Group 3A – Universal Testing Machine FUNCTIONS OF UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE

• Universal Testing Machine – used to test the 1. Tensile Test – determine the force needed to
tensile, compressive, bending, shear, and pull the specimen apart. It measures tensile
torsion. strength, elongation, modulus of elasticity, and
yield strength.
TWO (2) MAIN PARTS OF UTM 2. Compression Test – opposite of tensile, it is a
1. Loading Unit – where the specimen takes place process of compressing an object between two
and load that must be exerted to the material. level plates until certain load or distance is
2. Control Unit – where the load is applied and get reached. It measures compressive strength,
the corresponding result. modulus of elasticity, and deformation behavior.
3. Bending Test – support a length of material by
COMPONENTS OF LOADING UNIT spanning it across two supports on each end. It
1. Load Frame – consists of a table, upper measures bending strength, modulus of
crosshead, and lower crosshead. elasticity, and flexural behavior.
2. Upper / Lower Crosshead – Upper crosshead 4. Peel Test – this test pulls apart two materials that
is to clamp the specimen needs to be tested from have been bonded together.
top or its one end. Lower crosshead is the 5. Puncture Stress – this test secures a circular
movable crosshead whose screws can be section of material around its perimeter.
loosened for height adjustment. Group 3B – Wood
3. Elongation Scale – relative movement of lower
and upper table is measured by an elongation • Wood – natural, renewable product from trees.
scale which is provided along with the loading Important in civil engineering because of its
unit. availability, relatively low cost, ease of use, and
durability.
COMPONENTS OF CONTROL UNIT
USES OF WOOD
1. Hydraulic Power Unit – consists of an oil pump
that provides non-pulsating oil flow into the main 1. Buildings
cylinder of the load unit. 2. Bridges
2. Load Measuring Unit – has a pendulum 3. Utility Poles
dynamometer unit that has a small cylinder with 4. Floors
a piston which moves with the non-pulsating oil 5. Roofs
flow. The range of load applications unit (0-100 6. Trusses
kN; 0-500 kN and 0-1000 kN). 7. Piles
3. Control Devices – it can be electric or hydraulic.
• The Wood Handbook – produces by the Forest
TWO CONTROL DEVICES Service Department of Agriculture, which is an
1. Electric Control Devices - make use of excellent document describing the
switches to move the crossheads and switch characteristics and properties of wood.
on/off the unit. • Tree – woody plant that has a height of at least
2. Hydraulic Control Devices - consists of two 6m with no branches about 1.5 m above ground
valves. and has a definite crown. There are over 600
species of trees in the US.
TWO VALVES OF HYDRAULIC CONTROL
DEVICE CLASSIFICATION OF TREES

1. Right Control Valve – used to apply load on the 1. Endogenous Trees – such as palm trees, grow
specimen. with intertwines fibers and not generally used for
2. Left Control Valve – used to release the load engineering applications in the US.
application. 2. Exogeneous Trees – grow from the center out
by adding concentric layers of wood around the
central core.
CLASSIFICATION OF EXOGENOUS TREES 4. Chemical or Salt Seasoning – an aqueous
solution of certain chemicals has lower vapor
1. Deciduous Trees – generally shed their leaves
pressure than that of pure water.
at the end of each growing season.
5. Electric Seasoning – logs are placed in such a
2. Conifers (“Evergreen’) – have needlelike
way that their two ends touch the electrodes.
leaves and normally do not shed at the end of
6. Mc Neill’s Process – best method although
growing season. They grow continuously
most expensive. The timber is stack in a
through the crown.
chamber with free air space (1/3rd of its capacity).
CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD TIMBER
DEFECTS IN LUMBER
1. Narrow annual rings, closer the rings greater
1. Knots – branch bases that have become
is the strength.
incorporated into the wood or tree trunk.
2. Compact medullary rays.
2. Shakes – lengthwise separations in the wood
3. Dark color.
occurring between annual rings.
4. Uniform texture.
3. Wane – bark or other soft material left on the
5. Sweet small and a shining fresh cut surface.
edge of the board of absence of material.
6. When struck sonorous sound is produced.
4. Sap Streak – heavy accumulation of sap in the
7. Free from the defects in timber.
fibers of wood.
8. Heavy weight.
5. Reaction Wood – abnormally wood tissue that
9. No woolliness at fresh cut surface/
forms in the crooked stems or limbs.
