 7781
CSHEAR 3220 3 7777 7781 7813 7809
CROD 3221 2 7781 7813
CSHEAR 3222 3 7809 7813 7845 7841
CROD 3223 2 7813 7845
CSHEAR 3224 3 7841 7845 7877 7873
CROD 3225 2 7845 7877
CSHEAR 3226 3 7873 7877 7909 7905
CROD 3227 2 7877 7909
CSHEAR 3228 3 7905 7909 7941 7937
CROD 3229 2 7909 7941
CSHEAR 3230 3 7937 7941 7973 7969
CROD 3231 2 7941 7973
CSHEAR 3232 3 7969 7973 8005 8001
CROD 3233 2 7973 8005
CSHEAR 3234 3 8001 8005 8037 8033
CROD 3235 2 8005 8037
198
CSHEAR 3236 3 8033 8037 8069 8065
CROD 3237 2 8037 8069
CROD 3239 2 8069 8101
CROD 3241 2 8101 8133
CROD 3243 2 8133 8165
CROD 3245 2 8165 8197
CROD 3247 2 8197 8229
CROD 3249 2 8229 8261
CROD 3251 2 8261 8293
CROD 3253 2 8293 8325
CROD 3255 2 8325 8357
CROD 3257 2 8357 8389
CROD 3259 2 8389 8421
CROD 3261 2 8421 8453
CROD 3263 2 8453 8485
CROD 3265 2 8485 8517
CROD 3267 2 8517 8549
CROD 3269 2 8549 8581
CROD 3271 2 8581 8613
CROD 3273 2 8613 8645
CROD 3275 2 8645 8677
CROD 3277 2 8677 5628
CROD 3278 5 5628 5632
CROD 3279 6 5629 5633
CROD 3280 7 6277 6281
CROD 3281 8 6309 6313
CROD 3282 9 6341 6345
CROD 3283 10 6373 6377
CROD 3284 11 6405 6409
CROD 3285 12 6437 6441
CROD 3286 13 6469 6473
CROD 3287 14 6501 6505
CROD 3288 15 6533 6537
CROD 3289 16 6565 6569
CROD 3290 17 6597 6601
CROD 3291 18 6629 6633
CROD 3292 19 6661 6665
CROD 3293 20 6693 6697
CROD 3294 21 6725 6729
CROD 3295 22 6757 6761
CROD 3296 23 6789 6793
CROD 3297 24 6821 6825
CROD 3298 25 6853 6857
CROD 3299 25 6885 6889
CROD 3300 25 6917 6921
CROD 3301 25 6949 6953
CROD 3302 25 6981 6985
CROD 3303 25 7013 7017
CROD 3304 25 7045 7049
CROD 3305 25 7077 7081
CROD 3306 25 7109 7113
CROD 3307 25 7141 7145
CROD 3308 25 7173 7177
CROD 3309 25 7205 7209
CROD 3310 25 7237 7241
199
CROD 3311 25 7269 7273
CROD 3312 25 7301 7305
CROD 3313 25 7333 7337
CROD 3314 25 7365 7369
CROD 3315 25 7397 7401
CROD 3316 25 7429 7433
CROD 3317 25 7461 7465
CROD 3318 25 7493 7497
CROD 3319 25 7525 7529
CROD 3320 25 7557 7561
CROD 3321 25 7589 7593
CROD 3322 25 7621 7625
CROD 3323 25 7653 7657
CROD 3324 25 7685 7689
CROD 3325 25 7717 7721
CROD 3326 25 7749 7753
CROD 3327 25 7781 7785
CROD 3328 25 7813 7817
CROD 3329 25 7845 7849
CROD 3330 25 7877 7881
CROD 3331 25 7909 7913
CROD 3332 25 7941 7945
CROD 3333 25 7973 7977
CROD 3334 25 8005 8009
CROD 3335 25 8037 8041
CROD 3336 5 8677 8681
CROD 3337 6 8645 8649
CROD 3338 7 8613 8617
CROD 3339 8 8581 8585
CROD 3340 9 8549 8553
CROD 3341 10 8517 8521
CROD 3342 11 8485 8489
CROD 3343 12 8453 8457
CROD 3344 13 8421 8425
CROD 3345 14 8389 8393
CROD 3346 15 8357 8361
CROD 3347 16 8325 8329
CROD 3348 17 8293 8297
CROD 3349 18 8261 8265
CROD 3350 19 8229 8233
CROD 3351 20 8197 8201
CROD 3352 21 8165 8169
CROD 3353 22 8133 8137
CROD 3354 23 8101 8105
CROD 3355 24 8069 8073
CROD 3357 2 5632 5633
CROD 3359 2 5633 6281
CROD 3361 2 6281 6313
CROD 3363 2 6313 6345
CROD 3365 2 6345 6377
CROD 3367 2 6377 6409
CROD 3369 2 6409 6441
CROD 3371 2 6441 6473
CROD 3373 2 6473 6505
CROD 3375 2 6505 6537
200
CROD 3377 2 6537 6569
CROD 3379 2 6569 6601
CROD 3381 2 6601 6633
CROD 3383 2 6633 6665
CROD 3385 2 6665 6697
CROD 3387 2 6697 6729
CROD 3389 2 6729 6761
CROD 3391 2 6761 6793
CROD 3393 2 6793 6825
CSHEAR 3394 3 6821 6825 6857 6853
CROD 3395 2 6825 6857
CSHEAR 3396 3 6853 6857 6889 6885
CROD 3397 2 6857 6889
CSHEAR 3398 3 6885 6889 6921 6917
CROD 3399 2 6889 6921
CSHEAR 3400 3 6917 6921 6953 6949
CROD 3401 2 6921 6953
CSHEAR 3402 3 6949 6953 6985 6981
CROD 3403 2 6953 6985
CSHEAR 3404 3 6981 6985 7017 7013
CROD 3405 2 6985 7017
CSHEAR 3406 3 7013 7017 7049 7045
CROD 3407 2 7017 7049
CSHEAR 3408 3 7045 7049 7081 7077
CROD 3409 2 7049 7081
CSHEAR 3410 3 7077 7081 7113 7109
CROD 3411 2 7081 7113
CSHEAR 3412 3 7109 7113 7145 7141
CROD 3413 2 7113 7145
CSHEAR 3414 3 7141 7145 7177 7173
CROD 3415 2 7145 7177
CSHEAR 3416 3 7173 7177 7209 7205
CROD 3417 2 7177 7209
CSHEAR 3418 3 7205 7209 7241 7237
CROD 3419 2 7209 7241
CSHEAR 3420 3 7237 7241 7273 7269
CROD 3421 2 7241 7273
CSHEAR 3422 3 7269 7273 7305 7301
CROD 3423 2 7273 7305
CSHEAR 3424 3 7301 7305 7337 7333
CROD 3425 2 7305 7337
CSHEAR 3426 3 7333 7337 7369 7365
CROD 3427 2 7337 7369
CSHEAR 3428 3 7365 7369 7401 7397
CROD 3429 2 7369 7401
CSHEAR 3430 3 7397 7401 7433 7429
CROD 3431 2 7401 7433
CSHEAR 3432 3 7429 7433 7465 7461
CROD 3433 2 7433 7465
CSHEAR 3434 3 7461 7465 7497 7493
CROD 3435 2 7465 7497
CSHEAR 3436 3 7493 7497 7529 7525
CROD 3437 2 7497 7529
CSHEAR 3438 3 7525 7529 7561 7557
CROD 3439 2 7529 7561
201
CSHEAR 3440 3 7557 7561 7593 7589
CROD 3441 2 7561 7593
CSHEAR 3442 3 7589 7593 7625 7621
CROD 3443 2 7593 7625
CSHEAR 3444 3 7621 7625 7657 7653
CROD 3445 2 7625 7657
CSHEAR 3446 3 7653 7657 7689 7685
CROD 3447 2 7657 7689
CSHEAR 3448 3 7685 7689 7721 7717
CROD 3449 2 7689 7721
CSHEAR 3450 3 7717 7721 7753 7749
CROD 3451 2 7721 7753
CSHEAR 3452 3 7749 7753 7785 7781
CROD 3453 2 7753 7785
CSHEAR 3454 3 7781 7785 7817 7813
CROD 3455 2 7785 7817
CSHEAR 3456 3 7813 7817 7849 7845
CROD 3457 2 7817 7849
CSHEAR 3458 3 7845 7849 7881 7877
CROD 3459 2 7849 7881
CSHEAR 3460 3 7877 7881 7913 7909
CROD 3461 2 7881 7913
CSHEAR 3462 3 7909 7913 7945 7941
CROD 3463 2 7913 7945
CSHEAR 3464 3 7941 7945 7977 7973
CROD 3465 2 7945 7977
CSHEAR 3466 3 7973 7977 8009 8005
CROD 3467 2 7977 8009
CSHEAR 3468 3 8005 8009 8041 8037
CROD 3469 2 8009 8041
CSHEAR 3470 3 8037 8041 8073 8069
CROD 3471 2 8041 8073
CROD 3473 2 8073 8105
CROD 3475 2 8105 8137
CROD 3477 2 8137 8169
CROD 3479 2 8169 8201
CROD 3481 2 8201 8233
