Paper 1

Measurement: Sensors 24 (2022) 100596
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Measurement: Sensors
journal homepage: www.sciencedirect.com/journal/measurement-sensors
Adoption of EV: Landscape of EV and opportunities for India

R. Hema *, M.J. Venkatarangan
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, PES University-Ring Road Campus, Bangalore, Karnataka, India
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Electrical Vehicle (EV) technology plays a vital role in today’s world for its environmentally friendly, low
Electrical vehicle running cost, and net zero-emission. EV has possibly reduced the dependency on fossil fuel-based Internal
Charging infrastructure Combustion Engine (ICE) vehicles and an alternate mainstream transportation system in major countries. When
Internet of things
comparing well-to-tank and tank-to-wheel fuel efficiency, the overall efficiency of the EV is 77%, while ICE has
Battery energy storage
Energy management
13% only. This shows EVs are six times more efficient than ICE vehicles. However, the world couldn’t adapt to
EV- Grid integration the EV because of its limited travel range and other major issues related to charging infrastructure and high
Emission pricing. This paper explores the need for advancement in electric vehicle technology and details the downsides of
Sustainable development the current EV technologies. This study mainly focuses on the Indian market, as in India EV sales growth has
tripled in recent days, and some major factors that hurdle the growth of EVs. Further, the study discusses the
recent research and innovative commercial projects related to charging infrastructure, battery energy storage,
and energy management technologies that require advancement at an affordable price and convenience equal to
the ICE vehicles. Finally, the study ends with outlooks of various electric vehicle technology and their
advancement. The discussion in the work tends to identify the needs and develop an advanced EV technology
model that best suits the Indian public for sustainable development.
1. Introduction As per the report of the Council on Energy, Environment, and Water,
2.4% of Indian households are still without electricity. The majority of
In the past present decade, it is observed that there is a drastic change unconnected households cited their inability to afford grid connection as
in climate worldwide due to the rapid increase in Green-House Gas the reason for their lack of connection [7]. Renewable energy sources
(GHG) emissions [1]. Among GHG emissions, 65% are Carbon dioxide such as water, solar, and wind are highly volatile in nature. The
(CO2) and are from burning fossil fuels for electricity generation and increased or decreased energy supply can be effectively managed with
industrial processes. 11% of CO2 emissions from forestry land use and the help of an EV charging system with an effective energy management
other land clearings for agriculture. 16% are Methane (CH4) from waste system. V2X technology can power a vehicle, a building, a home, the
management and other agriculture processing. Further, 6% and 2% are grid, and other energy-consuming devices. Because the V2X is a mobile
from Nitrous oxide (N2O) and Fluorinated gases, respectively [2]. When electricity storage device, it is possible to store electricity and retrieve it
taking CO2 as a major concern, 14% of CO2 emission is caused through whenever and wherever it is required [8]. The usage of EVs is rapidly
transportation and the number rapidly increases to several million tons increasing worldwide and EV plays a vital role in the attainment of
in the upcoming years [3]. To tackle the GHG emission, the global net-zero emissions globally [9]. The electric Vehicles Initiative (EVI)
Electric Vehicle Summit has been framed and has targeted moving to accelerates the usage of EVs worldwide to reduce the impact of GHG due
ward EVs to reduce emissions [4]. Furthermore, EVs use batteries that to transportation [10]. EVI is a policy framed by multiple governments
are charged from renewable-based power sources instead of fossil fuels. in 2010 to promote the initiatives of EV usage. Globally, over 16.5
EVs are easy to maintain and cheaper than Internal Combustion Engine million electric cars running on the road in 2021, and are predicted to
(ICE) vehicles when achieving the break-even point [5]. The overall get tripled in upcoming years [11]. Furthermore, EV 30@30 is a new
efficiency of EVs is six times more than ICE vehicles [6]. Therefore, the campaign formed by Clean Energy Ministry (CEM) which promotes and
adoption of EVs for transportation as a mainstream could create a great speeds up EV sales by framing new policies, discounts, and incentives
positive impact on the environment. [12]. CEM is a part of EVI formed by multi-government such as Canada,
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (R. Hema).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.measen.2022.100596
Received 22 August 2022; Received in revised form 8 November 2022; Accepted 20 November 2022
Available online 22 November 2022
2665-9174/© 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
R. Hema and M.J. Venkatarangan Measurement: Sensors 24 (2022) 100596
China, Finland, France, India, Japan, Mexico, the Netherlands, Norway, an affordable price and convenience equal to the ICE vehicles. Finally,
and Sweden. The campaign EV 30@30 targets 30% of new EV sales by the study ends with outlooks of various electric vehicle technology and
2030. While looking into the EV market, there are around 450 electric their advancement. The discussion in the work tends to identify the
car models available and the sales growth is rapidly increasing in needs and develop an advanced EV technology model that best suits the
Europe, China, and the USA despite the COVID-19 pandemic [13]. It is Indian public for sustainable development. The paper is structured as
also to be noted that government and consumer spending on EVs has follows. Section 2 discusses a brief technical introduction to EV. Section
increased in 2022 [14]. As reported in Ref. [15], China dominates the EV 3 discusses the EV adoption scenario in India. Section 4 discusses the
market and usage with 9.5 million EVs. China provides subsidies for the available charging infrastructure deployment in India. Section 5 dis
procurement of EVs and EVs remain cheaper when compared to other cusses the EV battery energy storage types and capabilities. Section 6
countries. When considering India, India is one of the highest GHG discusses the advanced technology in achieving effective EV-grid inte
emissions countries and ranks third globally with an average CO2 gration. Section 7 discusses the outlook for future EV technologies and
emission of 2660 million tons annually [16]. According to the ministry their advancement and section 8 concludes with the research gap and
of environment forest and climate change, the transport sector con the need for future advancement.
tributes 90% of the CO2 emission [17]. Taking global emissions as a
major concern, migrating to electric mobility (e-mobility) is one of the 2. Technical brief on EV technology
promising solutions for decarbonizing. Furthermore, India is one of the
countries globally that supports Electrical vehicles (EVs) and promotes An Electric Vehicle consists of many components interwire with
the usage of EVs. India has a target of replacing 30% of the transport clusters of wires. Fig. 1 shows the Electric Vehicle’s internal structure.
sector through EVs by 2030 [18]. The most important components to be listed on the EV side are the
However, even though EV entering the mainstream transportation Battery Module, Battery management system, Power Electronics
system, there are several downsides such as limited travel range, battery controller, Cooling system, Traction Motor, Transmission systems,
life cycles, energy management, charging infrastructure, and high Wheels, and the Chassis of the vehicle. The power electronic converter is
pricing. In Ref. [19], EV transportation in an urban area with shorter responsible for converting and controlling electric power in EVs. It is an
battery capacity and path planning are discussed. The work briefs the efficient energy management system for managing electric power inside
major concern of EVs with bad weather and battery capacity of traveling the EV. This includes an inverter, converter, and on-board charger [25].
a limited range. In Ref. [20], the status and advancement required in To supply the EV with enough power, the battery module consists of
lithium-ion batteries are discussed. The batteries used in the EV are several lithium cells coupled in series and parallel. Current EV batteries
capable of 2000 charge cycles. Later, the discharge rate of batteries gets have an energy capacity of 20–130 kWh. EV batteries make up a
degraded and the replacement of the whole stack of batteries is required considerable amount of the vehicle’s weight and volume, accounting for
which will cost around half of the price of an EV. In Ref. [21], the one-fourth of its total weight [26]. A BMS system is an electronic system
requirement for advanced charging infrastructure for EVs is discussed. of units that ensures whether the battery is operating properly. BMS
The work also proposes an advanced EV charging infrastructure using regularly checks the battery pack’s temperature, voltage, and current
optimization techniques from zero-emission renewable energy re restrictions to ensure that it is running safely. A battery that has been
sources. In Ref. [22], the various problems related to the EV, such as overcharged may experience thermal runaway, which could result in an
battery degradation, penetration of EVs into the renewable explosion. Only the BMS could be able to detect and prevent this at an
energy-based distribution network, and flexible energy management early stage. Depending on the temperature, BMS can enforce the bat
solutions for EVs are discussed. The work also develops two stochastic tery’s maximum charge and discharge limitations. It keeps an eye on the
programming models to reduce uncertainties in EV integration. In battery’s SoC and SoH [27]. The EV’s temperature is managed via the
Ref. [23], the life cycle assessment of EV and conventional Internal cooling system. A cooling loop in EV circulates ethylene glycol coolant
Combustion Engine (ICE) vehicles is discussed. This work analyses the
life cycle cost of both technologies. The result obtained shows the profit
of EVs over ICE vehicles with the breakeven point. In Ref. [24], the
overpricing and how the pricing strategy is built for EVs under different
brands are discussed. The work also explores the overpricing of EVs in
terms of materials used, advancement in cluster designing, and batteries
used in EVs.
To identify the exact scenario, development of EV adoption, and
different use cases of EV, one has to come across the following research
questions:
i. What are the available solutions from different commercial or