SEASONING OF TIMBER 6. Pitch Pockets – well-defined openings between
annual rings that contain free resin.
• Seasoning – process of reducing the moisture 7. Bark Pockets – small patches of bark
content (drying) in order to prevent timber from embedded in the wood.
possible fermentation. 8. Checks – ruptures in wood along the grain that
SOME OF THE OBJECTS OF SEASONING WOOD develop during seasoning.
9. Splits – lengthwise separations of the wood
ARE AS FOLLOWS:
cause by either mishandling or seasoning.
1. Reduce the shrinkage and warping after 10. Warp – distortion of the wood from the desired
placement in structure. true place.
2. Increase strength, durability and workability. 11. Raised, Loosened, or Fuzzy Grain – may occur
3. Reduce its tendency to split and decay. during cutting and dressing of lumber.
4. Make it suitable for painting. 12. Chipped or Torn Grain – occurs when pieces of
5. Reduce its weights. wood are scooped out of the board surface.
13. Machine Burn – area that has been darkened
METHODS OF SEASONING WOOD
by overheating during outing.
1. Natural or Air Seasoning – log of wood is sawn
FOUR MAJOR TYPES OF WARP
into planks of convenient sizes. Air seasoning
reduces moisture content of wood to 12-15%. 1. Bow – longitudinal curvature from end to end.
2. Artificial Seasoning 2. Crook - longitudinal curvature from side to side.
3. Cup – rolling of both edges up or down.
PREVALENT METHODS OF ARTIFICIAL
4. Twist – lifting of one corner out of the place of
SEASONING
the other three.
1. Water Seasoning – logs of wood are kept
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD
completely immersed in running stream of water.
2. Boiling – boiling in water or exposing the wood 1. Specific Gravity – depends on cell size, cell wall
to the action of steam spray is a very quick but thickness, and number and type of cells.
expensive process of seasoning. 2. Dry Density of Wood – ranges from 160 kg/m3
3. Kiln Seasoning – adopted for rapid seasoning for balsa to 1335 kg/m3 for black iron wood.
of timber on large scale to any moisture content.
a. With Kiln Drying there is a little loss in • Majority of wood types have densities in the
strength of timber, usually less than 10%. range of 300 to 700 kg/m3.
FOUR SIGNIFICANT THERMAL PROPERTIES OF TESTS FOR STRUCTURAL-SIZE LUMBER
WOOD (ASTM D198):
1. Thermal Conductivity – measure of the rate at 1. Flexure (bending)
which heat flows through a material. (Reciprocal 2. Compression (short column)
– Thermal Resistance) 3. Compression (long column)
2. Specific Heat – the ratio of the quantity of heat 4. Tension
required to raise the temperature of the material.
TESTS FOR SMALL-CLEAR WOOD
3. Thermal Diffusivity – measure of the rate at
SPECIMENTS (ASTM D143):
which a material absorbs heat from its
surroundings. 1. Static Bending (flexure)
4. Coefficient of Thermal Expansion – measure 2. Impact Bending
of dimensional changes caused by a 3. Compression Parallel to the Grain
temperature variance. 4. Compression Perpendicular to the Grain
5. Tension Parallel to the Grain
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF WOOD DEPENDS
6. Tension Perpendicular to the Grain
ON SEVERAL ITEMS:
1. Gain Orientation
2. Moisture Content • Flexure Test – performed on members in sizes
3. Specific Gravity that are usually used in structural applications.
4. Extractive Content • Test Specimen – may be solid wood such as
5. Structural Irregularities 50mm x 100 mm, laminated wood, or a
composite construction of wood or of wood
combined with plastics or metals.
• Air-Dry Wood – good electrical insulator.
• Test Method – intended primarily for beams of
rectangular cross section but is also applicable
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD to beams of rounds and irregular shapes.

1. Modulus of Elasticity – typical stress-strain

relationship of wood is linear up to a certain limit.
FOR DESIGN OF WOOD STRUCTURES, THE
2. Strength Properties – vary to a large extent,
STRENGTH PROPERTIES GIVEN MUST BE
depending on the orientation of grain relative to
ADJUSTED FOR THE FOLLOWING:
the direction of force.