CROD 3483 2 8233 8265
CROD 3485 2 8265 8297
CROD 3487 2 8297 8329
CROD 3489 2 8329 8361
CROD 3491 2 8361 8393
CROD 3493 2 8393 8425
CROD 3495 2 8425 8457
CROD 3497 2 8457 8489
CROD 3499 2 8489 8521
CROD 3501 2 8521 8553
CROD 3503 2 8553 8585
CROD 3505 2 8585 8617
CROD 3507 2 8617 8649
CROD 3509 2 8649 8681
CROD 3511 2 8681 5632
CROD 3512 5 5632 5636
CROD 3513 6 5633 5637
CROD 3514 7 6281 6285
202
CROD 3515 8 6313 6317
CROD 3516 9 6345 6349
CROD 3517 10 6377 6381
CROD 3518 11 6409 6413
CROD 3519 12 6441 6445
CROD 3520 13 6473 6477
CROD 3521 14 6505 6509
CROD 3522 15 6537 6541
CROD 3523 16 6569 6573
CROD 3524 17 6601 6605
CROD 3525 18 6633 6637
CROD 3526 19 6665 6669
CROD 3527 20 6697 6701
CROD 3528 21 6729 6733
CROD 3529 22 6761 6765
CROD 3530 23 6793 6797
CROD 3531 24 6825 6829
CROD 3532 25 6857 6861
CROD 3533 25 6889 6893
CROD 3534 25 6921 6925
CROD 3535 25 6953 6957
CROD 3536 25 6985 6989
CROD 3537 25 7017 7021
CROD 3538 25 7049 7053
CROD 3539 25 7081 7085
CROD 3540 25 7113 7117
CROD 3541 25 7145 7149
CROD 3542 25 7177 7181
CROD 3543 25 7209 7213
CROD 3544 25 7241 7245
CROD 3545 25 7273 7277
CROD 3546 25 7305 7309
CROD 3547 25 7337 7341
CROD 3548 25 7369 7373
CROD 3549 25 7401 7405
CROD 3550 25 7433 7437
CROD 3551 25 7465 7469
CROD 3552 25 7497 7501
CROD 3553 25 7529 7533
CROD 3554 25 7561 7565
CROD 3555 25 7593 7597
CROD 3556 25 7625 7629
CROD 3557 25 7657 7661
CROD 3558 25 7689 7693
CROD 3559 25 7721 7725
CROD 3560 25 7753 7757
CROD 3561 25 7785 7789
CROD 3562 25 7817 7821
CROD 3563 25 7849 7853
CROD 3564 25 7881 7885
CROD 3565 25 7913 7917
CROD 3566 25 7945 7949
CROD 3567 25 7977 7981
CROD 3568 25 8009 8013
CROD 3569 25 8041 8045
203
CROD 3570 5 8681 8685
CROD 3571 6 8649 8653
CROD 3572 7 8617 8621
CROD 3573 8 8585 8589
CROD 3574 9 8553 8557
CROD 3575 10 8521 8525
CROD 3576 11 8489 8493
CROD 3577 12 8457 8461
CROD 3578 13 8425 8429
CROD 3579 14 8393 8397
CROD 3580 15 8361 8365
CROD 3581 16 8329 8333
CROD 3582 17 8297 8301
CROD 3583 18 8265 8269
CROD 3584 19 8233 8237
CROD 3585 20 8201 8205
CROD 3586 21 8169 8173
CROD 3587 22 8137 8141
CROD 3588 23 8105 8109
CROD 3589 24 8073 8077
CROD 3591 2 5636 5637
CROD 3593 2 5637 6285
CROD 3595 2 6285 6317
CROD 3597 2 6317 6349
CROD 3599 2 6349 6381
CROD 3601 2 6381 6413
CROD 3603 2 6413 6445
CROD 3605 2 6445 6477
CROD 3607 2 6477 6509
CROD 3609 2 6509 6541
CROD 3611 2 6541 6573
CROD 3613 2 6573 6605
CROD 3615 2 6605 6637
CROD 3617 2 6637 6669
CROD 3619 2 6669 6701
CROD 3621 2 6701 6733
CROD 3623 2 6733 6765
CROD 3625 2 6765 6797
CROD 3627 2 6797 6829
CSHEAR 3628 3 6825 6829 6861 6857
CROD 3629 2 6829 6861
CSHEAR 3630 3 6857 6861 6893 6889
CROD 3631 2 6861 6893
CSHEAR 3632 3 6889 6893 6925 6921
CROD 3633 2 6893 6925
CSHEAR 3634 3 6921 6925 6957 6953
CROD 3635 2 6925 6957
CSHEAR 3636 3 6953 6957 6989 6985
CROD 3637 2 6957 6989
CSHEAR 3638 3 6985 6989 7021 7017
CROD 3639 2 6989 7021
CSHEAR 3640 3 7017 7021 7053 7049
CROD 3641 2 7021 7053
CSHEAR 3642 3 7049 7053 7085 7081
CROD 3643 2 7053 7085
204
CSHEAR 3644 3 7081 7085 7117 7113
CROD 3645 2 7085 7117
CSHEAR 3646 3 7113 7117 7149 7145
CROD 3647 2 7117 7149
CSHEAR 3648 3 7145 7149 7181 7177
CROD 3649 2 7149 7181
CSHEAR 3650 3 7177 7181 7213 7209
CROD 3651 2 7181 7213
CSHEAR 3652 3 7209 7213 7245 7241
CROD 3653 2 7213 7245
CSHEAR 3654 3 7241 7245 7277 7273
CROD 3655 2 7245 7277
CSHEAR 3656 3 7273 7277 7309 7305
CROD 3657 2 7277 7309
CSHEAR 3658 3 7305 7309 7341 7337
CROD 3659 2 7309 7341
CSHEAR 3660 3 7337 7341 7373 7369
CROD 3661 2 7341 7373
CSHEAR 3662 3 7369 7373 7405 7401
CROD 3663 2 7373 7405
CSHEAR 3664 3 7401 7405 7437 7433
CROD 3665 2 7405 7437
CSHEAR 3666 3 7433 7437 7469 7465
CROD 3667 2 7437 7469
CSHEAR 3668 3 7465 7469 7501 7497
CROD 3669 2 7469 7501
CSHEAR 3670 3 7497 7501 7533 7529
CROD 3671 2 7501 7533
CSHEAR 3672 3 7529 7533 7565 7561
CROD 3673 2 7533 7565
CSHEAR 3674 3 7561 7565 7597 7593
CROD 3675 2 7565 7597
CSHEAR 3676 3 7593 7597 7629 7625
CROD 3677 2 7597 7629
CSHEAR 3678 3 7625 7629 7661 7657
CROD 3679 2 7629 7661
CSHEAR 3680 3 7657 7661 7693 7689
CROD 3681 2 7661 7693
CSHEAR 3682 3 7689 7693 7725 7721
CROD 3683 2 7693 7725
CSHEAR 3684 3 7721 7725 7757 7753
CROD 3685 2 7725 7757
CSHEAR 3686 3 7753 7757 7789 7785
CROD 3687 2 7757 7789
CSHEAR 3688 3 7785 7789 7821 7817
CROD 3689 2 7789 7821
CSHEAR 3690 3 7817 7821 7853 7849
CROD 3691 2 7821 7853
CSHEAR 3692 3 7849 7853 7885 7881
CROD 3693 2 7853 7885
CSHEAR 3694 3 7881 7885 7917 7913
CROD 3695 2 7885 7917
CSHEAR 3696 3 7913 7917 7949 7945
CROD 3697 2 7917 7949
CSHEAR 3698 3 7945 7949 7981 7977
205
CROD 3699 2 7949 7981
CSHEAR 3700 3 7977 7981 8013 8009
CROD 3701 2 7981 8013
CSHEAR 3702 3 8009 8013 8045 8041
CROD 3703 2 8013 8045
CSHEAR 3704 3 8041 8045 8077 8073
CROD 3705 2 8045 8077
CROD 3707 2 8077 8109
CROD 3709 2 8109 8141
CROD 3711 2 8141 8173
CROD 3713 2 8173 8205
CROD 3715 2 8205 8237
CROD 3717 2 8237 8269
CROD 3719 2 8269 8301
CROD 3721 2 8301 8333
CROD 3723 2 8333 8365
CROD 3725 2 8365 8397
CROD 3727 2 8397 8429
CROD 3729 2 8429 8461
CROD 3731 2 8461 8493
CROD 3733 2 8493 8525
CROD 3735 2 8525 8557
CROD 3737 2 8557 8589
CROD 3739 2 8589 8621
CROD 3741 2 8621 8653
CROD 3743 2 8653 8685
CROD 3745 2 8685 5636
CROD 3746 5 5636 5640
CROD 3747 6 5637 5641
CROD 3748 7 6285 6289
CROD 3749 8 6317 6321
CROD 3750 9 6349 6353
CROD 3751 10 6381 6385
CROD 3752 11 6413 6417
CROD 3753 12 6445 6449
CROD 3754 13 6477 6481
CROD 3755 14 6509 6513
CROD 3756 15 6541 6545
CROD 3757 16 6573 6577
CROD 3758 17 6605 6609