ganizations on EVs?
ii. What are the available solutions on the charging stations side?
iii. How the existing Grid can cope with the bulk demand for EVs in
near future?
iv. What are the important user attributes for EV adoption and which
are key gaps for adoption in India that leads to research
opportunities?
This paper helps to explore the answers to the above questions and
details the downsides of the current EV technologies. This study focuses
on the Indian market, as in India the EV sales growth has tripled in
recent days, and some major factors that hurdle the growth of EVs.
Further, the study discusses the recent research and innovative com
mercial projects related to charging infrastructure, battery energy stor
age, and energy management technologies that require advancement at Fig. 1. Electric vehicle internal structure.
2
between batteries and electronics in order to drive out the temperature Further, EV in India comprises Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEVs)
[28]. and Battery Electric Vehicle (BEVs) among which BEVs have shown
The most important attributes of traction motors are efficiency, higher sales record. Fig. 3 shows the Indian electric vehicle market and it
torque, power-to-weight ratio, cost, and reliability. Some common types can be observed that most of the consumers prefer BEV over PHEV and is
of motors used in EVs are Permanent Magnet Synchronous motor to be projected for 75% scale by 2030 [43].
(PMSM), Brushless DC Motor (BLDC), induction Motor (IM), Switched
Reluctance Motor (SRM), etc., [29]. The EV transmission system consists
of a traction motor, inverter, and battery. The power generated by the 3.1. Electric vehicle procurement rate in India
traction motor can be transferred to the drive wheel via the gearbox. The
EV uses single-speed transmission because the motor is used in a wide In India, the electric vehicle industry has shown an extreme change,
range of conditions [30]. Wheel design has a significant effect to over the last decade. A lot of new trends, an innovative and efficient
improve the efficiency of the EV. It was proved by Car and Driver that number of models, the rapid build-up of charging infrastructure, tax-
the efficiency has improved by 3% or by 10 miles by Tesla’s aero wheel saving schemes, and incentives attract quite a lot of consumers [44,
[31,32]. The chassis is the frame of the EV where all the parts of the EV 45]. Furthermore, EV plays a vital role in the Indian market by reducing
are installed. This ensures the safety and life of the EV [33]. the dependency on fossil fuels and making a remarkable change in GHG
emissions [44]. The EV segment sales in India during the first half of FY
2022 are shown in Fig. 4. The data is according to the Centre for Energy
2.1. Electric vehicle types Finance at Council on Energy, Environment & Water and Centre for
Energy Finance (CEEW-CEF) [45]. The report also gives a total EV sale of
The Indian EV market has gained tremendous attention and the 1,21,815 in the first half of FY 2022. When considering the Indian
market is still growing. In electric vehicles, there are three different market of EV sales in segment-wise, 3-wheelers have shown the highest
types of powertrains such as Battery powered Electric Vehicles (BEV), sales at 48%, and next comes 2-wheelers with 47% sales. Even though,
Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEV), and Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles when a lot of 4-wheeler brands with innovative technologies are avail
(PHEV) as shown in Fig. 2. The BEVs are propelled by the electric motor able in the Indian market, the passenger car 4-wheelers have shown only
alone. The battery units used to power up the electric motor are charged 4% sales in the first half of FY 2021. Finally, the commercial vehicle has
by the external power supply. On the other hand, HEV utilizes ICE and shown 1% sales in FY 2022. The four-wheeler EV market in FY 2021 will
an electric motor for its power train. The ICE use petrol/diesel as fuel for fall short of expectations due to a lack of knowledge about EV growth, a
its driving power and then during braking operation, the kinetic energy lack of charging infrastructure, the high cost of EVs compared to ICE
is converted into electric energy and is stored in the battery. This charge engines, and a lack of EV technological updating. The state-wise sales of
in the battery is utilized for electric motor operation. HEVs are used to EVs in the first half of FY 2022 are shown in Fig. 5 [46]. Among 28 states
start off with an electric motor and then the operation is switched to ICE. and 8 union territories, for a total of 36 entities of India, Uttar Pradesh
PHEV also utilizes ICE and an electric motor for its power train. Both has the highest EVs sales with 16% followed by Karnataka at 13%,
ICE, as well as battery, can be operated according to the user’s choice. Maharashtra at 11%, Gujarat at 10%, Tamil Nadu at 8%, Rajasthan with
But the battery pack can be charged by an external power supply only 7%, New Delhi with 5%, Kerala with 5%, Assam with 4%, Bihar with
[34]. Among these EV types, BEV plays an important role in the Indian 4%, Haryana with 3%, Odisha with 3%, and rest of states all together
market under the four-wheeler passenger car segment. 11%.
Apart from the EV sales for 2022, it is forecasted for the upcoming
3. Electric vehicle adoption scenario in India decades and depicted in Figs. 6 and 7 [47]. Fig. 6 shows the EV segment
forecasted sales in India for the upcoming decade. From the forecasted
The increased crude oil price in recent days due to Russia Ukraine report, it can be observed that passenger car sales lead at 77% followed
conflict and other external conflicts has forced to accelerate the by commercial vehicles at 10%, two-wheelers at 9%, and three-wheelers
deployment of electric vehicles as the mainstream transport in India at 4%. Furthermore, forecasted EV sales in India are depicted in Fig. 7. In
[35]. Furthermore, the Indian government’s stringent emission norms, the year 2020, the total EVs sale is 20 million and the post-COVID-19
scrap policy, and environmental awareness have made a revolution in pandemic has shown an abrupt raise with 34 million EV sales in 2022
the EV market [36–39]. Consumers have started preferring EVs due to considering the raise in fossil fuel prices rise and GHG emissions. In the
the promotions given by the Indian government on tax policy and in forecasted report, EV sales hit 194 million in 2034 and reach 400 million
centives. Further, India’s automobile industry is the fourth-largest in the in 2040.
world as per 2021 statistics [40]. The automobile makers in India such The four-wheeler electrical model available in the Indian market as
as Tata Motors, Mahindra and Mahindra Ltd., have recently launched of the first half of FY 2022 is listed in Table 1. Most EVs in these seg
their EV segments into the Indian market [41]. Moreover, the Indian ments uses lithium polymer battery and lithium-ion battery [48,49]. The
automobile sector offers the red carpet to global EV automakers such as segment with the highest battery capacity is EV6-Kia with 77.4 kWh has
Hyundai, Kia, MG, and BMW [42]. The EV segment available in the a traveling range of 528 km. Followed by Jaguar I-Pace with a 90 kWh
market today gives a variety of options to choose from their consumers battery capacity has a traveling range of 470 km, e-tron-Audi pure BEV
according to their needs and different price band. All these factors made with a 95 kWh battery capacity has a traveling range of 405 km,
rapid growth in the EV market in India in a limited period of time. EQC-Mercedes-Benz pure BEV with an 80 kWh battery capacity has a
Fig. 2. Different types of EVs.
3
Fig. 3. The indian electric vehicle market [source: www.grandviewresearch.com].
180 km with a battery capacity of 3.97 kWh. Followed by

