Professor : Saeedi

BASICS OF
LANGUAGE
LEARNING
THROUGH
TECHNOLOGY

Autumn & winter 1403

Professor : Saeedi
What is CALL?

 CALL stands for Computer Assisted Language Learning.

 Any use of modern (mainly digital) technologies for the purpose of language
learning/teaching
is included under the umbrella term CALL.
 Such a broad definition would include all applications of CMC (i.e.,
Computer-Mediated Communication) to language learning, and applies also
to the use of such technologies as stand-alone software, MP3/MP4/MP5
players, camcorders, mobile phones, e-book readers, PDAs (i.e. personal
digital assistants), notebooks, netbooks, interactive whiteboards, etc.
 The word “innovation” means something new, which means new ideas to
change things for better. If we look at all the language teaching methods
which are used all over the world by different teachers at different levels, we
cannot say that all of them are 100% successful. Therefore it is very
important to keep looking and searching to find ways to make teaching and
learning better.

 CALL is a broad and an ever changing discipline. CALL is “any process in

which a learner uses a computer and as a result improves his or her language
and it covers a wide range of current practice in the field”.

Some Acronyms

 TELL (i.e., Technology-Enhanced Language Learning)

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  NBLT (i.e., Network-Based Language Teaching)
 WELL (i.e., Web Enhanced Language Learning)
 CASLA (i.e., Computer Applications in Second Language
Acquisition)

Why do we need to learn about CALL?

Our lives are becoming intertwined with technology. We can all think of
technologies which are now an unquestioned part of our lives and yet did not even
exist 5, 10, or 15 years ago.

Digital technologies are here to stay and, more to the point, their mastery is quickly
becoming integral to our understanding of “literacy” and being “educated”
(Kasper, 2000).
 The use of technology has become an important part of the learning process
in and out of the class. Every language class usually uses some form of
technology.
 Technology has been used to both help and improve language learning.
Technology enables teachers to adapt classroom activities, thus enhancing
the language learning process.
 Technology continues to grow in importance as a tool to help teachers
facilitate language learning for teachers.

Technology can help you to:

 Create visual aids for teaching
 Improve access to resources, such as online literature libraries
 Review and comment on student work more efficiently

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  Integrate video clips into presentations
 Broaden choices for students to demonstrate learning

Advantages of Technology In English language

teaching:
1.We can get the required information within a fraction of second.
2. Learners become more innovative with the help of e-learning.
3. Technology provides the information to the students which will be useful
for them to compete with this competitive world.
4. English lessons that incorporate multimedia applications can exert
powerful motivation and provide bored students with exciting new ways to
learn.
5. Technology can make students and teachers to work with current and
authentic sources.
6. Technology ameliorates the learner’s interaction, verbalization
involvement in group collaborative learning.
7. Students can learn independently.
8. With technology, pictorial description is available.

Disadvantages

1. Students get short span of attention because of the Technology in

language learning.
2. Online learning cannot offer human interaction.
3. Students may open or log on to the unnecessary websites to play games
or to watch movies, etc.

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 4. Intense requirement for self-discipline and self-direction.
5. Good infrastructure and trained man power is required to use the
Technology tools in teaching and learning.
6. Communication is taking place between learners.
7. The teacher is only a mediator.
Definition of Technology and Technology Integration
 Technology has been defined by different researchers. According to
İŞMAN (2012), it is the practical use of knowledge particularly in a
specific area and is a way of doing a task especially using technical
processes, methods, or knowledge. The usage of technology includes
not only machines (computer hardware) and instruments, but also
involves structured relations with other humans, machines, and the
environment.

 According to Hennessy, Ruthven, and Brindley (2005), technology

integration is defined in terms of how teachers use technology to
perform familiar activities more effectively and how this usage can re-
shape these activities.
 Dockstader (2008) defined technology integration as the use of
technology to improve the educational environment. It supports the
classroom teaching through creating opportunities for learners to
complete
assignments on the computer rather than the normal pencil and paper.