CROD 3759 18 6637 6641
CROD 3760 19 6669 6673
CROD 3761 20 6701 6705
CROD 3762 21 6733 6737
CROD 3763 22 6765 6769
CROD 3764 23 6797 6801
CROD 3765 24 6829 6833
CROD 3766 25 6861 6865
CROD 3767 25 6893 6897
CROD 3768 25 6925 6929
CROD 3769 25 6957 6961
CROD 3770 25 6989 6993
CROD 3771 25 7021 7025
CROD 3772 25 7053 7057
CROD 3773 25 7085 7089
206
CROD 3774 25 7117 7121
CROD 3775 25 7149 7153
CROD 3776 25 7181 7185
CROD 3777 25 7213 7217
CROD 3778 25 7245 7249
CROD 3779 25 7277 7281
CROD 3780 25 7309 7313
CROD 3781 25 7341 7345
CROD 3782 25 7373 7377
CROD 3783 25 7405 7409
CROD 3784 25 7437 7441
CROD 3785 25 7469 7473
CROD 3786 25 7501 7505
CROD 3787 25 7533 7537
CROD 3788 25 7565 7569
CROD 3789 25 7597 7601
CROD 3790 25 7629 7633
CROD 3791 25 7661 7665
CROD 3792 25 7693 7697
CROD 3793 25 7725 7729
CROD 3794 25 7757 7761
CROD 3795 25 7789 7793
CROD 3796 25 7821 7825
CROD 3797 25 7853 7857
CROD 3798 25 7885 7889
CROD 3799 25 7917 7921
CROD 3800 25 7949 7953
CROD 3801 25 7981 7985
CROD 3802 25 8013 8017
CROD 3803 25 8045 8049
CROD 3804 5 8685 8689
CROD 3805 6 8653 8657
CROD 3806 7 8621 8625
CROD 3807 8 8589 8593
CROD 3808 9 8557 8561
CROD 3809 10 8525 8529
CROD 3810 11 8493 8497
CROD 3811 12 8461 8465
CROD 3812 13 8429 8433
CROD 3813 14 8397 8401
CROD 3814 15 8365 8369
CROD 3815 16 8333 8337
CROD 3816 17 8301 8305
CROD 3817 18 8269 8273
CROD 3818 19 8237 8241
CROD 3819 20 8205 8209
CROD 3820 21 8173 8177
CROD 3821 22 8141 8145
CROD 3822 23 8109 8113
CROD 3823 24 8077 8081
CROD 3825 2 5640 5641
CROD 3827 2 5641 6289
CROD 3829 2 6289 6321
CROD 3831 2 6321 6353
CROD 3833 2 6353 6385
207
CROD 3835 2 6385 6417
CROD 3837 2 6417 6449
CROD 3839 2 6449 6481
CROD 3841 2 6481 6513
CROD 3843 2 6513 6545
CROD 3845 2 6545 6577
CROD 3847 2 6577 6609
CROD 3849 2 6609 6641
CROD 3851 2 6641 6673
CROD 3853 2 6673 6705
CROD 3855 2 6705 6737
CROD 3857 2 6737 6769
CROD 3859 2 6769 6801
CROD 3861 2 6801 6833
CSHEAR 3862 3 6829 6833 6865 6861
CROD 3863 2 6833 6865
CSHEAR 3864 3 6861 6865 6897 6893
CROD 3865 2 6865 6897
CSHEAR 3866 3 6893 6897 6929 6925
CROD 3867 2 6897 6929
CSHEAR 3868 3 6925 6929 6961 6957
CROD 3869 2 6929 6961
CSHEAR 3870 3 6957 6961 6993 6989
CROD 3871 2 6961 6993
CSHEAR 3872 3 6989 6993 7025 7021
CROD 3873 2 6993 7025
CSHEAR 3874 3 7021 7025 7057 7053
CROD 3875 2 7025 7057
CSHEAR 3876 3 7053 7057 7089 7085
CROD 3877 2 7057 7089
CSHEAR 3878 3 7085 7089 7121 7117
CROD 3879 2 7089 7121
CSHEAR 3880 3 7117 7121 7153 7149
CROD 3881 2 7121 7153
CSHEAR 3882 3 7149 7153 7185 7181
CROD 3883 2 7153 7185
CSHEAR 3884 3 7181 7185 7217 7213
CROD 3885 2 7185 7217
CSHEAR 3886 3 7213 7217 7249 7245
CROD 3887 2 7217 7249
CSHEAR 3888 3 7245 7249 7281 7277
CROD 3889 2 7249 7281
CSHEAR 3890 3 7277 7281 7313 7309
CROD 3891 2 7281 7313
CSHEAR 3892 3 7309 7313 7345 7341
CROD 3893 2 7313 7345
CSHEAR 3894 3 7341 7345 7377 7373
CROD 3895 2 7345 7377
CSHEAR 3896 3 7373 7377 7409 7405
CROD 3897 2 7377 7409
CSHEAR 3898 3 7405 7409 7441 7437
CROD 3899 2 7409 7441
CSHEAR 3900 3 7437 7441 7473 7469
CROD 3901 2 7441 7473
CSHEAR 3902 3 7469 7473 7505 7501
208
CROD 3903 2 7473 7505
CSHEAR 3904 3 7501 7505 7537 7533
CROD 3905 2 7505 7537
CSHEAR 3906 3 7533 7537 7569 7565
CROD 3907 2 7537 7569
CSHEAR 3908 3 7565 7569 7601 7597
CROD 3909 2 7569 7601
CSHEAR 3910 3 7597 7601 7633 7629
CROD 3911 2 7601 7633
CSHEAR 3912 3 7629 7633 7665 7661
CROD 3913 2 7633 7665
CSHEAR 3914 3 7661 7665 7697 7693
CROD 3915 2 7665 7697
CSHEAR 3916 3 7693 7697 7729 7725
CROD 3917 2 7697 7729
CSHEAR 3918 3 7725 7729 7761 7757
CROD 3919 2 7729 7761
CSHEAR 3920 3 7757 7761 7793 7789
CROD 3921 2 7761 7793
CSHEAR 3922 3 7789 7793 7825 7821
CROD 3923 2 7793 7825
CSHEAR 3924 3 7821 7825 7857 7853
CROD 3925 2 7825 7857
CSHEAR 3926 3 7853 7857 7889 7885
CROD 3927 2 7857 7889
CSHEAR 3928 3 7885 7889 7921 7917
CROD 3929 2 7889 7921
CSHEAR 3930 3 7917 7921 7953 7949
CROD 3931 2 7921 7953
CSHEAR 3932 3 7949 7953 7985 7981
CROD 3933 2 7953 7985
CSHEAR 3934 3 7981 7985 8017 8013
CROD 3935 2 7985 8017
CSHEAR 3936 3 8013 8017 8049 8045
CROD 3937 2 8017 8049
CSHEAR 3938 3 8045 8049 8081 8077
CROD 3939 2 8049 8081
CROD 3941 2 8081 8113
CROD 3943 2 8113 8145
CROD 3945 2 8145 8177
CROD 3947 2 8177 8209
CROD 3949 2 8209 8241
CROD 3951 2 8241 8273
CROD 3953 2 8273 8305
CROD 3955 2 8305 8337
CROD 3957 2 8337 8369
CROD 3959 2 8369 8401
CROD 3961 2 8401 8433
CROD 3963 2 8433 8465
CROD 3965 2 8465 8497
CROD 3967 2 8497 8529
CROD 3969 2 8529 8561
CROD 3971 2 8561 8593
CROD 3973 2 8593 8625
CROD 3975 2 8625 8657
209
CROD 3977 2 8657 8689
CROD 3979 2 8689 5640
CROD 3980 5 5640 5644
CROD 3981 6 5641 5645
CROD 3982 7 6289 6293
CROD 3983 8 6321 6325
CROD 3984 9 6353 6357
CROD 3985 10 6385 6389
CROD 3986 11 6417 6421
CROD 3987 12 6449 6453
CROD 3988 13 6481 6485
CROD 3989 14 6513 6517
CROD 3990 15 6545 6549
CROD 3991 16 6577 6581
CROD 3992 17 6609 6613
CROD 3993 18 6641 6645
CROD 3994 19 6673 6677
CROD 3995 20 6705 6709
CROD 3996 21 6737 6741
CROD 3997 22 6769 6773
CROD 3998 23 6801 6805
CROD 3999 24 6833 6837
CROD 4000 25 6865 6869
CROD 4001 25 6897 6901
CROD 4002 25 6929 6933
CROD 4003 25 6961 6965
CROD 4004 25 6993 6997
CROD 4005 25 7025 7029
CROD 4006 25 7057 7061
CROD 4007 25 7089 7093
CROD 4008 25 7121 7125
CROD 4009 25 7153 7157
CROD 4010 25 7185 7189
CROD 4011 25 7217 7221
CROD 4012 25 7249 7253
CROD 4013 25 7281 7285
CROD 4014 25 7313 7317
CROD 4015 25 7345 7349
CROD 4016 25 7377 7381
CROD 4017 25 7409 7413
CROD 4018 25 7441 7445
CROD 4019 25 7473 7477