Okhi90-Okinawa with a 3.6 kWh battery capacity having a traveling
range of 160 km, RV400-Revolt with a 3.624 kWh battery capacity
having a traveling range of 150 km, and iQube-TVS with a 4.56 kWh
battery capacity having a traveling range of 140 km.
The least battery capacity model in this segment is Atria-Hero with a
1.53 kWh battery capacity having a traveling range of 85 km. Further
more, the three-wheeler segment is also available in the Indian market
preferably used as rickshaws and goods carriage. The Three-wheeler
commercial electrical model available in the Indian market as of H1 of
FY 2022 is listed in Table 3. The three-wheeler segments in the Indian
market use lithium ion and lead acid batteries [53]. Among the available
three-wheeler EV in the Indian market, Treo-Mahindra has the highest
traveling range of 131 km with a battery capacity of 7.37 kWh. Other,
standard brand includes Piaggio, Atul, Kinetic, EVEX, Deltic, and SN
solar energy. The commercial trucks and minivan’s electrical model
available in the Indian market as of the first half of FY 2022 is listed in
Table 4. The battery type used in this segment is Lithium-Ion Iron
Phosphate and Lithium-ion [54]. Among these Tata has two models Ace
EV and ULTRA T.7 with a battery capacity of 21.3 kWh and 62.5 kWh
and a traveling range of 154 km and 200 km, respectively. The
competitive model includes E-Supro Cargo- Mahindra with 14.4 kWh
battery capacity having a traveling range of 115 km.
Many studies are currently being conducted for the futuristic EV. The
Fig. 4. Electric vehicle segment sales in India in H1 FY 2021. popularity of EVs began with two-wheelers, four-wheelers, and three-
wheelers. People are increasingly adopting EVs as a result of the gov
traveling range of 445 km, i4 and iX model from BMW PHEV model with ernment’s many policies and incentives, as well as technological in
83.9 and 71 kWh battery capacity respectively has a traveling range of novations that have reduced the cost of EVs. Many passenger vehicles
450–500 km. The Indian model such as Nexon EV, and Tigor EV by Tata and trucks are now equipped with EV technology in order to meet future
uses lithium polymer batteries of 40.5 and 30.2 kWh respectively with a demands and trends.
traveling range of 400 km. Further, E-Verito by Mahindra is a BEV model
with a 21.1 kWh battery capacity having a travel range of 181 km. These 4. Charging infrastructure deployment in India
EVs fall under different price bands of Rs. 15 lakhs to 3 crores with
additional instrumentation clustering features. As of today, there are Apart from EV technology, charging infrastructure deployment is a
more than 8,70,141 EVs have been registered in India and among which major concern. As the travel range of the present EVs in India is limited,
BEV is mostly preferred by middle-income customers with 8% higher there is a requirement of deploying charging infrastructure in major
sales than the PHEV models [50]. Further, India has also set the national cities and national highways [55]. In India, the Central Electricity Au
target of achieving 30% EV sales penetration by 2030 [51]. thority (CEA), and the Ministry of Power (MoP) have taken necessary
Two-wheeler electric model plays a vital role in India as it is mostly steps in the deployment of the grid-integrated charging station. Ac
preferred by most consumers. The two-wheeler electrical model avail cording to the CEA, 1742 charging stations have been deployed across
able in the Indian market as of H1 of FY 2022 is listed in Table 2. Two- the country [56]. According to the MoP regulations, each 3 m × 3 m
wheeler segments in the Indian market use lithium ion and lead acid square of the field should have one charging station. One charging sta
batteries [52]. In this segment, S1 OLA has the highest traveling range of tion should be located every 25 km on both sides of the road on
4
Fig. 5. State-wise sales of EV in H1 FY 2022.
highways. Surat, Pune, Ahmedabad, Bengaluru, Hyderabad, Delhi,

Kolkata, Mumbai, and Chennai are among the major cities with 940
charging stations out of 1742 charging stations all over the country.
Fig. 8 shows the charging stations installed across the states of India
[57]. The major charging infrastructure erection companies in India are,
Delta Electronics India, Mass Tech controls pt. ltd., ABB India, Amara
Raja, Exicom, and P2 Power Solutions. Furthermore, EESL, REIL, Tata
Power, OPG (Okaya Power Group), EVQ Point, Brightblu, Magenta
group, Fortum, Numocity, EVQ-Point, and volttic are the top EV
charging station aggregators in India. To boost rural EV adoption, the
state government should allocate more funds for EV charging stations.
Increasing the number of EV charging stations will alleviate range
anxiety among EV users in rural areas. Increasing federal investment in
charging infrastructure is one method for increasing the number of
charging stations in rural areas. The other option is to improve the
functionality of electric cooperatives.
4.1. Issues in present EV charging infrastructure