Basic Assumptions
On the side of language learning and instruction, it is assumed
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1) that students do not necessarily need only structured drills in order to learn,
that language acquisition takes place any time the student is dealing with the
target language (one might make the pedagogical leap and assume that the more
students are engaged with a target literature or culture the more they will learn
about those as well);

2) that information that students discover on their own has greater impact than
information they are told or that they gain through memorization;

3) that "authentic language" is more engaging and useful (although occasionally

problematic) than created pedagogical language, and that, as a result, students will
be interested in accessing authentic language web pages in their target language,
perhaps enough so to click on a few links of their own and go exploring, thus
spending more time with the language and culture;

4) that websites and other software appropriate to a language lesson can

occasionally be brought into class, thus giving the students a common "lab"
experience;

5) that culture, which has been recognized as essential to full comprehension of

another language, is easier to comprehend from real-life web pages than from the
cultural overviews usually written into textbooks;

6) that language, literature, and culture are interrelated so that one cannot really
know one without knowing something of the others and that one always learns
something about the others by studying one of them; and

7) that professors are willing to adapt their materials to include Internet materials
and accommodate the unexpected, such as when a student brings a previously
unknown site to the attention of the class

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On the side of the technology, it is assumed:
1) that there is plentiful material available online already, that more is posted
every day, and that instructional software not available anywhere else can be
created (in other words, one can "visit" a foreign country online thanks to the
copious resources available, second only to a real-time visit with target language
speakers);

2) that all students have access to multimedia computers, either through public
computer labs on campus or through personal computers linked to a campus
network

3) that students are familiar with personal computing, using either Macintosh or
Windows, and that all have network-compatible operating systems

4) that computers are here to stay so all of us, teachers and students, should
endeavor to find the best use of them for the foreign language classroom.

More assumptions when using Technology:

 that preparation, use and acquisition of online materials requires a lot of
time, labor, and money;
 that not everything can be done better by computers (there will always
be a need for textbooks, workbooks, teachers, etc.);
 that it is not always easy to remain in an exclusively target-language
environment on the World Wide Web due to the astonishing penetration
of English as the default online language;
 that not everyone reacts to computers the same way (some embrace it
enthusiastically; some may not like it);

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  that there is so far little hard evidence showing the benefits of
computer-assisted language learning (CALL) in general, much less
specific research establishing what kinds of computer activities are
more beneficial than others.

Use of Technology in English Language Class

Technology is an effective tool for learners. Learners must use technology as a
significant part of their learning process. Teachers should model the use of
technology to support the curriculum so that learners can increase the true use of
technology in learning their language skills.
1. Learners’ cooperation can be increased through technology. Cooperation is
one of the important tools for learning. Learners cooperatively work together
to create tasks and learn from each other through reading their peers’ work.
2. The use of computer technology leads to the improvement of teachers’
teaching and learners’ learning.
3. The use of computer technology helps teachers meet their learners’
educational needs.
4. Basic changes have come in classes beside the teaching methods because
chalk and talk teaching method is not enough to teach English effectively.
5. Technology-enhanced teaching environment is more effective than lecture-
based class.
6. Using technology can create a learning atmosphere centered around the
learner rather than the teacher that in turn creates positive changes.
7. The use of internet increases learners’ motivation. The use of film in
teaching helps learners to realize the topic with enthusiasm and develop their
knowledge.

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Lesson Ideas Using Technology :

 PowerPoint Presentations:
a. If you have attended a conference lately, most likely the presenter
used PowerPoint to provide visual interest and guidance. The
presentation program can also be used to enhance instruction in the
language arts classroom. Consider the following tips:
b. Store daily objectives in a PowerPoint presentation and begin each
class session by sharing the daily objectives.
c. Encourage students to use PowerPoint presentations when they are
required to present to the class. The design options encourage self-
expression and creativity. Instruct students to limit the amount of
information on each slide to one or two important points.
 Word processing software:
 Writing projects that involve multiple drafts are well-suited to using
word processing programs. Drafts are easily revised and formatted
using these tools. Extend its power to aid instruction by using the
"review" feature available in programs such as Microsoft Word. The
feature can be used for teachers to leave comments, line by line, on
student work. You can also track changes to evaluate how students used
peer review comments to improve or change their work.

 Battle Plagiarism with the Internet :

 English teachers battle plagiarism continuously. For years, the Internet
made it easier for students to access prepared research papers, and

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 likewise, more difficult for teachers to determine plagiarized work from
original material, but that has changed. Teachers can now have students
submit work electronically. For a fee, the teachers can subsequently
submit all student work to a Web-based service that will compare the
paper to thousands of existing resources. The service returns a report to
the teacher or school indicating whether the work contained plagiarized
material, and if so, the exact phrases and origin of those that were
copied.