3. Load Duration – wood can support higher loads 1. Load Duration
of short duration during than sustained loads. 2. Wet Service
4. Damping Capacity – phenomenon in which the 3. Temperature
amplitude of vibration in a material decreases 4. Beam Stability
with time. 5. Size
6. Volume (glulam only)
7. Flat Use
• Standards for testing wood and wood 8. Repetitive Member (lumber only)
composites are published by ASTM, the U.S. 9. Curvature (glulam only)
Department of Commerce, the National 10. Column Stability
Standard Institute (NSI), and various other 11. Bearing Area
trade associations, such as the western Product
Association. Group 4A – Concrete
• ASTM D198 – present the testing standards for
• Plain Concrete – commonly known as concrete,
full-size tests.
an intimate mixture of binding material, fine
• ASTM D143 – presents the testing standards for aggregate, coarse aggregate, and water.
small, clear wood specimens.
MAJOR INGREDIENTS OF CONCRETE TWO METHODS OF BATCHING
1. Binding Material (cement, lime, polymer) 1. Volume Batching – in this method, cement,
2. Finne Aggregate (sand) sand, and concrete are batched by volume.
3. Coarse Aggregates (crushed stone, jelly) 2. Weight Batching – a recommended method of
4. Water batching. A weighing platform is used in the field
to pick up correct proportion of sand and coarse
CAN ALSO BE ADDED TO IMPART SPECIAL
aggregates.
PROPERTIES TO THE PLAIN CONCRETE MIX
TWO METHODS OF MIXING
1. Air Entraining Agents
2. Water Proofing Agents 1. Hand Mixing – required amount of coarse
3. Workability Agents aggregate for a batch is weighed and is spread
on an impervious platform.
IN THE ABSENCE OF MIX DESIGN THE
2. Machine Mixing - required quantities if sand and
INGREDIENTS ARE PROPORTIONED AS:
coarse aggregates are placed in the drum of the
1. 1:1:2 – for machine foundation, footings for mixer – 4 to 5 rotations are made for dry mixing.
steels columns, and concreting under water.
METHODS OF COMPACTION
2. 1:1 ½:3 – water tanks, shells and folded plates,
for other water retaining structures. 1. Hand Compaction – in this method, concrete is
3. 1:2:4 – commonly used for reinforced works like compacted by ramming, tamping, spading, or by
beams, slabs, tunnel lining, bridges. slicing with tools. It is used for small and
4. 1:3:6 – piers, abutments, concrete walls, sill of unimportant jobs.
windows, floors. 2. Compaction by Vibrators – concrete can be
5. 1:4:8 – mass concretes like dam, foundation compacted by using high frequency vibrators.
course for walls, for making concrete blocks. Vibration reduces friction between particles and
set motion of particles. It is most common and
FUNCTIONS OF VARIOUS INGREDIENTS
widely used method of compacting concrete for
1. Cement – binding material. any structural element.
2. Coarse Aggregate – consists of crushed 3. Compaction by Jolting –the mold containing
stones. It should be well graded, and the stones dry concrete is subjected to jolt at a frequency of
should be of igneous origin. It should be clean, 100 to 150 jolts per minute. It is a vibrating action
sharp, angular, and hard. of low frequency and high amplitude.
3. Fine Aggregate – consists of river sand. It 4. Compaction by Rolling – in this method, soft
prevents shrinkage of cement. and plastic concrete is fed continuously between
4. Water – should be clean. It activates the rubber rollers under pressure up to 50
hydration of cement and forms plastic mass. atmosphere.

STEPS INVOLVED IN THE CONCRETING: TYPE OF VIBRATORS COMMONLY USED IN

CONCRETING
1. Batching – measurement of materials for
making concrete. 1. Needle or Immersion Vibrators
2. Mixing – to produce uniform and good concrete, 2. Surface Vibrators
it is necessary to mix cement, sand, and coarse 3. Form or Shutter Vibrators
aggregate. 4. Vibrating Tables
3. Transportation and Placing of Concrete –
VARIOUS TYPES OF VIBRATORS USED IN
after mixing concrete, it should be transported to
COMPACTION BY VIBRATION
the final position.
4. Compaction of Concrete – in the process of 1. Needle Vibrator – also known as immersion,
placing concrete, air is entrapped. The internal, or poker vibrator used for any type of
entrapped air reduces the strength of concrete concrete work. This consists of a steel tube
up to 30%. called poker ranging from 250 to 900 mm long
that has a diameter ranging from 25 to 75 mm,
flexible shaft, and a power unit.