Fig. 6. The electric vehicle segment forecasted sales in India in the up
coming decade. The current model EV charging infrastructure is shown in Fig. 9. The
current model consists of, Electric Vehicle Supply Equipment (EVSE)
which acts as EV charging stations and is connected to the grid network.
The EVSE receives energy from the grid and supplies it to the EV [58].
The EVSE can be differentiated based on the type of supply, level of
supply, speed of charging, and connector type. AC charging and DC
charging are two different types of power supplies. In AC charging, the
On-Board Charger (OBC) of the EV is used to charge the battery. Basi
cally, OBC can provide power from 3 kW to 43 kW. The battery is
charged by DC charging via the Battery Management System (BMS). The
power output will range from 10 kW to 240 kW and the different
charging levels and their parameters are listed in Table 5. Furthermore,
the different EV connectors used in India are depicted in Fig. 10. In
which, Bharat AC 001 has a power output of 10 kW and a rated voltage
of 230 V, Bharat DC 001 has a power output of 15 kW and a rated voltage
of >48V, Type-2 charger has a power output of >22 kW and rated
voltage 380–415 V, CHAdeMO charger has a power output of >50 kW
Fig. 7. Forecasted electrical vehicle sales in India. and rated voltage 200–500 V, and CCS charger has a power output of
>50 kW and rated voltage 200–750 V [59–61]. The problem associated
with the present charging technology is listed in Table 6.
5
Table 1
Four-wheeler electrical model available in the Indian market as of H1 of FY 2022.
S.No Vehicle Name Manufacturer EV Type Battery Type Battery capacity Motor Traveling Range in km
1 EV6 Kia PHEV Lithium-ion 77.4 kWh PMSM 528

2 i4 BMW PHEV Lithium-ion 83.9 kWh 3-Phase Synchronous motor 493
3 iX BMW BEV Lithium-ion 71 kWh Synchronous Motor 425
4 Nexon EV Max Tata PHEV Lithium polymer 40.5 kWh PMSM 437
5 Nexon EV Tata PHEV Lithium polymer 30.2 kWh PMSM 312
6 Tigor EV Tata PHEV Lithium polymer 30.2 kWh 3-Phase AC Induction Motor 312
7 Porsche Taycan Porsche BEV Lithium-ion 93.4 kWh PMSM 385
8 MG ZS EV MG PHEV Lithium-ion 50.3 kWh PMSM 461
9 Mini Cooper SE Mini Cooper BEV Lithium-ion 28.9 kWh Synchronous Motor 234
10 Jaguar I-Pace Jaguar BEV Lithium-ion 90 kWh PMSM 470
11 BYD E6 BYD PHEV Lithium-ion 71.7 kWh PMSM 415
12 e-tron Audi PHEV Lithium-ion 95 kWh Induction Motor 405
13 Strom Motors R3 Strom BEV Lithium-ion 6 kWh Induction Motor 80
14 EQC Mercedes-Benz BEV Lithium-ion 80 kWh 3-Phase AC Induction Motor 445
15 Kona Hyundai BEV Lithium polymer 39.2 kWh PMSM 258
16 E-Verito Mahindra BEV Lithium-ion 21.2 kWh 3-Phase AC Induction Motor 181
Table 2
Two-wheeler electrical model available in the Indian market as of H1 of FY 2022.
S.No Vehicle Name Manufacturer Battery Type Battery Capacity Motor Traveling Range in km
1 iQube TVS Lithium Ion 4.56 kWh BLDC 140

2 S1 OLA Lithium Ion 3.97 kWh PMSM 180
3 450X Ather Lithium Ion 2.71 kWh BLDC 116
4 RV400 Revolt Lithium 3.24 kWh BLDC 150
5 Optima Hero Lead-acid 56 Ah 250W Hub Motor 122
6 Atria Hero Lithium Ion 30 Ah 250W Hub Motor 85
7 Photon Hero Lithium Ion 26 Ah BLDC 108
8 Okhi90 Okinawa Lithium Ion 3.6 kWh Central Mounting Motor 160
9 Green Zing Kinetic Lithium Ion 23 Ah BLDC 100
10 E Lite Avon LRLA(Lead-Acid) 12 Ah/48 V BLDC 50
11 E Star Avon Lead-acid 33 Ah/48 V BLDC 65
12 Xone Komaki Lead-acid 20-30 Ah/60 V Hub Motor 85
Table 3
Three-wheeler commercial electrical model available in the Indian market as of H1 of FY 2022.
Sl. No. Vehicle name Manufacturer Battery type Battery capacity Motor Traveling range in (km)
1 Treo Mahindra Lithium Ion 7.37 kWh BLDC 131

2 Ape E-City Piaggio Lithium ion 4.7 kWh BLDC 70–80
3 Auto Elite Plus Atul Lead-acid 100 Ah/12 V BLDC 80–100
4 Green Safar Smart Kinetic Lead-acid Tubular/Lithium Ion 3.2 kWh BLDC 80
5 E-Alfa Mini Mahindra Lead-acid 86 Ah/48 V BLDC 85
6 India Ranger EVEX Lead-acid 100 Ah/48 V BLDC 80
7 Star Deltic Lead-acid 110 Ah/60 V BLDC 125
8 E Rickshaw SN Solar Energy Lead-acid/Lithium Ion 48 V/15 A BLDC 80
Table 4
Commercial trucks and minivans electrical models available in the Indian market as of H1 of FY 2022.
Sl. No. Vehicle name Manufacturer Battery type Battery capacity Motor Traveling range in (km)
1 Ace EV Tata Lithium-Ion Iron Phosphate 21.3 kWh AC Induction Motor 154
2 ULTRA T.7 Tata Lithium-ion 62.5 kWh AC Induction Motor 200
3 E-Supro Cargo Mahindra Lithium Ion 72V/200Ah 3-Phase AC Induction Motor 115
4.2. Need for advanced charging infrastructure In the advanced charging infrastructure, the communication system
plays a vital role [67]. In such systems, any EVSE can be linked to a
With the increased deployment of EVs in India, under public pro Central Management System (CMS) that can change the EVSE’s activity.
curement FAME-II, the Department of Heavy Industries (DHI) has The EVSE operator manages CMS, which is a cloud-based backend sys
sanctioned 2636 EV charging stations in 62 cities across 24 States/UTs tem. CMS is an end-to-end smart EV charging management software tool
with a fund of Rs 500 crores [65]. In addition to that, the Ministry of that possesses robust technology with cloud-native applications capable
Heavy Industries (MHI) has given approval for 241 charging stations in of running on a variety of cloud platforms. CMS also integrates modern
Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and Port Blair [66]. In protocols and formats [68]. To manage user authentication, billing, and
this regard, advanced charging infrastructure is required to satisfy the charge rate, interfaces with EVSE are required. Further, the end-users
increased customer demand. Fig. 11 shows the flow chart for advanced can also utilize the CMS to locate nearby charging stations, reserve a
charging infrastructure. charging slot, and pay using a developed mobile app [69]. Fig. 12
6
Fig. 8. Charging stations installed across the states of India [source: Accelerated e-Mobility Revolution for India’s Transportation (e-Amrit)].
Fig. 9. EV charging infrastructure.
depicts the advanced communication system-based charging infra