 Use Webquests
 A WebQuest is a detailed set of questions and tasks that lead students to
the Internet to research topics. They then complete a task or set of tasks
based on their research. The WebQuest can result in a product as simple
as a one-page document or as complex as a project.

 Connect to Books/Journal Articles Online

 Historically, supplemental reading materials were limited to the
holdings on the English bookroom shelf. Technology now provides
access to thousands of books and journals online through which you
can be exposed to an ocean of information on miscellaneous topics.

Making students comfortable with technology:

 The computer should always be turned on, booted, and the program
loaded (preferably the exercise chosen) before the class begins.

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  Students who are not comfortable using computers should be placed
with students who are.
 Use of the computer should be phased in; instead of introducing a
complex series of exercises to be done for a lesson, teachers should
begin by doing a limited amount of work with the computer.

Advantages of using technology:

 Improvement in Academic Ability

Technology appears to improve language learners’ academic ability. This

improvement is probably achieved by changing students’ learning attitudes and
boosting their self-confidence. Along this line, Galavis (1998) and Dunken (1990)
assert that the use of technology enhances learners’ language proficiency and their
overall academic skills.

 A Paradigm Shift in Teaching and Learning

The advent of technology and development in the field of education has

accelerated a shift from teacher-centered to learner-centered approaches in
language learning and teaching. To meet the needs of digitally grown-up learners,
teachers need to adopt a different role. They need to be facilitators, rather than the
traditional bench-bound instructors, and they need to support and guide students’
learning. Learning technologies support this important shift for the benefit of the
learner.

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  An Assessment Shift

Incorporation of technology in the classroom enables learners to assess their own

work in a more meaningful way, become better aware of the quality of their work
and accept feedback more willingly. Moreover, it gives them a chance to
undertake a more self-monitoring role, which leads to a higher chance of fulfilling
tasks successfully. Teachers can also assess students’ knowledge more accurately
and objectively. The overall assessment shift from teacher to self and peer
evaluation contributes to the development of student autonomy which is
emphasized in learning in the 21st century.

 Collaborative Learning Enhancement

Another benefit of technology use is the encouragement of collaboration and

communication in learning activities. According to Gillespie (2006), new
technology enables students to collect information and interact with resources,
such as images and videos. Murphy (2006) states that the Internet can serve not
only as a reference source but also as a means of communication. It is argued that
technology enables the user to get connected to the world outside of the
classroom and hence produce high-quality work, knowing that their work will be
viewed by a large audience. In addition, learners can get in touch with their peers
from other schools, experts in the field and members of interest groups.

 Lowering Learning Anxiety Level

Another advantage of technology is its potential for lowering anxiety among

learners. In an exploration of EFL teachers' perceptions of CALL, Ozerol (2009)

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selected 60 language teachers from various schools in Turkey. These teachers
commonly agreed that technology lowered students' language learning anxiety
whilst giving them more opportunity to communicate. Consistent with such
findings is Braul’s (2006) study that showed that using computers in language
classrooms brought variety into the classroom atmosphere, developed learners’
particular language skills and increased learner autonomy.

Barriers to Using Technology:

 Lack of access

Lack of access to technology resources that requires an Internet connection is a

major disadvantage for those schools and individuals who can barely afford or do
not have access to a computer or an Internet connection (Coghlan 2004). The
initial startup expenses and the costs of hardware and computer equipment are
also an issue for low-budget schools.

 Lack of Effective Training

Many researchers believe that lack of teacher training, lack of knowledge and
practice are factors that prevent the successful use of the Internet as a learning
tool. Many researchers agree that teachers must increase their computer
competency to use technology effectively. As found in Symonds (2000), teachers
are not given sufficient training. Baylor and Ritchie (2002) also argue that
technology would remain unused if faculty members do not develop the
appropriate skills, knowledge and attitude for incorporating it into the curriculum.