CROD 4020 25 7505 7509
CROD 4021 25 7537 7541
CROD 4022 25 7569 7573
CROD 4023 25 7601 7605
CROD 4024 25 7633 7637
CROD 4025 25 7665 7669
CROD 4026 25 7697 7701
CROD 4027 25 7729 7733
CROD 4028 25 7761 7765
CROD 4029 25 7793 7797
CROD 4030 25 7825 7829
CROD 4031 25 7857 7861
CROD 4032 25 7889 7893
210
CROD 4033 25 7921 7925
CROD 4034 25 7953 7957
CROD 4035 25 7985 7989
CROD 4036 25 8017 8021
CROD 4037 25 8049 8053
CROD 4038 5 8689 8693
CROD 4039 6 8657 8661
CROD 4040 7 8625 8629
CROD 4041 8 8593 8597
CROD 4042 9 8561 8565
CROD 4043 10 8529 8533
CROD 4044 11 8497 8501
CROD 4045 12 8465 8469
CROD 4046 13 8433 8437
CROD 4047 14 8401 8405
CROD 4048 15 8369 8373
CROD 4049 16 8337 8341
CROD 4050 17 8305 8309
CROD 4051 18 8273 8277
CROD 4052 19 8241 8245
CROD 4053 20 8209 8213
CROD 4054 21 8177 8181
CROD 4055 22 8145 8149
CROD 4056 23 8113 8117
CROD 4057 24 8081 8085
CROD 4059 2 5644 5645
CROD 4061 2 5645 6293
CROD 4063 2 6293 6325
CROD 4065 2 6325 6357
CROD 4067 2 6357 6389
CROD 4069 2 6389 6421
CROD 4071 2 6421 6453
CROD 4073 2 6453 6485
CROD 4075 2 6485 6517
CROD 4077 2 6517 6549
CROD 4079 2 6549 6581
CROD 4081 2 6581 6613
CROD 4083 2 6613 6645
CROD 4085 2 6645 6677
CROD 4087 2 6677 6709
CROD 4089 2 6709 6741
CROD 4091 2 6741 6773
CROD 4093 2 6773 6805
CROD 4095 2 6805 6837
CSHEAR 4096 3 6833 6837 6869 6865
CROD 4097 2 6837 6869
CSHEAR 4098 3 6865 6869 6901 6897
CROD 4099 2 6869 6901
CSHEAR 4100 3 6897 6901 6933 6929
CROD 4101 2 6901 6933
CSHEAR 4102 3 6929 6933 6965 6961
CROD 4103 2 6933 6965
CSHEAR 4104 3 6961 6965 6997 6993
CROD 4105 2 6965 6997
CSHEAR 4106 3 6993 6997 7029 7025
211
CROD 4107 2 6997 7029
CSHEAR 4108 3 7025 7029 7061 7057
CROD 4109 2 7029 7061
CSHEAR 4110 3 7057 7061 7093 7089
CROD 4111 2 7061 7093
CSHEAR 4112 3 7089 7093 7125 7121
CROD 4113 2 7093 7125
CSHEAR 4114 3 7121 7125 7157 7153
CROD 4115 2 7125 7157
CSHEAR 4116 3 7153 7157 7189 7185
CROD 4117 2 7157 7189
CSHEAR 4118 3 7185 7189 7221 7217
CROD 4119 2 7189 7221
CSHEAR 4120 3 7217 7221 7253 7249
CROD 4121 2 7221 7253
CSHEAR 4122 3 7249 7253 7285 7281
CROD 4123 2 7253 7285
CSHEAR 4124 3 7281 7285 7317 7313
CROD 4125 2 7285 7317
CSHEAR 4126 3 7313 7317 7349 7345
CROD 4127 2 7317 7349
CSHEAR 4128 3 7345 7349 7381 7377
CROD 4129 2 7349 7381
CSHEAR 4130 3 7377 7381 7413 7409
CROD 4131 2 7381 7413
CSHEAR 4132 3 7409 7413 7445 7441
CROD 4133 2 7413 7445
CSHEAR 4134 3 7441 7445 7477 7473
CROD 4135 2 7445 7477
CSHEAR 4136 3 7473 7477 7509 7505
CROD 4137 2 7477 7509
CSHEAR 4138 3 7505 7509 7541 7537
CROD 4139 2 7509 7541
CSHEAR 4140 3 7537 7541 7573 7569
CROD 4141 2 7541 7573
CSHEAR 4142 3 7569 7573 7605 7601
CROD 4143 2 7573 7605
CSHEAR 4144 3 7601 7605 7637 7633
CROD 4145 2 7605 7637
CSHEAR 4146 3 7633 7637 7669 7665
CROD 4147 2 7637 7669
CSHEAR 4148 3 7665 7669 7701 7697
CROD 4149 2 7669 7701
CSHEAR 4150 3 7697 7701 7733 7729
CROD 4151 2 7701 7733
CSHEAR 4152 3 7729 7733 7765 7761
CROD 4153 2 7733 7765
CSHEAR 4154 3 7761 7765 7797 7793
CROD 4155 2 7765 7797
CSHEAR 4156 3 7793 7797 7829 7825
CROD 4157 2 7797 7829
CSHEAR 4158 3 7825 7829 7861 7857
CROD 4159 2 7829 7861
CSHEAR 4160 3 7857 7861 7893 7889
CROD 4161 2 7861 7893
212
CSHEAR 4162 3 7889 7893 7925 7921
CROD 4163 2 7893 7925
CSHEAR 4164 3 7921 7925 7957 7953
CROD 4165 2 7925 7957
CSHEAR 4166 3 7953 7957 7989 7985
CROD 4167 2 7957 7989
CSHEAR 4168 3 7985 7989 8021 8017
CROD 4169 2 7989 8021
CSHEAR 4170 3 8017 8021 8053 8049
CROD 4171 2 8021 8053
CSHEAR 4172 3 8049 8053 8085 8081
CROD 4173 2 8053 8085
CROD 4175 2 8085 8117
CROD 4177 2 8117 8149
CROD 4179 2 8149 8181
CROD 4181 2 8181 8213
CROD 4183 2 8213 8245
CROD 4185 2 8245 8277
CROD 4187 2 8277 8309
CROD 4189 2 8309 8341
CROD 4191 2 8341 8373
CROD 4193 2 8373 8405
CROD 4195 2 8405 8437
CROD 4197 2 8437 8469
CROD 4199 2 8469 8501
CROD 4201 2 8501 8533
CROD 4203 2 8533 8565
CROD 4205 2 8565 8597
CROD 4207 2 8597 8629
CROD 4209 2 8629 8661
CROD 4211 2 8661 8693
CROD 4213 2 8693 5644
CROD 4214 5 5644 5648
CROD 4215 6 5645 5649
CROD 4216 7 6293 6297
CROD 4217 8 6325 6329
CROD 4218 9 6357 6361
CROD 4219 10 6389 6393
CROD 4220 11 6421 6425
CROD 4221 12 6453 6457
CROD 4222 13 6485 6489
CROD 4223 14 6517 6521
CROD 4224 15 6549 6553
CROD 4225 16 6581 6585
CROD 4226 17 6613 6617
CROD 4227 18 6645 6649
CROD 4228 19 6677 6681
CROD 4229 20 6709 6713
CROD 4230 21 6741 6745
CROD 4231 22 6773 6777
CROD 4232 23 6805 6809
CROD 4233 24 6837 6841
CROD 4234 25 6869 6873
CROD 4235 25 6901 6905
CROD 4236 25 6933 6937
213
CROD 4237 25 6965 6969
CROD 4238 25 6997 7001
CROD 4239 25 7029 7033
CROD 4240 25 7061 7065
CROD 4241 25 7093 7097
CROD 4242 25 7125 7129
CROD 4243 25 7157 7161
CROD 4244 25 7189 7193
CROD 4245 25 7221 7225
CROD 4246 25 7253 7257
CROD 4247 25 7285 7289
CROD 4248 25 7317 7321
CROD 4249 25 7349 7353
CROD 4250 25 7381 7385
CROD 4251 25 7413 7417
CROD 4252 25 7445 7449
CROD 4253 25 7477 7481
CROD 4254 25 7509 7513
CROD 4255 25 7541 7545
CROD 4256 25 7573 7577
CROD 4257 25 7605 7609
CROD 4258 25 7637 7641
CROD 4259 25 7669 7673
CROD 4260 25 7701 7705
CROD 4261 25 7733 7737
CROD 4262 25 7765 7769
CROD 4263 25 7797 7801
CROD 4264 25 7829 7833
CROD 4265 25 7861 7865
CROD 4266 25 7893 7897
CROD 4267 25 7925 7929
CROD 4268 25 7957 7961
CROD 4269 25 7989 7993
CROD 4270 25 8021 8025
CROD 4271 25 8053 8057
CROD 4272 5 8693 8697
CROD 4273 6 8661 8665
CROD 4274 7 8629 8633
CROD 4275 8 8597 8601
CROD 4276 9 8565 8569
CROD 4277 10 8533 8537
CROD 4278 11 8501 8505
CROD 4279 12 8469 8473
CROD 4280 13 8437 8441