2. Formwork Vibrator – also known as external or constituents of concrete, size of member, and
shutter vibrator. It is used for concreting environmental conditions. (0.0003 shrinkage).
columns, thin walls and precast units. 3. Durability – environmental forces such as
3. Surface Vibrator – also known as screed board weathering, chemical attack, heat, freezing, and
vibrators. It is used for floor and roof slabs and thawing try to destroy concrete.
pavement surfaces. 4. Impermeability – resistance of concrete to the
flow of water through its pores.
CURING OF CONCRETE
IMPORTANT TESTS CONDUCTED ON
• Curing – process of maintaining satisfactory CONCRETE
moisture and temperature conditions for freshly
placed concrete. 1. Slump Test – conducted to determine the
workability of concrete. It needs a slump cone
CURING METHODS EMPLOYED (vessel in the shape of a frustum of a cone with
1. Spraying of Water – walls, columns, plastered diameter at bottom 200 mm and 50 mm at top
surfaces are cured by sprinkling water. and 300 mm high).
2. Wet Covering the Surface – columns and other 2. Compaction Factor Test – another test to
vertical surfaces may be cured with wet gunny identify workability of concrete and is conducted
bags or straw. in the laboratory. The test equipment consists of
3. Ponding – horizontal surfaces like slab and two hoppers and a cylinder fixed to a stand.
floors are cured by stagnating the water to a 3. Crushing Strength – metallic molds uof size
height of 25 to 50 mm. 150 mm x 150 mm x 150 mm are used for casting
4. Steam Curing - steam is passed over units kept concrete cubes.
in closed chambers.
• Fresh Cube – filled with concrete to be tested in
5. Application of Curing Compounds – calcium
3 layers and kept in the room.
chloride.
DESIRABLE PROPERTIES OF GREEN
Group 4B - Concrete
CONCRETE
PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE
1. Desired workability
• Green Concrete – concrete in the plastic stage. 2. No segregation in transporting and placing
• Hardened Concrete 3. No bleeding
4. No harshness
PROPERTIES OF GREEN CONCRETE
DESIRABLE PROPERTIES OF HARDENED
1. Workability – defined as the ease which with CONCRETE
concrete can be compacted fully without
segregating and bleeding. The amount of 1. Required characteristic strength
internal word required to fully compact concrete. 2. Minimum dimensional changes
2. Segregation – separation of coarse particles 3. Good durability
from green concrete. This may happen due to 4. Impermeable
lack of sufficient quantity of finer particles. 5. Good resistance to wear and tear
3. Bleeding – refers to the appearance of the water
USES OF CONCRETE
along with cement particles on the surface of the
freshly laid concrete. 1. As bed concrete below column footings, wall
4. Harshness – resistance offered by concrete to footings, on wall at supports to beams
its surface finish. 2. As sill concrete
3. Over the parapet walls as coping concrete
PROPERTIES OF HARDENED CONCRETE
4. For flagging the area around buildings
1. Strength – characteristic strength of concrete is 5. For pavements
defined as the compressive strength of 1.50 mm 6. For making building blocks
size cubes/ • Compaction – consolidates fresh concrete
2. Dimensional Change – concrete shrinks with within the molds or frameworks and around
age. The total shrinkage depends upon the embedded parts and reinforcement steel.
Group 5A – Tar, Bitumen, and Asphalt CUT-BACKS ARE COMMERCIALLY
MANUFACTURED IN THE FOLLOWING THREE-
• Bitumen and bituminous materials - have GROUPS:
been known and used in construction works
since ancient times, approximately 6000 BC. 1. Rapid Curing (RC) Cut-backs – containing
• Asphalts – were used as cements to hold naptha or gasoline.
stonework together in boat building and as 2. Medium Curing (MC) Cut-backs – containing
waterproofing in pools and baths. kerosene.
• Natural Asphalt – asphalt used by ancient 3. Slow Curing (SC) Cut-backs – containing light
civilizations when crude petroleum oils rose to oils as fluxing agents.
the earth’s surface and formed pools. • Plastic Bitumen – consists of bitumen, thinner
• Bitumen – came from the original Sanskrit and a suitable inert filler.
word Gwitumen applied to native asphalts as • Straight Run Bitumen – bitumen being distilled
fuel. to a definite viscosity or penetration without
• Tar – bituminous condensates obtained in the further treatment.
process of destructive distillation of coal,
CLASSIFICATION OF BITUMEN
petroleum, wood, and other organic materials.