 Teachers’ Attitude

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 Research into the barriers to technology use in education has found that teachers’
attitude was a significant barrier in the academia (Hodas 1993). Some teachers
thought that technology was a disruptive tool and resisted any changes. Fang and
Warschauer (2004) reported that traditional teachers were afraid of authority loss.
Some scholars agreed that context could be a big barrier to deterring teachers
from adopting the use of technology. Teachers’ lack of confidence was rooted in
their fear of failure or lack of technology knowledge, which made them feel
anxious.

 Students’ Attitude

Some researchers have been concerned about the students’ reactions to the use of
technology in the classroom. The justification for their concern is that the use of
technology is in its infancy and its use requires a shift from traditional teaching
approaches. If the shift is drastic and sudden and students perceive the experience
negatively, they may resist such changes, which in turn will lead to poor academic
performance.

 Lack of Time

Lack of time and technical support could be other reasons for teachers’
disinclination toward using technology. In an exploration of teachers’ perceptions
of the use of technology in teaching languages in United Arab Emirates schools,
Ismail & Almekhlafi (2010) reported teachers’ lack of time for preparation and
technology implementation as the most important barriers. Similarly, the teachers

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in Chan Lin et al. (2006) reported that the integration of technology in their classes
required much more time and effort compared to regular classes which do not use
technology.

CALL and cognitive and sociocognitive approaches to language

learning:

Technologies supporting a cognitive approach to language learning provide

learners with maximum opportunity to be exposed to the language in meaningful
contexts and to build their knowledge.

Socio-cognitive approaches emphasize the social aspect of language acquisition;

for authentic social interaction, students need to be given maximum opportunity
not only to provide full input but also to provide them with practice in the kinds of
communication they will engage in outside the classroom later. The Internet is a
powerful tool for aiding a sociocognitive approach to language learning.

Online Instruction :
Online learning is defined as “a planned teaching/learning experience that uses a
wide spectrum of technologies to reach learners at a distance and is designed to
encourage learner interaction”.
The teacher and the learner are separate in space and possibly time

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Distance education and training result from the technological separation of teacher
and learner which frees the student from the necessity of traveling to a fixed place,
at a fixed time, to meet a fixed person, to be trained.

Online Instruction (Advantages)

 Flexibility of online learning gives an opportunity to both teachers and

learners to work at home.
 It also provides them the chance of transportation-related cost- and
time-savings.
 Online learning enables students to access more courses, review
materials, repeat exercises, and read peer discussion comments for
several times which could be particularly beneficial for the students
who have to manage classes, part-time jobs, and family responsibilities
simultaneously.

Online Instruction (Disadvantages)

 It is more useful for self-directed, mature, well-organized learners who

are good at time management.
 Some learners have restricted or no access to computers, the Internet, or
assistive technology.
 It is not very easy for faculty members to use tech-tools and they need
to be trained to use them.
 In online courses, instructors often seek to compensate for the lack of
in-person interaction by maintaining a high degree of communication
with students which can be very time-consuming.

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  Technical problems which arise with the site used in the class and with
the individual personal computers show a challenge for the teacher,
the students, and even the university.

Hybrid Instruction:

 To overcome downsides of online instruction, blended instruction which

combined the e-learning and the traditional learning environments has come
into existence. In the research literature, the terms ‘blended', ‘hybrid,'
‘mixed-mode instruction,' and ‘web-enhanced instruction,' are mostly used
interchangeably.
Young (2012) defined hybrid instruction as a formal education program in which a
student learns how to use digital and online media and control place, time, pace,
and path. Hybrid instruction supplies both an interpersonal experience with
instructors and a physical connection to campus by mixing face-to-face and online
instruction.

MALL
 Definition:
Mobile-assisted Language Learning (MALL) is a term used for any training and
instruction through using mobile phones and their applications.

Characteristics of Mobile Learning :

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  Ubiquitous/Spontaneous: Mobile learning is more spontaneous than other
learning types. It is this spontaneity that is the most important feature of
mobile learning. Mobile learning is context aware, meaning that students can
learn everywhere.
 Portable: Mobile tools are small and portable. Students can use them
everywhere during their learning activities.
 Blended: Teachers can use this approach with blended learning model which
combines classroom instruction with m-learning.
 Private: M-learning is private. It means only one learner at a time usually
has access to the mobile tool. When students want to access information,
they connect and download mobile apps independently from other learners.
 Interactive: M-learning environments utilize the latest technologies to bring
an interactive learning environment into learning and teaching activities.
Students are not passive, yet the functions of mobile tools and environments
allow various levels of interactivity.
 Collaborative: Mobile technology supports communication between
students and teachers. So, they may be used for cooperative learning
activities in the education.