CROD 4281 14 8405 8409
CROD 4282 15 8373 8377
CROD 4283 16 8341 8345
CROD 4284 17 8309 8313
CROD 4285 18 8277 8281
CROD 4286 19 8245 8249
CROD 4287 20 8213 8217
CROD 4288 21 8181 8185
CROD 4289 22 8149 8153
CROD 4290 23 8117 8121
CROD 4291 24 8085 8089
214
CROD 4293 2 5648 5649
CROD 4295 2 5649 6297
CROD 4297 2 6297 6329
CROD 4299 2 6329 6361
CROD 4301 2 6361 6393
CROD 4303 2 6393 6425
CROD 4305 2 6425 6457
CROD 4307 2 6457 6489
CROD 4309 2 6489 6521
CROD 4311 2 6521 6553
CROD 4313 2 6553 6585
CROD 4315 2 6585 6617
CROD 4317 2 6617 6649
CROD 4319 2 6649 6681
CROD 4321 2 6681 6713
CROD 4323 2 6713 6745
CROD 4325 2 6745 6777
CROD 4327 2 6777 6809
CROD 4329 2 6809 6841
CSHEAR 4330 3 6837 6841 6873 6869
CROD 4331 2 6841 6873
CSHEAR 4332 3 6869 6873 6905 6901
CROD 4333 2 6873 6905
CSHEAR 4334 3 6901 6905 6937 6933
CROD 4335 2 6905 6937
CSHEAR 4336 3 6933 6937 6969 6965
CROD 4337 2 6937 6969
CSHEAR 4338 3 6965 6969 7001 6997
CROD 4339 2 6969 7001
CSHEAR 4340 3 6997 7001 7033 7029
CROD 4341 2 7001 7033
CSHEAR 4342 3 7029 7033 7065 7061
CROD 4343 2 7033 7065
CSHEAR 4344 3 7061 7065 7097 7093
CROD 4345 2 7065 7097
CSHEAR 4346 3 7093 7097 7129 7125
CROD 4347 2 7097 7129
CSHEAR 4348 3 7125 7129 7161 7157
CROD 4349 2 7129 7161
CSHEAR 4350 3 7157 7161 7193 7189
CROD 4351 2 7161 7193
CSHEAR 4352 3 7189 7193 7225 7221
CROD 4353 2 7193 7225
CSHEAR 4354 3 7221 7225 7257 7253
CROD 4355 2 7225 7257
CSHEAR 4356 3 7253 7257 7289 7285
CROD 4357 2 7257 7289
CSHEAR 4358 3 7285 7289 7321 7317
CROD 4359 2 7289 7321
CSHEAR 4360 3 7317 7321 7353 7349
CROD 4361 2 7321 7353
CSHEAR 4362 3 7349 7353 7385 7381
CROD 4363 2 7353 7385
CSHEAR 4364 3 7381 7385 7417 7413
CROD 4365 2 7385 7417
215
CSHEAR 4366 3 7413 7417 7449 7445
CROD 4367 2 7417 7449
CSHEAR 4368 3 7445 7449 7481 7477
CROD 4369 2 7449 7481
CSHEAR 4370 3 7477 7481 7513 7509
CROD 4371 2 7481 7513
CSHEAR 4372 3 7509 7513 7545 7541
CROD 4373 2 7513 7545
CSHEAR 4374 3 7541 7545 7577 7573
CROD 4375 2 7545 7577
CSHEAR 4376 3 7573 7577 7609 7605
CROD 4377 2 7577 7609
CSHEAR 4378 3 7605 7609 7641 7637
CROD 4379 2 7609 7641
CSHEAR 4380 3 7637 7641 7673 7669
CROD 4381 2 7641 7673
CSHEAR 4382 3 7669 7673 7705 7701
CROD 4383 2 7673 7705
CSHEAR 4384 3 7701 7705 7737 7733
CROD 4385 2 7705 7737
CSHEAR 4386 3 7733 7737 7769 7765
CROD 4387 2 7737 7769
CSHEAR 4388 3 7765 7769 7801 7797
CROD 4389 2 7769 7801
CSHEAR 4390 3 7797 7801 7833 7829
CROD 4391 2 7801 7833
CSHEAR 4392 3 7829 7833 7865 7861
CROD 4393 2 7833 7865
CSHEAR 4394 3 7861 7865 7897 7893
CROD 4395 2 7865 7897
CSHEAR 4396 3 7893 7897 7929 7925
CROD 4397 2 7897 7929
CSHEAR 4398 3 7925 7929 7961 7957
CROD 4399 2 7929 7961
CSHEAR 4400 3 7957 7961 7993 7989
CROD 4401 2 7961 7993
CSHEAR 4402 3 7989 7993 8025 8021
CROD 4403 2 7993 8025
CSHEAR 4404 3 8021 8025 8057 8053
CROD 4405 2 8025 8057
CSHEAR 4406 3 8053 8057 8089 8085
CROD 4407 2 8057 8089
CROD 4409 2 8089 8121
CROD 4411 2 8121 8153
CROD 4413 2 8153 8185
CROD 4415 2 8185 8217
CROD 4417 2 8217 8249
CROD 4419 2 8249 8281
CROD 4421 2 8281 8313
CROD 4423 2 8313 8345
CROD 4425 2 8345 8377
CROD 4427 2 8377 8409
CROD 4429 2 8409 8441
CROD 4431 2 8441 8473
CROD 4433 2 8473 8505
216
CROD 4435 2 8505 8537
CROD 4437 2 8537 8569
CROD 4439 2 8569 8601
CROD 4441 2 8601 8633
CROD 4443 2 8633 8665
CROD 4445 2 8665 8697
CROD 4447 2 8697 5648
CROD 4448 5 5648 5652
CROD 4449 6 5649 5653
CROD 4450 7 6297 6301
CROD 4451 8 6329 6333
CROD 4452 9 6361 6365
CROD 4453 10 6393 6397
CROD 4454 11 6425 6429
CROD 4455 12 6457 6461
CROD 4456 13 6489 6493
CROD 4457 14 6521 6525
CROD 4458 15 6553 6557
CROD 4459 16 6585 6589
CROD 4460 17 6617 6621
CROD 4461 18 6649 6653
CROD 4462 19 6681 6685
CROD 4463 20 6713 6717
CROD 4464 21 6745 6749
CROD 4465 22 6777 6781
CROD 4466 23 6809 6813
CROD 4467 24 6841 6845
CROD 4468 25 6873 6877
CROD 4469 25 6905 6909
CROD 4470 25 6937 6941
CROD 4471 25 6969 6973
CROD 4472 25 7001 7005
CROD 4473 25 7033 7037
CROD 4474 25 7065 7069
CROD 4475 25 7097 7101
CROD 4476 25 7129 7133
CROD 4477 25 7161 7165
CROD 4478 25 7193 7197
CROD 4479 25 7225 7229
CROD 4480 25 7257 7261
CROD 4481 25 7289 7293
CROD 4482 25 7321 7325
CROD 4483 25 7353 7357
CROD 4484 25 7385 7389
CROD 4485 25 7417 7421
CROD 4486 25 7449 7453
CROD 4487 25 7481 7485
CROD 4488 25 7513 7517
CROD 4489 25 7545 7549
CROD 4490 25 7577 7581
CROD 4491 25 7609 7613
CROD 4492 25 7641 7645
CROD 4493 25 7673 7677
CROD 4494 25 7705 7709
CROD 4495 25 7737 7741
217
CROD 4496 25 7769 7773
CROD 4497 25 7801 7805
CROD 4498 25 7833 7837
CROD 4499 25 7865 7869
CROD 4500 25 7897 7901
CROD 4501 25 7929 7933
CROD 4502 25 7961 7965
CROD 4503 25 7993 7997
CROD 4504 25 8025 8029
CROD 4505 25 8057 8061
CROD 4506 5 8697 8701
CROD 4507 6 8665 8669
CROD 4508 7 8633 8637
CROD 4509 8 8601 8605
CROD 4510 9 8569 8573
CROD 4511 10 8537 8541
CROD 4512 11 8505 8509
CROD 4513 12 8473 8477
CROD 4514 13 8441 8445
CROD 4515 14 8409 8413
CROD 4516 15 8377 8381
CROD 4517 16 8345 8349
CROD 4518 17 8313 8317
CROD 4519 18 8281 8285
CROD 4520 19 8249 8253
CROD 4521 20 8217 8221
CROD 4522 21 8185 8189
CROD 4523 22 8153 8157
CROD 4524 23 8121 8125
CROD 4525 24 8089 8093
CROD 4527 2 5652 5653
CROD 4529 2 5653 6301
CROD 4531 2 6301 6333
CROD 4533 2 6333 6365
CROD 4535 2 6365 6397
CROD 4537 2 6397 6429
CROD 4539 2 6429 6461
CROD 4541 2 6461 6493
CROD 4543 2 6493 6525
CROD 4545 2 6525 6557
CROD 4547 2 6557 6589
CROD 4549 2 6589 6621
CROD 4551 2 6621 6653
CROD 4553 2 6653 6685
CROD 4555 2 6685 6717
CROD 4557 2 6717 6749