• Asphalt – naturally occurring bitumen which is a 1. Based on Source
combination of an inorganic mineral matter either a. Natural Bitumen – pure natural bitumen
calcareous or siliceous and an organic matter. occurs rarely. It originates from the
accumulation of petroleum.
BITUMEN IS MAINLY COMPOSED OF: b. Petroleum Bitumen – product of
1. Mixture of high-molecular hydrocarbons processing crude petroleum and its
2. Methane resinous residues.
3. Napthane i. Residual Asphaltums – black or
4. Other aromatic series and their oxygen or dark-brown solid substances at
sulfur derivatives normal temperatures.
• Bitumen – non-crystalline solid or viscous ii. Oxidized Bitumen – produced
material derived from petroleum, by natural or by blowing air through petroleum
refinery process and substantially soluble in residues,
carbon disulphide. iii. Crack Bitumen – obtained by the
o It is an asphalt in solid state and mineral cracking high temperature
tar in semi fluid state. decomposition of petroleum.
o Bitumen is brown or black in color. 2. Based on Consistency
o Main constituent is petrolene – a a. Solid Bitumen
yellowish oily substance, an excess of b. Semi-Solid Bitumen
which makes bitumen to melt at low c. Liquid Bitumen
temperature and asphaltene. 3. Based on Application
o Its compositions is: a. Road Construction Bitumen
▪ Carbon – 87% b. Building Bitumen
▪ Hydrogen – 11% c. Roofing Bitumen
▪ Oxygen – 2% PROPERTIES OF BITUMEN
FORMS OF BITUMEN 1. Viscosity – depends greatly on temperature. At
1. Bitumen Emulsion – liquid product containing lower temp, bitumen has great viscosity while
bitumen to a great extent in an aqueous medium. increase in temp viscosity decreases.
2. Blown Bitumen – obtained by passing air under 2. Ductility – depends upon temperature, group
pressure at a higher temperature throught the composition and nature of structure.
bitumen. 3. Softening Point – is related to viscosity.
3. Cut-back Bitumen – obtained by fluxing Bitumen needs sufficient fluidity before specific
asphaltic bitumen in presence of some suitable application.
liquid distillates of coal tar or petroleum. 4. Resilience – bitumen is resilient, non-rigid.
• Bituminous Sheets – these are manufactured TESTING OF ASPHALT
by running refined bitumen on to paper of
1. Consistency Test
different thicknesses and qualities.
a. Viscometer Consistency Test –
• Fluxed Bitumen – when bitumen is used in hot
conducted in Fural viscometer. It consists
applications, the process is known as hot
of a cylindrical vessel with a standard
mopping in which case a suitable flux is added.
orifice at the bottom.
b. Engler Specific Test – in this method,
• Asphalt – natural or artificial mixture in which
the time taken for a 50 cc of the tar
bitumen is associated with inert mineral matter.
sample is divided.
It is black or brownish black in color.
c. Penetration Test – determines the
TYPES OF ASPHALT hardness of the bituminous materials by
measuring the depth in millimeter to
1. Natural Asphalt – also known as native asphalt. which a standard needle penetrates.
It is used for making pavements for water d. Softening Point Test – the test is done
proofing of structure. to determine temperature susceptibility of
2. Rock Asphalt – naturally occurring rock the bitumen.
formation, usually limestone or sandstone. 2. Viscosity Test – defined as inverse of fluidity
3. Refined Asphalt – obtained by heating pitch to defines the fluid property of bituminous material.
drive off the water and draw of mineral matter. 3. Heat Test
4. Mastic Asphalt – manufactured by adding a. Flash and Fire Point Test – Flash Point
pulverized natural rock gradually to molten is the lowest temperature at which the
refined bitumen, vapor of a substance can be ignited in air
5. Liquid Asphalt – viscous residue obtained by by a flame. Fire Point is the lowest
distillation of asphaltic base crude oil to 425◦C. temperature at which the material gets
6. Cut-back Asphalt – derived by distillation of ignited and burns under specific
asphalt in a volatile solvent. It contains about conditions.