Table 5
structure for EVs. The further need for advanced charging infrastructure
Different levels of charging.
is as follows.
Parameters Level 1 Level 2 Level 2 Level 3
Voltage 120 V 208 or 400 V 200–450 V • The physical layer of the CAN (Controller Area Network) bus should
240 V be used to communicate between the EV and the EV charging station.
Current Type Single Single Three DC
CAN bus should meet ISO 11898–2:2003 specifications. AIS 138-2
Phase AC Phase AC Phase
AC specifies the system definition for communication between DC EV
Maximum Output 2.3 kW 7.4 kW 22 kW 400 kW charging stations and electric vehicles.
Charging Time 30–40 2.5–4.5 51 min 20–30 min • The general requirement for EVSE to Central Management System
(For 60 kWh Hrs Hrs (CMS) connectivity is by Ethernet/Wi-Fi/2G/3G/4G technologies.
battery)
The CMS system must employ the Open Charge Point Protocol
Connector J1772 J1772 J1772 J1772 Combo, CCS,
CHAdeMO and (OCPP).
Supercharger • Another necessity of EVSE is reliable Internet access and metering.
The EVSE must have grid-responsive metering based on the vehicle’s
unit consumption. The metering data should be accessible to the
central system from any remote location.
7
Fig. 10. Different EV connectors used in India.
The following points have been listed as the opportunities and

Table 6
challenges for developing advanced charging infrastructure.
Issues in present charging infrastructure.
Sl. Issues in Present Remarks Year • The charging station must be partnered with at least one internet
No Charging [Ref. No.]
Network Service Provider (NSP) to allow charging slots to be
Infrastructure
reserved in advance, remotely or online.
1 Regulatory issues A proper standard regulation must 2021 [62]
• A third party, which has been approved by the National Accredita
be framed and followed globally to
standardize the same charging tion Board (NBA) should test and calibrate EVSE periodically in order
infrastructure globally. to ensure the reliability of the EV Charging Station.
2 Location problems Deploying charging infrastructure 2022 [63] • EV charging stations should be equipped with 100 kW CCS and
for charging stations. at the right location can help EV CHAdeMO with a single connector gun in order to ensure EV
users. Some cities have too much
charging provision, but the outskirts
charging stations for the long run.
have no provision at all. • Reliable internet connection and metering is the major concern for
3 Less availability of Fast charging can charge the EV up 2018 [64] advanced charging infrastructure.
fast charging Station to 80% in 30 min the deployment of • The EVSE must have grid-responsive metering based on the vehicle’s
fast charging could benefit the
unit consumption. The metering data should be accessible to the
consumer.
central system from any remote location.
EV charging management software is required to manage multiple

charging station transactions and different EV users from a single
interface. It assists with controlling charging stations by means of a
telephone or PC. It helps to optimize power usage with smart charging
profiles as well as for the generation of hassle-free income. Optimization
software solutions [70] are comprised of artificial intelligence, EV load
forecasting, optimization, real-time control algorithms, demand
response participation, microgrid control, and wholesale energy market
bidding.
4.3. Battery swapping stations (BSS)
Battery swapping is the process of exchanging used batteries with

standby batteries at battery swapping stations. The accessories in the
battery swapping stations can charge the empty batteries. This would
reduce the amount of time; an EV owner would have to wait for the
battery to charge. In the current budget FY 2022-23, India provides
incentives for battery swapping stations.
The challenges that EV Swapping stations face are, a lack of stan
Fig. 11. Advanced charging infrastructure. dardization of EV Lithium-Ion batteries, a lack of commercially viable
business models, and a lack of reliability of leased/rented battery packs.
8
Fig. 12. Communication system-based charging infrastructure.
Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEMs) should collaborate with 5.1. Types of batteries used for EVs in India
battery manufacturers and battery swapping stations to ensure the
consistency and smooth operation of EV battery charging [71]. Sun There are 5 different batteries that have been used for EVs in India.
Mobility, Lithion Power, VoltUp, Esmito, Numocity, ChargeUp, Charge They are Lithium-Ion (Li-Ion), Nickel-Metal Hybrid (NiMH), Solid State
+ Zone, Okaya Power group, RACE Energy, BatteryPool, and Amara Batteries (SSB), Lead-acid, and Aluminium-ion (Al-Ion) [76]. In addition
Raja Power Systems are some of the battery swapping stations available to that, Ultracapacitors are also used as an alternative to EV batteries
in India. The cloud-based platform provides effective real-time moni [77]. The performance comparison of the EV batteries used in India is
toring, control, EV infrastructure management, and battery performance detailed in Table 7. Among them, Al-ion has very high reliability, ca
analytics in addition to the effective integration of third-party systems pacity, and performance but the life cycle is satisfactory. Further, the
[72]. Fig. 13 shows the cloud-based swapping station infrastructure. supercapacitor has high reliability, capacity, performance, and life cycle
but its efficiency is satisfactory. Overall, Li-ion has high reliability, ca
5. Electric vehicle battery energy storage and management pacity, performance, life cycle, and efficiency and is cheaper when
compared with other batteries.
Battery plays an important role in EVs. Lithium Iron Phosphate
(LFP), Nickel Cobalt Manganese (NMC), Lithium Nickel Cobalt
5.2. Technologies for extended EV battery energy storage
Aluminium oxide (NCA), and Lithium Cobalt Oxide (LCO) are used as EV
batteries [73]. These batteries are comparatively better than Lead-acid
In the current global supply chain for the production of advanced cell
batteries mainly li-ion batteries offer higher energy density than
technologies, India is barely present. The production of advanced bat
lead-acid batteries [74]. BYD India uses, LFP batteries, Chevy Volt and
teries in India could enable domestically supplied batteries to meet de
BMW use, NMC batteries and Tesla uses NCA batteries. The battery is a
mand from EVs, grid storage applications, consumer electronics, and
major part of EVs that costs very high and makes EVs costlier when
other uses [78]. Advanced batteries are a cornerstone technology. By
compared to conventional ICE vehicles. It is expected that the cost of
2030, the demand for batteries is anticipated to increase to 260 GWh.
batteries will come down by 18% by 2030 [75].
With an average annual manufacturing capacity of 10 GWh for
advanced batteries, this would equate to almost 26 Giga plants [79].
Fig. 13. The infrastructure of Battery Swapping Station.
9
Table 7
Performance comparison of the EV batteries.
Parameters Li-Ion Ni-MH SSB Lead-Acid Al-Ion Super-Capacitor
Capacity High Satisfactory High Satisfactory Very High High