CROD 4559 2 6749 6781
CROD 4561 2 6781 6813
CROD 4563 2 6813 6845
CSHEAR 4564 3 6841 6845 6877 6873
CROD 4565 2 6845 6877
CSHEAR 4566 3 6873 6877 6909 6905
CROD 4567 2 6877 6909
CSHEAR 4568 3 6905 6909 6941 6937
CROD 4569 2 6909 6941
218
CSHEAR 4570 3 6937 6941 6973 6969
CROD 4571 2 6941 6973
CSHEAR 4572 3 6969 6973 7005 7001
CROD 4573 2 6973 7005
CSHEAR 4574 3 7001 7005 7037 7033
CROD 4575 2 7005 7037
CSHEAR 4576 3 7033 7037 7069 7065
CROD 4577 2 7037 7069
CSHEAR 4578 3 7065 7069 7101 7097
CROD 4579 2 7069 7101
CSHEAR 4580 3 7097 7101 7133 7129
CROD 4581 2 7101 7133
CSHEAR 4582 3 7129 7133 7165 7161
CROD 4583 2 7133 7165
CSHEAR 4584 3 7161 7165 7197 7193
CROD 4585 2 7165 7197
CSHEAR 4586 3 7193 7197 7229 7225
CROD 4587 2 7197 7229
CSHEAR 4588 3 7225 7229 7261 7257
CROD 4589 2 7229 7261
CSHEAR 4590 3 7257 7261 7293 7289
CROD 4591 2 7261 7293
CSHEAR 4592 3 7289 7293 7325 7321
CROD 4593 2 7293 7325
CSHEAR 4594 3 7321 7325 7357 7353
CROD 4595 2 7325 7357
CSHEAR 4596 3 7353 7357 7389 7385
CROD 4597 2 7357 7389
CSHEAR 4598 3 7385 7389 7421 7417
CROD 4599 2 7389 7421
CSHEAR 4600 3 7417 7421 7453 7449
CROD 4601 2 7421 7453
CSHEAR 4602 3 7449 7453 7485 7481
CROD 4603 2 7453 7485
CSHEAR 4604 3 7481 7485 7517 7513
CROD 4605 2 7485 7517
CSHEAR 4606 3 7513 7517 7549 7545
CROD 4607 2 7517 7549
CSHEAR 4608 3 7545 7549 7581 7577
CROD 4609 2 7549 7581
CSHEAR 4610 3 7577 7581 7613 7609
CROD 4611 2 7581 7613
CSHEAR 4612 3 7609 7613 7645 7641
CROD 4613 2 7613 7645
CSHEAR 4614 3 7641 7645 7677 7673
CROD 4615 2 7645 7677
CSHEAR 4616 3 7673 7677 7709 7705
CROD 4617 2 7677 7709
CSHEAR 4618 3 7705 7709 7741 7737
CROD 4619 2 7709 7741
CSHEAR 4620 3 7737 7741 7773 7769
CROD 4621 2 7741 7773
CSHEAR 4622 3 7769 7773 7805 7801
CROD 4623 2 7773 7805
CSHEAR 4624 3 7801 7805 7837 7833
219
CROD 4625 2 7805 7837
CSHEAR 4626 3 7833 7837 7869 7865
CROD 4627 2 7837 7869
CSHEAR 4628 3 7865 7869 7901 7897
CROD 4629 2 7869 7901
CSHEAR 4630 3 7897 7901 7933 7929
CROD 4631 2 7901 7933
CSHEAR 4632 3 7929 7933 7965 7961
CROD 4633 2 7933 7965
CSHEAR 4634 3 7961 7965 7997 7993
CROD 4635 2 7965 7997
CSHEAR 4636 3 7993 7997 8029 8025
CROD 4637 2 7997 8029
CSHEAR 4638 3 8025 8029 8061 8057
CROD 4639 2 8029 8061
CSHEAR 4640 3 8057 8061 8093 8089
CROD 4641 2 8061 8093
CROD 4643 2 8093 8125
CROD 4645 2 8125 8157
CROD 4647 2 8157 8189
CROD 4649 2 8189 8221
CROD 4651 2 8221 8253
CROD 4653 2 8253 8285
CROD 4655 2 8285 8317
CROD 4657 2 8317 8349
CROD 4659 2 8349 8381
CROD 4661 2 8381 8413
CROD 4663 2 8413 8445
CROD 4665 2 8445 8477
CROD 4667 2 8477 8509
CROD 4669 2 8509 8541
CROD 4671 2 8541 8573
CROD 4673 2 8573 8605
CROD 4675 2 8605 8637
CROD 4677 2 8637 8669
CROD 4679 2 8669 8701
CROD 4681 2 8701 5652
CSHEAR 4682 26 5463 5541 5464 5309
CSHEAR 4683 27 5309 5464 5465 5311
CSHEAR 4684 28 5311 5465 5466 5313
CSHEAR 4685 29 5313 5466 5467 5315
CSHEAR 4686 30 5315 5467 5468 5317
CSHEAR 4687 31 5317 5468 5469 5319
CSHEAR 4688 32 5319 5469 5470 5321
CSHEAR 4689 33 5321 5470 5471 5323
CSHEAR 4690 34 5323 5471 5472 5325
CSHEAR 4691 35 5325 5472 5473 5327
CSHEAR 4692 36 5327 5473 5474 5329
CSHEAR 4693 37 5329 5474 5475 5331
CSHEAR 4694 38 5331 5475 5476 5333
CSHEAR 4695 39 5333 5476 5477 5335
CSHEAR 4696 40 5335 5477 5478 5337
CSHEAR 4697 41 5337 5478 5479 5339
CSHEAR 4698 42 5339 5479 5480 5341
CSHEAR 4699 43 5341 5480 5481 5343
220
CSHEAR 4700 44 5343 5481 5482 5345
CSHEAR 4701 45 5345 5482 5483 5347
CSHEAR 4702 3 5461 5540 5541 5463
CSHEAR 4703 28 5459 5539 5540 5461
CSHEAR 4704 29 5457 5538 5539 5459
CSHEAR 4705 30 5455 5537 5538 5457
CSHEAR 4706 31 5453 5536 5537 5455
CSHEAR 4707 32 5451 5535 5536 5453
CSHEAR 4708 33 5449 5534 5535 5451
CSHEAR 4709 34 5447 5533 5534 5449
CSHEAR 4710 35 5445 5532 5533 5447
CSHEAR 4711 36 5443 5531 5532 5445
CSHEAR 4712 37 5441 5530 5531 5443
CSHEAR 4713 38 5439 5529 5530 5441
CSHEAR 4714 39 5437 5528 5529 5439
CSHEAR 4715 40 5435 5527 5528 5437
CSHEAR 4716 41 5433 5526 5527 5435
CSHEAR 4717 42 5431 5525 5526 5433
CSHEAR 4718 43 5429 5524 5525 5431
CSHEAR 4719 44 5427 5523 5524 5429
CSHEAR 4720 45 5425 5522 5523 5427
CSHEAR 4721 26 5541 6261 5620 5464
CSHEAR 4722 27 5464 5620 5621 5465
CSHEAR 4723 28 5465 5621 5661 5466
CSHEAR 4724 29 5466 5661 5669 5467
CSHEAR 4725 30 5467 5669 5677 5468
CSHEAR 4726 31 5468 5677 5685 5469
CSHEAR 4727 32 5469 5685 5693 5470
CSHEAR 4728 33 5470 5693 5701 5471
CSHEAR 4729 34 5471 5701 5709 5472
CSHEAR 4730 35 5472 5709 5717 5473
CSHEAR 4731 36 5473 5717 5725 5474
CSHEAR 4732 37 5474 5725 5733 5475
CSHEAR 4733 38 5475 5733 5741 5476
CSHEAR 4734 39 5476 5741 5749 5477
CSHEAR 4735 40 5477 5749 5757 5478
CSHEAR 4736 41 5478 5757 5765 5479
CSHEAR 4737 42 5479 5765 5773 5480
CSHEAR 4738 43 5480 5773 5781 5481
CSHEAR 4739 44 5481 5781 5789 5482
CSHEAR 4740 45 5482 5789 5797 5483
CSHEAR 4741 3 5540 6253 6261 5541
CSHEAR 4742 28 5539 6245 6253 5540
CSHEAR 4743 29 5538 6237 6245 5539
CSHEAR 4744 30 5537 6229 6237 5538
CSHEAR 4745 31 5536 6221 6229 5537
CSHEAR 4746 32 5535 6213 6221 5536
CSHEAR 4747 33 5534 6205 6213 5535
CSHEAR 4748 34 5533 6197 6205 5534
CSHEAR 4749 35 5532 6189 6197 5533
CSHEAR 4750 36 5531 6181 6189 5532
CSHEAR 4751 37 5530 6173 6181 5531
CSHEAR 4752 38 5529 6165 6173 5530
CSHEAR 4753 39 5528 6157 6165 5529
CSHEAR 4754 40 5527 6149 6157 5528
221
CSHEAR 4755 41 5526 6141 6149 5527
CSHEAR 4756 42 5525 6133 6141 5526
CSHEAR 4757 43 5524 6125 6133 5525
CSHEAR 4758 44 5523 6117 6125 5524
CSHEAR 4759 45 5522 6109 6117 5523
CSHEAR 4760 26 6261 8673 5624 5620