80% asphalt. b. Loss on Heat Test – significance of the
7. Artificial Asphalt – pitch residue obtained by test is that the bitumen should contain
evaporation of the volatile constituent of coal tar. just sufficient oil.
It is formed of an admixture of coal tar, etc. c. Distillation Test – in this test the
8. Asphaltic Cement – prepared by oxidizing quantities of the various volatile oils
asphalt at a high temperature by lighter oils. added to bitumens fluxing or for cutting-
back are determined.
GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ASPHALT
d. Water Content Test – foaming occurs
1. Durability when water is in excess of the specified
2. Effect of Sunlight amount.
3. Effect of Heat 4. Solubility Test – this test indicates the purity of
4. Resistance to Fire bituminous binders by finding the quantity of
5. Appearance bitumen in binder.
6. Noise 5. Sulphonation Index Test – this test is
7. Slipperiness performed to find the presence of paraffin.
8. Effect of Physical Loading 6. Ductility Test – all bituminous materials must
9. Effects of Acid have some specified ductility so that when
10. Effects of Fats and Oils placed in the pavement.
11. Relation to Other Material 7. Specific Gravity Test – defined as the ratio of
12. Paint the mass of a given volume of the substance to
the mass of an equal volume of water.
8. Adhesion Test – also knowns as aggregate
bitumen affinity test. From the point of view of
behavior of aggregate towards bituminous
binders.
Group 5B – Steel HEAT TREATMENT

• Steel – most suitable building material among 1. Hardening – this heat treatment consists of
metallic materials. This is due to a wide range heating the steel above the upper critical
and combination of physical and mechanical temperature.
properties. 2. Tempering – a plain carbon steel that has been
hardened is in metastable condition or
TYPES OF STEEL equilibrium.
1. Mild Steel – also known as low carbon or soft 3. Annealing – it is a general term used for heating
steel. It is ductile, malleable, tougher and more and slow cooling of metal, glass, or any other
elastic that wrought iron. Mild steel can be forged material.
and welded. 4. Normalizing – consists in heating steel above
2. High Carbon Steel – the carbon content varies critical range and cooling rapidly in air, but at rate
from 0.55 to 1.5%. It is also known as hard steel slower than critical cooling rate.
and tougher and more elastic.
3. High Tensile Steel – the carbon content is 0.6-
• Mechanical Work – may be hot or cold. It
0.8%. It is also known as high strength steel and
involves many stages of hot working and may or
is essentially a medium carbon steel.
may not include eventual cold working.
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF STEEL • Cement Concrete – one of the most versatile
and established construction material throughout
1. Silicone – often added to molten and metal to the world.
remove oxygen and diminish blow holes. • Steel Reinforcement – available in the form of
2. Phosphorus – considered to promote bars of specific diameters.
enlargement of the grains and thus produce
brittleness.
3. Sulphur – readily combines with iron to form iron MECHANICAL TESTING OF STEEL
sulphide which, when present in iron or steel.
1. Tension Test (ASTM E8/E8M) – performed to
4. Manganese – has a strong affinity for oxygen
determine the yield strength, yield point, ultimate
and sulphur and acts as a cleaner of the molten
strength, elongation, and reduction of area.
metal.
2. Torsion Test (ASTM E143) – used to determine
5. Copper – increases resistance to corrosion
the shear modulus of structural materials. Shear
when present in small percent.
Modulus is used in the design of members
6. Arsenic – has a tendency to raise the strength
subjected to torsion.
and brittleness.
3. Charpy V Notch Impact Test (ASTM E23) –
7. Non-metallic Impurities – mechanically
used to measure the toughness of the material
suspended in the metal and are often called slag
or the energy required to fracture a V-notched
inclusions causing brittleness.
simply supported specimen.
PRINCIPLE PURPOSES OF HEAT TREATMENT 4. Bend Test – steel is bent to a desired shape,
ARE AS FOLLOWS: especially in the case of reinforcing steel.
5. Hardness Test – measure of a material’s
1. To enhance properties resistance to localized plastic deformation.
2. To relieve internal stresses and strains 6. Ultrasonic Testing – a nondestructive method
3. To refine the grain for detecting flaws in materials. It is particularly
4. To remove gases useful for the evaluation of welds.
5. To normalize steel after heat treatment