Life cycle High Very High High Satisfactory Satisfactory High
Performance High Low High Satisfactory Very high Very High
Efficiency High Low High Satisfactory Very High Satisfactory
Reliability High Very High High Satisfactory Very High High
Cost Low High Very High Low Very High Very High
This market analysis is crucial for understanding the possibilities and for current and voltage restrictions. Every battery’s SoC is checked by the
India’s growth as a significant worldwide hub for the production of BMS. It checks and maintains the battery’s SoC using a variety of tech
advanced cells. The discussion on the various methodologies for the niques. The BMS uses two different methods for maintaining the battery.
extended EV battery is listed in Table 8. The battery of EVs is protected They are, Passive balancing - BMS checks the excess energy and dissi
by the battery management system, which guarantees that the battery pates it to the respective resistors connected with the cell [92], and
operates safely and reliably. It keeps track of the SoC, SoH, and DoD, and Active balancing - BMS checks the excess energy and diverts it to the
keeps the battery charge within the defined range [80]. energy-depleted cell through bidirectional DC-DC converters [93]. The
Overcharging the battery damages the battery cells and causes the discussion on the various methodologies for the development of EV
battery to explode, and then discharging the battery below the threshold energy management systems is listed in Table 9.
reduces the battery’s life [81]. The BMS assists in keeping the battery’s While properly charging the battery also would release some small
charging between upper and lower threshold limitations. It also aids in amounts of gases CO2, C2H4, CO, and H2 as a result of electrolyte
maintaining the battery’s safe operating temperature as well as its safe decomposition. Charging the EV while it is exposed to the outdoors is a
good practice.
Table 8
Extended EV battery. 6. Advanced technology in achieving effective EV-grid
integration
Sl. Methodology Extended EV battery Year
No. [Ref. No.]
The main problem of EV loads is uncertainty and when coupled to
1 Battery thermal Thermal runaway of Li-ion 2021 [82]
the grid network it can damage the grid network [97]. Integrating a
management systems batteries is still an open and
challenging problem. Suitable large number of EV loads into the grid network is a highly challenging
thermal management can increase task. Therefore, there requires advanced technology that empowers the
the life and efficiency of the Li-ion secure collection and control of data and makes a reliable grid integra
batteries tion. Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) play a vital
2 Super-capacitors and The work focuses on increasing 2021 [83]
flywheels for EV the battery performance and
role in EV and grid integration and it is obvious that the integration of
increasing the travel distance. It EVs with a smart grid can result in interactions with the smart
also focuses on fast charging to demand-side system, distributed generation, and renewable energies in
reduce the time required. enhancing the utilization of energy assets in energy grid [98]. For EV
3 Intelligent techniques The work addresses the key 2021 [84]
charging and smart parking, an Internet of Things (IoT) ecosystem can
challenges for a comprehensive
advancement of battery EVs be used to provide data exchange and interoperability [99]. The ICT
4 Vehicle to grid The work addresses the battery 2017 [85] combines internet/IoT-integrated handheld devices, and computer pe
integration degradation and the methods to ripherals [100]. The advanced and secured EV-grid integration based on
increase the usage cycles using the ICT is depicted in Fig. 14.
smart-grid vehicle to grid
integration to extend the battery
The advanced ICT-based EV-grid integration stores send and receive
life. data through the internet [101]. Further, it also enables the integration
5 Second-Life Batteries Utilizing the EV batteries and 2021 [86] of smart gird, EVSE, and EVs which share information and can be
(SLB) providing second life to batteries controlled at any point. Through the ICT-based grid and EV integration,
are cost-effective and provides
the customer can know the data associated with the EV such as battery
huge benefits to the environment.
6 Li-ion batteries battery Li-ion battery second hand usage 2022 [87] capacity, battery condition, available charging stations, and so on [102].
second use can initiate and life cycle can be
improved.
7 Life cycle assessment The work addresses the three 2022 [88] Table 9
different lithium-ion batteries EV energy management system.
such as NCA, NMC, and LFP. The
Sl. Methodology Development of EV energy Year
analysis identifies that NCA
No. management system [Ref. No]
battery can perform better when
there is climate change and NMC 1 Extended Kalman Filter The work discusses the BMS for 2021 [94]
battery can perform better when (EKF) for BMS different EV batteries and accurate
acidification potential. control of battery, voltage, current,
8 Supercapacitor-battery The work proposed 2022 [89] power, and state of charge is done
hybrid energy storage supercapacitor-battery for hybrid through EKF.
energy storage in EVs. 2 Electrochemical- An electrochemical-thermal model 2021 [95]
9 Model predictive EVs with model predictive control 2022 [90] thermal model-based for BMS to control lithium-ion
control has better power frequency BMS batteries of EVs has been
service. discussed.
10 SWOT Battery energy storage systems 2022 [91] 3 Intelligent algorithms Several intelligent approaches like 2021 [96]
with strengths, weakness, for BMS machine learning, Artificial neural
opportunities, and threats analysis network, Fuzzy, and algorithms for
can improve the life cycle of EVs efficient BMS in EVs has been
battery. discussed.
10
Fig. 14. ICT-based EV-power grid integration.
Further, the next efficient approach for EV and grid integration is big of EVs more swiftly. As long as the cost of delivering electricity to the EV
data analytics techniques [103]. In a study, the penetration of EVs on the charging station does not exceed the average cost of supply plus 15%,
Indian power grid has both positive as well as negative impacts on the private charging is permitted at residences and places of business.
grid [104]. The positive effects of EVs include improved voltage profiles Green board is now provided for both self and commercial battery-
and lower power transmission losses due to the coordinated charging operated vehicles, according to the Ministry of Road Transport &
and discharging of EVs. Depending on the location, level of EV pene Highways (MoRTH). It also declared that it will facilitate the importa
tration, and EV charging time, the integration of EVs may have a tion of 2500 electric vehicles that meet international standards without
negative impact on the grid’s voltage stability. Increased load demand is the need for homologation. General CCS and CHAdeMO charging stan
brought on by uncertainty around the EV connection, penetration level, dard specifications are released by the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS).
and the interval between connections and disconnections [105]. The Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) published a request for
The Internet of Things (IoT) plays a significant role in monitoring quotation (RFQ) document with the aim of commercializing domesti
and controlling EV parameters. It provides remote data logging for cally developed lithium-ion battery technology [108]. In order to permit
battery parameters, conditions, and so on. When the battery fails, the the installation of EV charging stations in both residential and com
onboard sensor data obtained through IoT aids in problem-solving. The mercial structures, the Ministry of Housing & Urban Affairs (MoHUA)
use of IoT would allow for real-time monitoring of the vehicles and key revised the municipal planning and building laws. Further, the
components. It also aids in the technology’s preventive maintenance, Metal-Organic Frameworks (MoF) decreased the customs tax for all
making it more dependable to users. IoT tracking in real-time results in categories of electric vehicles, battery packs, and cells in an effort to
increased safety and security. When connected to vehicle sensors, data is promote ‘Make in India’ and promote the usage of electric vehicles
collected using IoT-based telematics technology and quickly displayed (Notification no. 03/2019-Customs) [109]. As a part of the EV adoption
through widgets, sending instant notifications, and generating auto initiative, the GST of an EV is reduced from 12% to 5% after August 1,
matic reports [106]. Cybersecurity (it may lead to cyber-attacks and 2019, and the registration fee for EVs is exempted [110].
data thefts) and High costs are the other consequences of using IoT. In Since transport is largely a state subject, each state will have its own
spite of these consequences, the IoT would bring the EV technology policies. Gujarat and Delhi have strong state policies in place to
future ready. encourage EV adoption. Competitive federalism would occur if states
continued to revise their EV policies. Competitive federalism would
7. Outlook for the future EV technologies and their improve local innovations.
advancement
7.2. Challenges in the adoption of the electric vehicles
The previous sections explore the current scenario of EVs in the In
dian market, the available charging infrastructure, battery, its man The key challenges of EVs in the Indian market are discussed in this
agement technology, and EV-Grid integration systems. Despite these section. The challenges are as follows [111,112],
technologies providing excellent performance and efficient results in the
present scenario, EVs could not be treated as the mainstream trans • The lack of product innovation on the product front challenges, di
portation in India when considering their downsides. In order to over minishes the adoption of electric vehicles.
come the downsides and obstacles, advanced technologies are required • The EV’s capital and running expenses are the main factor influ
in the Indian EV market for making EVs as mainstream transportation. encing market adoption and consumer approval. Capital cost has
This section aims to bring future research by considering the present always been a significant deciding factor in EV purchases. About
scenario’s relevant opportunities and challenges. 63% of buyers stated that an EV is out of their price range.
• Lack of charging/swapping Infrastructure is the major obstacle in EV
adoption, particularly in the case of personal cars which is the
7.1. Policy initiatives confluence of short-range capability and lack of charging infra
structure. To encourage the public’s acceptance of EVs, sufficient
This section discusses certain policies initiated by the Indian gov charging infrastructure across roads is required in addition to ad
ernment for promoting the usage of EVs. According to MoP, EV charging vancements in battery technology.
stations do not require a license [107] for their service. A policy on
charging infrastructure was released by MoP to encourage the adoption
11
• Clean energy intake should be required for electric vehicles to run Customers anticipate improvements in travel distance, battery capacity,
genuinely emission-free. Energy production must be devoid of fossil safety ratings, effectiveness, and aesthetics. Even, the greater potential is
fuels. Alongside the widespread adoption of EVs, countries that rely being shown by a revolution in traditional silicon technology for
heavily on non-renewable resources, face the equally crucial task of improving EV efficiency and power usage. As battery management
“greening” their energy generation. systems, signal isolation, high voltage, and current protection continue
• Lack of material resources is the most complicated issue with EV to advance, electric vehicles will become more cozy, economical, secure,
manufacturing. The primary production involves vital and essential dependable, and irresistible. A few needs for the hour EV technologies
metals like cobalt and nickel. Presently there is no Cobalt production
in India. Additionally, some of the material resources that the EV
system depends on wind up having supply problems because of Table 10
geopolitical concerns rather than their scarcity. Though the gov Adaptive EV technologies and their advancement.
ernment and EV manufacturing companies talking more about S. Methodology EV technologies and their Year