CSHEAR 4761 27 5620 5624 5625 5621
CSHEAR 4762 28 5621 5625 6273 5661
CSHEAR 4763 29 5661 6273 6305 5669
CSHEAR 4764 30 5669 6305 6337 5677
CSHEAR 4765 31 5677 6337 6369 5685
CSHEAR 4766 32 5685 6369 6401 5693
CSHEAR 4767 33 5693 6401 6433 5701
CSHEAR 4768 34 5701 6433 6465 5709
CSHEAR 4769 35 5709 6465 6497 5717
CSHEAR 4770 36 5717 6497 6529 5725
CSHEAR 4771 37 5725 6529 6561 5733
CSHEAR 4772 38 5733 6561 6593 5741
CSHEAR 4773 39 5741 6593 6625 5749
CSHEAR 4774 40 5749 6625 6657 5757
CSHEAR 4775 41 5757 6657 6689 5765
CSHEAR 4776 42 5765 6689 6721 5773
CSHEAR 4777 43 5773 6721 6753 5781
CSHEAR 4778 44 5781 6753 6785 5789
CSHEAR 4779 45 5789 6785 6817 5797
CSHEAR 4780 3 6253 8641 8673 6261
CSHEAR 4781 28 6245 8609 8641 6253
CSHEAR 4782 29 6237 8577 8609 6245
CSHEAR 4783 30 6229 8545 8577 6237
CSHEAR 4784 31 6221 8513 8545 6229
CSHEAR 4785 32 6213 8481 8513 6221
CSHEAR 4786 33 6205 8449 8481 6213
CSHEAR 4787 34 6197 8417 8449 6205
CSHEAR 4788 35 6189 8385 8417 6197
CSHEAR 4789 36 6181 8353 8385 6189
CSHEAR 4790 37 6173 8321 8353 6181
CSHEAR 4791 38 6165 8289 8321 6173
CSHEAR 4792 39 6157 8257 8289 6165
CSHEAR 4793 40 6149 8225 8257 6157
CSHEAR 4794 41 6141 8193 8225 6149
CSHEAR 4795 42 6133 8161 8193 6141
CSHEAR 4796 43 6125 8129 8161 6133
CSHEAR 4797 44 6117 8097 8129 6125
CSHEAR 4798 45 6109 8065 8097 6117
CSHEAR 4799 26 8673 8677 5628 5624
CSHEAR 4800 27 5624 5628 5629 5625
CSHEAR 4801 28 5625 5629 6277 6273
CSHEAR 4802 29 6273 6277 6309 6305
CSHEAR 4803 30 6305 6309 6341 6337
CSHEAR 4804 31 6337 6341 6373 6369
CSHEAR 4805 32 6369 6373 6405 6401
CSHEAR 4806 33 6401 6405 6437 6433
CSHEAR 4807 34 6433 6437 6469 6465
CSHEAR 4808 35 6465 6469 6501 6497
CSHEAR 4809 36 6497 6501 6533 6529
222
CSHEAR 4810 37 6529 6533 6565 6561
CSHEAR 4811 38 6561 6565 6597 6593
CSHEAR 4812 39 6593 6597 6629 6625
CSHEAR 4813 40 6625 6629 6661 6657
CSHEAR 4814 41 6657 6661 6693 6689
CSHEAR 4815 42 6689 6693 6725 6721
CSHEAR 4816 43 6721 6725 6757 6753
CSHEAR 4817 44 6753 6757 6789 6785
CSHEAR 4818 45 6785 6789 6821 6817
CSHEAR 4819 3 8641 8645 8677 8673
CSHEAR 4820 28 8609 8613 8645 8641
CSHEAR 4821 29 8577 8581 8613 8609
CSHEAR 4822 30 8545 8549 8581 8577
CSHEAR 4823 31 8513 8517 8549 8545
CSHEAR 4824 32 8481 8485 8517 8513
CSHEAR 4825 33 8449 8453 8485 8481
CSHEAR 4826 34 8417 8421 8453 8449
CSHEAR 4827 35 8385 8389 8421 8417
CSHEAR 4828 36 8353 8357 8389 8385
CSHEAR 4829 37 8321 8325 8357 8353
CSHEAR 4830 38 8289 8293 8325 8321
CSHEAR 4831 39 8257 8261 8293 8289
CSHEAR 4832 40 8225 8229 8261 8257
CSHEAR 4833 41 8193 8197 8229 8225
CSHEAR 4834 42 8161 8165 8197 8193
CSHEAR 4835 43 8129 8133 8165 8161
CSHEAR 4836 44 8097 8101 8133 8129
CSHEAR 4837 45 8065 8069 8101 8097
CSHEAR 4838 26 8677 8681 5632 5628
CSHEAR 4839 27 5628 5632 5633 5629
CSHEAR 4840 28 5629 5633 6281 6277
CSHEAR 4841 29 6277 6281 6313 6309
CSHEAR 4842 30 6309 6313 6345 6341
CSHEAR 4843 31 6341 6345 6377 6373
CSHEAR 4844 32 6373 6377 6409 6405
CSHEAR 4845 33 6405 6409 6441 6437
CSHEAR 4846 34 6437 6441 6473 6469
CSHEAR 4847 35 6469 6473 6505 6501
CSHEAR 4848 36 6501 6505 6537 6533
CSHEAR 4849 37 6533 6537 6569 6565
CSHEAR 4850 38 6565 6569 6601 6597
CSHEAR 4851 39 6597 6601 6633 6629
CSHEAR 4852 40 6629 6633 6665 6661
CSHEAR 4853 41 6661 6665 6697 6693
CSHEAR 4854 42 6693 6697 6729 6725
CSHEAR 4855 43 6725 6729 6761 6757
CSHEAR 4856 44 6757 6761 6793 6789
CSHEAR 4857 45 6789 6793 6825 6821
CSHEAR 4858 3 8645 8649 8681 8677
CSHEAR 4859 28 8613 8617 8649 8645
CSHEAR 4860 29 8581 8585 8617 8613
CSHEAR 4861 30 8549 8553 8585 8581
CSHEAR 4862 31 8517 8521 8553 8549
CSHEAR 4863 32 8485 8489 8521 8517
CSHEAR 4864 33 8453 8457 8489 8485
223
CSHEAR 4865 34 8421 8425 8457 8453
CSHEAR 4866 35 8389 8393 8425 8421
CSHEAR 4867 36 8357 8361 8393 8389
CSHEAR 4868 37 8325 8329 8361 8357
CSHEAR 4869 38 8293 8297 8329 8325
CSHEAR 4870 39 8261 8265 8297 8293
CSHEAR 4871 40 8229 8233 8265 8261
CSHEAR 4872 41 8197 8201 8233 8229
CSHEAR 4873 42 8165 8169 8201 8197
CSHEAR 4874 43 8133 8137 8169 8165
CSHEAR 4875 44 8101 8105 8137 8133
CSHEAR 4876 45 8069 8073 8105 8101
CSHEAR 4877 26 8681 8685 5636 5632
CSHEAR 4878 27 5632 5636 5637 5633
CSHEAR 4879 28 5633 5637 6285 6281
CSHEAR 4880 29 6281 6285 6317 6313
CSHEAR 4881 30 6313 6317 6349 6345
CSHEAR 4882 31 6345 6349 6381 6377
CSHEAR 4883 32 6377 6381 6413 6409
CSHEAR 4884 33 6409 6413 6445 6441
CSHEAR 4885 34 6441 6445 6477 6473
CSHEAR 4886 35 6473 6477 6509 6505
CSHEAR 4887 36 6505 6509 6541 6537
CSHEAR 4888 37 6537 6541 6573 6569
CSHEAR 4889 38 6569 6573 6605 6601
CSHEAR 4890 39 6601 6605 6637 6633
CSHEAR 4891 40 6633 6637 6669 6665
CSHEAR 4892 41 6665 6669 6701 6697
CSHEAR 4893 42 6697 6701 6733 6729
CSHEAR 4894 43 6729 6733 6765 6761
CSHEAR 4895 44 6761 6765 6797 6793
CSHEAR 4896 45 6793 6797 6829 6825
CSHEAR 4897 3 8649 8653 8685 8681
CSHEAR 4898 28 8617 8621 8653 8649
CSHEAR 4899 29 8585 8589 8621 8617
CSHEAR 4900 30 8553 8557 8589 8585
CSHEAR 4901 31 8521 8525 8557 8553
CSHEAR 4902 32 8489 8493 8525 8521
CSHEAR 4903 33 8457 8461 8493 8489
CSHEAR 4904 34 8425 8429 8461 8457
CSHEAR 4905 35 8393 8397 8429 8425
CSHEAR 4906 36 8361 8365 8397 8393
CSHEAR 4907 37 8329 8333 8365 8361
CSHEAR 4908 38 8297 8301 8333 8329
CSHEAR 4909 39 8265 8269 8301 8297
CSHEAR 4910 40 8233 8237 8269 8265
CSHEAR 4911 41 8201 8205 8237 8233
CSHEAR 4912 42 8169 8173 8205 8201
CSHEAR 4913 43 8137 8141 8173 8169
CSHEAR 4914 44 8105 8109 8141 8137
CSHEAR 4915 45 8073 8077 8109 8105
CSHEAR 4916 26 8685 8689 5640 5636