manufacturing EV batteries in India, they actually it is being im No. advancement [Ref. No]
ported from China only. 1 Digital twin with IoT The work discusses the potential 2021
• Re-usability of EV batteries is the major concern while thinking of EV design and modeling tool digital [117]
twin with IoT for EVs. In addition,
adoption. To encourage reuse, proper battery collection is necessary,
all EV-related issues are addressed,
but this cannot be done without an effective End of Life (EoL) including potential technological
management system, which is currently lacking and challenging. difficulties and research gaps in
the fields of hard-core battery
7.3. Limitations in adoption of the electric vehicles material sciences, power
electronics, and powertrain
engineering, as well as in
The limitation of EVs in the Indian market is discussed in this section environmental evaluations and
[113–115]. When it comes to limitations. market considerations.
2 Power trains evolution The work focuses on EV 2021
components and the evolution of [118]
• High expensive materials in EVs, despite many incentives provided
batteries and battery management
by central and state governments, the cost of EVs is more than systems. Further discusses the
commercial ICE vehicles. Even an expensive battery needs to be different types of power trains and
replaced after 6–7 years. There is no other choice for EV users to challenges encountered by
replace a newer battery cost nearly ¾th of the whole vehicle’s cost. different types of EVs.
3 Optimal charging The work discusses a case study of 2021
• The beta version of vehicles is the second limitation. After receiving infrastructure Michigan intercity, considering [119]
numerous consumer complaints about their extremely poor range, the effects of a variety of
pure EV recently made significant adjustments to its policies, soft technology advancements on
ware, hardware, and BMS. Consequently, purchasing a car from the charging infrastructure
requirements.
company’s first manufacturing run is a lousy choice and might even
4 DC fast charging In this study, different DC charging 2021
be a terrible experience for you. station architectures are [120]
• Lack of adequate EV charging infrastructure. In India, inadequate examined, along with present and
infrastructure includes both a lack of charging stations and an potential future developments in
insufficient setup for charging at home. The lack of a universal power electronic equipment,
converters, and research
charger is a scourge for the Indian EV business. Because of different opportunities.
chargers for different electric vehicles, the EV market is suffering 5 EV policy regime The paper focuses on the latest 2021
now and in the future as a result. Each type of EV has a unique development of EV policy for EV [121]
charging port, which has an impact on the infrastructure of charging promotion by framing EV policy
by the government.
stations because no specific charging station can be created to charge
6 Future EV charging The work discusses the future 2021
all EV models. Additionally, the rate of EV adoption in society-based station for long- scenarios for charging [122]
communities is lowered by the lack of standards. distance transport infrastructure deployment on the
• Temperature of EV batteries, which can significantly impact an EV basis of fast charging and long-
battery’s performance and renders EVs unsuitable for areas that are distance transportation using e-
mobility.
excessively hot or cold. When the battery is used in the 15-to-40 ◦ C
7 Virtual method for EV The work focuses on renewable 2021
temperature range, it performs at its best. and grid integration energy-based smart microgrid [123]
• The lack of skilled labor and poor servicing, the EV push is necessary integration with EVs. The work
along with skilled awareness. Since it is an upcoming technology, a attempt to investigate a hassle-free
grid integration.
lack of availability of skilled people is there. Academic and local skill
8 Wide Bandgap Devices The Wide Band-Gap (WBG) device 2021
awareness is required among people in order to make them move technology for boosting EV [124]
toward EV adoption. charging is discussed. The WBG
• Maintenance and spare parts availability, the spare and service technology can be a game changer
availability is very limited for the electrical vehicle. It is very much for fast-charging infrastructure.
9 Queing model using The work discusses Queing model 2020
required especially for automobiles traveling on Indian roads.
intelligent techniques using the deep-learning-based [125]
• The rapid raise in electricity demand, and the sudden shift to EVs can convolutional neural network
increase the electricity demand and as per the present scenario, it (CNN) for forecasting the EV loads
will make the scarcity of electricity in India. and reducing the congestion in the
grid network.
10 Blockchain Technology Implementation of blockchain 2022
7.4. Future EVs and their advancement technology for P-2-P EVs and grid. [126]
This technology can communicate
It is to be accepted that the future belongs to electric vehicles, and we securely in the charging
can already see the line-ups. As consumer demand for EV technology infrastructure and benefit EV
customers in many ways.
grows, new inventions have been made to develop the technology.
12
and their advancement are listed in Table 10. Digital twin with IoT is a v. Research on improved electric motor technology, which offers
potential technology that can provide a hassle-free solution to the EVs better driving dynamics, greater efficiency, and a smaller and
technology. Meanwhile, adaptation to power train evolution, optimal lighter motor package.
charging infrastructure, fast charging infrastructure, battery manage vi. Research efforts aimed towards efficient EV-grid integration,
ment and a new evolution of battery, the virtual method for EV-grid when more EVs are being used, the grid parameters must be
integration, and blockchain technology can undoubtedly make EVs, balanced.
mainstream transportation in India.
Despite the COVID-19 pandemic, manufacturers are working to The research towards these areas still persists and could boom in the
improve EV battery charging, range, and battery life. Battery charging overall EV adoption rate. But scientists are attempting to advance bat
and thermal management are two areas where EV industries are tery technology, extend the driving distance, and reduce weight, cost,
focusing to improve [116]. The most recent technological advancement and charging time. Future EVs would be determined by these elements.
in EV charging systems is the use of Wide Bandgap (WBG) Semi Tesla is attempting to develop a poster for high-end electric vehicle
conductors. Wide-bandgap semiconductors such as silicon carbide (SiC) technology with its opulent sports car. As a result, EV technology would
and gallium nitride (GaN) outperform silicon in a variety of ways, become more well-liked. The production of fully electric vehicles has
including increased efficiency and switching frequency, as well as the caught the attention of other high-end automakers like BMW and Por
ability to withstand higher operating temperatures and voltages. Com sche. Also, these researches could bring down overall EVs price, improve
panies are currently working on Phase Change Material based cooling, infrastructure, and seamless driving experience for EV users.
Heat-pipe based cooling, and Thermoelectric Element based cooling in
battery cooling technology. A phase-change material (PCM) is a sub 9. Conclusion
stance that absorbs a significant amount of heat energy while tran
sitioning from one phase to another. A phase-change material (PCM) is a India provides the largest untapped EV market in the world. The
substance that absorbs a significant amount of heat energy during the ability of the EV business to grow is constrained by a variety of potential
transition from solid to liquid and then releases the energy during the market barriers, which calls for sophisticated charging infrastructure.
transition back to solid. The heat pipe aids in the removal of heat from The “Make in India” initiative encourages firms to make parts locally,
the battery. Another type of thermal management that has caused rip particularly lithium-ion batteries, which must be produced in India. A
ples in the automotive industry is thermoelectric coolers, which place new business model that permits high infrastructure utilization for both
semiconductors between the source of heat (the battery) and a heat sink. charging and swapping solutions must be found in order to accelerate
Another growing trend in EV development is the development of trac the adoption of EVs. A well-established EV infrastructure is likely to be
tion motors without rare-earth magnets and the integration of traction developed across the nation as a result of recent laws, such as the battery
motors with power electronics. swapping legislation, that were enacted to encourage a shift towards
Steps to encourage EV ownership are: green energy generation and decentralization of energy distribution.
There is currently very little official infrastructure and adaptive tech
i. Prices of EVs would come down because of the improvements in nologies for EVs, which reflects in the sales of EVs. When there is an
battery technology, government policies supporting battery and implementation of advanced technologies such as digital twins, power
other EV components development, and an increase in the pro train evolution, optimal charging infrastructure, fast charging infra
duction capacity of battery manufacturers. structure, battery management, and a new evolution in battery, the
ii. Adoption of EVs in heavier vehicles. virtual method for EV-grid integration and blockchain technology, the
iii. Zero emission policies. EVs can undoubtedly be mainstream transportation in India. Further,
iv. Reduction of GST from 12% to 5% and an additional income tax the EV market is projected to be well-positioned for major development
deduction of Rs 1.5 lakhs on the interest paid on loans taken to in the upcoming decade. Thanks to a substantial infrastructure that is
purchase EVs. accessible, inexpensive, and supports all consumer groups as well as a
v. The budget reduced customs duty on parts of the EV such as the solid finance ecosystem. The governmental incentives and technological
Onboard charger, e-Compressor, and Charging gun to zero. breakthroughs would certainly bring EV technology as an unavoidable
vi. Increasing the public charging stations and parking area are also breakthrough in near future.
a way to increase the adoption of EVs.
vii. Apart from the central government, several state governments CRediT authorship contribution statement
also drafted their own EV policies to meet specific needs.
R. Hema: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis,
8. Futuristic research work Investigation, Methodology, Visualization, Resources, Writing – original
draft. M.J. Venkatarangan: Investigation, Supervision, Validation,
The widespread adoption of electric vehicles is necessary for the near Writing – review & editing.
future. There are several studies being conducted in every facet of the EV
Ecosystem. The following are the results of the EV ecosystem Declaration of competing interest
investigation.
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
i. Research for the Internet of Things, Artificial Intelligence, and the interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
delocalized wireless community encourages interaction between the work reported in this paper.
EVSE and Smart Grid.
ii. Research is being done to increase battery energy density in order Data availability
to enhance battery performance for extended use and quick
charging in order to meet temperature requirements. The data that has been used is confidential.
iii. Research on an improved charging infrastructure architecture.
This work focuses mostly on EV chargers with universal con Acknowledgement
nectors that are compatible with all types of EV vehicles.
iv. Research focuses on several charging technologies, including fuel The authors would like to thank the authorities of the PES University-
cells, supercapacitors, and niobium materials technology, etc. Ring Road Campus, Bangalore, Karnataka, India for supporting this
13
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Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Adoption of EV: Landscape of EV and opportunities for India

i. What are the available solutions from different commercial or­

Fig. 2. Different types of EVs.

Fig. 3. The indian electric vehicle market [source: www.grandviewresearch.com].

180 km with a battery capacity of 3.97 kWh. Followed by

Fig. 5. State-wise sales of EV in H1 FY 2022.

highways. Surat, Pune, Ahmedabad, Bengaluru, Hyderabad, Delhi,

4.1. Issues in present EV charging infrastructure

1 EV6 Kia PHEV Lithium-ion 77.4 kWh PMSM 528

1 iQube TVS Lithium Ion 4.56 kWh BLDC 140

1 Treo Mahindra Lithium Ion 7.37 kWh BLDC 131

Fig. 9. EV charging infrastructure.

depicts the advanced communication system-based charging infra­

Fig. 10. Different EV connectors used in India.

The following points have been listed as the opportunities and

EV charging management software is required to manage multiple

4.3. Battery swapping stations (BSS)

Battery swapping is the process of exchanging used batteries with

Fig. 12. Communication system-based charging infrastructure.

Fig. 13. The infrastructure of Battery Swapping Station.

Capacity High Satisfactory High Satisfactory Very High High

Fig. 14. ICT-based EV-power grid integration.

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i. What are the available solutions from different commercial or

depicts the advanced communication system-based charging infra