CSHEAR 4917 27 5636 5640 5641 5637
CSHEAR 4918 28 5637 5641 6289 6285
CSHEAR 4919 29 6285 6289 6321 6317
224
CSHEAR 4920 30 6317 6321 6353 6349
CSHEAR 4921 31 6349 6353 6385 6381
CSHEAR 4922 32 6381 6385 6417 6413
CSHEAR 4923 33 6413 6417 6449 6445
CSHEAR 4924 34 6445 6449 6481 6477
CSHEAR 4925 35 6477 6481 6513 6509
CSHEAR 4926 36 6509 6513 6545 6541
CSHEAR 4927 37 6541 6545 6577 6573
CSHEAR 4928 38 6573 6577 6609 6605
CSHEAR 4929 39 6605 6609 6641 6637
CSHEAR 4930 40 6637 6641 6673 6669
CSHEAR 4931 41 6669 6673 6705 6701
CSHEAR 4932 42 6701 6705 6737 6733
CSHEAR 4933 43 6733 6737 6769 6765
CSHEAR 4934 44 6765 6769 6801 6797
CSHEAR 4935 45 6797 6801 6833 6829
CSHEAR 4936 3 8653 8657 8689 8685
CSHEAR 4937 28 8621 8625 8657 8653
CSHEAR 4938 29 8589 8593 8625 8621
CSHEAR 4939 30 8557 8561 8593 8589
CSHEAR 4940 31 8525 8529 8561 8557
CSHEAR 4941 32 8493 8497 8529 8525
CSHEAR 4942 33 8461 8465 8497 8493
CSHEAR 4943 34 8429 8433 8465 8461
CSHEAR 4944 35 8397 8401 8433 8429
CSHEAR 4945 36 8365 8369 8401 8397
CSHEAR 4946 37 8333 8337 8369 8365
CSHEAR 4947 38 8301 8305 8337 8333
CSHEAR 4948 39 8269 8273 8305 8301
CSHEAR 4949 40 8237 8241 8273 8269
CSHEAR 4950 41 8205 8209 8241 8237
CSHEAR 4951 42 8173 8177 8209 8205
CSHEAR 4952 43 8141 8145 8177 8173
CSHEAR 4953 44 8109 8113 8145 8141
CSHEAR 4954 45 8077 8081 8113 8109
CSHEAR 4955 26 8689 8693 5644 5640
CSHEAR 4956 27 5640 5644 5645 5641
CSHEAR 4957 28 5641 5645 6293 6289
CSHEAR 4958 29 6289 6293 6325 6321
CSHEAR 4959 30 6321 6325 6357 6353
CSHEAR 4960 31 6353 6357 6389 6385
CSHEAR 4961 32 6385 6389 6421 6417
CSHEAR 4962 33 6417 6421 6453 6449
CSHEAR 4963 34 6449 6453 6485 6481
CSHEAR 4964 35 6481 6485 6517 6513
CSHEAR 4965 36 6513 6517 6549 6545
CSHEAR 4966 37 6545 6549 6581 6577
CSHEAR 4967 38 6577 6581 6613 6609
CSHEAR 4968 39 6609 6613 6645 6641
CSHEAR 4969 40 6641 6645 6677 6673
CSHEAR 4970 41 6673 6677 6709 6705
CSHEAR 4971 42 6705 6709 6741 6737
CSHEAR 4972 43 6737 6741 6773 6769
CSHEAR 4973 44 6769 6773 6805 6801
CSHEAR 4974 45 6801 6805 6837 6833
225
CSHEAR 4975 3 8657 8661 8693 8689
CSHEAR 4976 28 8625 8629 8661 8657
CSHEAR 4977 29 8593 8597 8629 8625
CSHEAR 4978 30 8561 8565 8597 8593
CSHEAR 4979 31 8529 8533 8565 8561
CSHEAR 4980 32 8497 8501 8533 8529
CSHEAR 4981 33 8465 8469 8501 8497
CSHEAR 4982 34 8433 8437 8469 8465
CSHEAR 4983 35 8401 8405 8437 8433
CSHEAR 4984 36 8369 8373 8405 8401
CSHEAR 4985 37 8337 8341 8373 8369
CSHEAR 4986 38 8305 8309 8341 8337
CSHEAR 4987 39 8273 8277 8309 8305
CSHEAR 4988 40 8241 8245 8277 8273
CSHEAR 4989 41 8209 8213 8245 8241
CSHEAR 4990 42 8177 8181 8213 8209
CSHEAR 4991 43 8145 8149 8181 8177
CSHEAR 4992 44 8113 8117 8149 8145
CSHEAR 4993 45 8081 8085 8117 8113
CSHEAR 4994 26 8693 8697 5648 5644
CSHEAR 4995 27 5644 5648 5649 5645
CSHEAR 4996 28 5645 5649 6297 6293
CSHEAR 4997 29 6293 6297 6329 6325
CSHEAR 4998 30 6325 6329 6361 6357
CSHEAR 4999 31 6357 6361 6393 6389
CSHEAR 5000 32 6389 6393 6425 6421
CSHEAR 5001 33 6421 6425 6457 6453
CSHEAR 5002 34 6453 6457 6489 6485
CSHEAR 5003 35 6485 6489 6521 6517
CSHEAR 5004 36 6517 6521 6553 6549
CSHEAR 5005 37 6549 6553 6585 6581
CSHEAR 5006 38 6581 6585 6617 6613
CSHEAR 5007 39 6613 6617 6649 6645
CSHEAR 5008 40 6645 6649 6681 6677
CSHEAR 5009 41 6677 6681 6713 6709
CSHEAR 5010 42 6709 6713 6745 6741
CSHEAR 5011 43 6741 6745 6777 6773
CSHEAR 5012 44 6773 6777 6809 6805
CSHEAR 5013 45 6805 6809 6841 6837
CSHEAR 5014 3 8661 8665 8697 8693
CSHEAR 5015 28 8629 8633 8665 8661
CSHEAR 5016 29 8597 8601 8633 8629
CSHEAR 5017 30 8565 8569 8601 8597
CSHEAR 5018 31 8533 8537 8569 8565
CSHEAR 5019 32 8501 8505 8537 8533
CSHEAR 5020 33 8469 8473 8505 8501
CSHEAR 5021 34 8437 8441 8473 8469
CSHEAR 5022 35 8405 8409 8441 8437
CSHEAR 5023 36 8373 8377 8409 8405
CSHEAR 5024 37 8341 8345 8377 8373
CSHEAR 5025 38 8309 8313 8345 8341
CSHEAR 5026 39 8277 8281 8313 8309
CSHEAR 5027 40 8245 8249 8281 8277
CSHEAR 5028 41 8213 8217 8249 8245
CSHEAR 5029 42 8181 8185 8217 8213
226
CSHEAR 5030 43 8149 8153 8185 8181
CSHEAR 5031 44 8117 8121 8153 8149
CSHEAR 5032 45 8085 8089 8121 8117
CSHEAR 5033 26 8697 8701 5652 5648
CSHEAR 5034 27 5648 5652 5653 5649
CSHEAR 5035 28 5649 5653 6301 6297
CSHEAR 5036 29 6297 6301 6333 6329
CSHEAR 5037 30 6329 6333 6365 6361
CSHEAR 5038 31 6361 6365 6397 6393
CSHEAR 5039 32 6393 6397 6429 6425
CSHEAR 5040 33 6425 6429 6461 6457
CSHEAR 5041 34 6457 6461 6493 6489
CSHEAR 5042 35 6489 6493 6525 6521
CSHEAR 5043 36 6521 6525 6557 6553
CSHEAR 5044 37 6553 6557 6589 6585
CSHEAR 5045 38 6585 6589 6621 6617
CSHEAR 5046 39 6617 6621 6653 6649
CSHEAR 5047 40 6649 6653 6685 6681
CSHEAR 5048 41 6681 6685 6717 6713
CSHEAR 5049 42 6713 6717 6749 6745
CSHEAR 5050 43 6745 6749 6781 6777
CSHEAR 5051 44 6777 6781 6813 6809
CSHEAR 5052 45 6809 6813 6845 6841
CSHEAR 5053 3 8665 8669 8701 8697
CSHEAR 5054 28 8633 8637 8669 8665
CSHEAR 5055 29 8601 8605 8637 8633
CSHEAR 5056 30 8569 8573 8605 8601
CSHEAR 5057 31 8537 8541 8573 8569
CSHEAR 5058 32 8505 8509 8541 8537
CSHEAR 5059 33 8473 8477 8509 8505
CSHEAR 5060 34 8441 8445 8477 8473
CSHEAR 5061 35 8409 8413 8445 8441
CSHEAR 5062 36 8377 8381 8413 8409
CSHEAR 5063 37 8345 8349 8381 8377
CSHEAR 5064 38 8313 8317 8349 8345
CSHEAR 5065 39 8281 8285 8317 8313
CSHEAR 5066 40 8249 8253 8285 8281
CSHEAR 5067 41 8217 8221 8253 8249
CSHEAR 5068 42 8185 8189 8221 8217
CSHEAR 5069 43 8153 8157 8189 8185
CSHEAR 5070 44 8121 8125 8157 8153
CSHEAR 5071 45 8089 8093 8125 8121
ENDDATA e2c6017b

227