Elements of MALL:

Basic elements of mobile learning are learner, teacher, environment, content, and
assessment. Learners are at the center in all teaching and learning activities

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according to new educational approaches. All the other elements serve to the
learner.

Learners’ roles in MALL:

1- Accessing information when they need

2- Having responsibility for their learning
3- Learning with their learning speed
4- Discovering and using their learning styles
5- Creating and sharing new information or product
6- Studying with their peers collaboratively
7- Evaluating themselves and other groups

Teachers’ roles in MALL:

1- Identifying required mobile tools and technologies

2- Determining the strengths and weaknesses of used methods and resolving the
weaknesses with different methods
3- Facilitating, guiding, advising, and having high level of self-confidence about
courses
4- Learning with their students
5- Eliminating the barriers
6- Increasing learners’ motivation
7- Arranging activities to support interactive interactions between collaborative

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groups
8- Arranging activities for evaluation of process

Three stages of CALL:

 The 30+ year history of CALL can be roughly divided into three main
stages:
1. Behaviouristic CALL
2. Communicative CALL
3. Integrative CALL

Behaviouristic CALL:

 Implemented in the 1960s and 1970s

 Repetitive language drills, referred to as drill-and-practice (or, as 'drill-and-
kill')
 Computer was viewed as a mechanical tutor which never grew tired or
judgmental and allowed students to work at an individual pace
 Extensive drills, grammatical explanations, and translation tests

Communicative CALL:

 Emerged in the late 1970s and early 1980s, at the same time that
behaviouristic approaches to language teaching were being rejected at both
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 the theoretical and pedagogical level, and when new personal computers
were creating greater possibilities for individual work
 Proponents of communicative CALL stressed that computer-based activities
should focus more on using forms than on the forms themselves, teach
grammar implicitly rather than explicitly, allow and encourage students to
generate original utterances rather than just manipulate prefabricated
language
 Allowing students to work not only alone but also in groups

Integrative CALL :

 Social or socio-cognitive view, which placed greater emphasis on language

use in authentic social contexts
 Task-based, project-based, and content-based approaches to integrate
learners in authentic environments, and also to integrate the various skills of
language learning and use
 Seeks both to integrate various skills (e.g., listening, speaking, reading, and
writing) and also integrate technology more fully into the language learning
process
 Students learn to use a variety of technological tools as an ongoing process
of language learning and use, rather than visiting the computer lab on a once
a week basis for isolated exercises (whether the exercises be behaviouristic
or communicative).

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Podcast:

Defined as “a digital recording of a broadcast” that is typically “made available on

the web for downloading to a computer or personal audio player”.

Can be used in ways that are dynamic (both audio and video file), collaborative,
and interactive.

Benefits of podcasts :

 Podcasting represents a rich source of input via audio, and potentially via
video. This input can reinforce class instruction by offering an additional or
alternative mode (rather than the traditional textbook or teacher) of input to
students.
 Podcasts can help to develop autonomous learning and motivation.
Motivation can increase, due to the fact that students are creating authentic
content for a real audience and not just for a grade.
Students can ask questions, interact with, and communicate with podcasters, thus
providing opportunities for both autonomy and motivation.

Output is also recognized as essential for second language learning. Swain and
Lapkin (1995) suggested having students record and then listen to themselves as
they edit their output; afterwards, students can go back, listen again, and revise as
needed. This type of approach can be quite useful in podcasting as it is easy to
record, re-record, and listen to various segments of a podcast. After students

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record podcasts, they can listen multiple times, edit their podcasts, and comment
on their classmates’ recordings.

Challenges in using podcast :

 Time-consuming to create
 Requires technological know-how that is beyond some teachers’
comfort level
 Students may require extra training and assistance for production of
podcasts
 Administrative concerns (such as the blocking of certain sites or the
disallowing of the use of podcasts in some schools)
 How to assess podcasts and how to assign grades for the projects
 Not all students have access to the appropriate recording or playback
equipment, and often the recordings that they make can be of poor
quality
 Students may not listen to podcasts for more than the required time
Many students are shy in front of a microphone or camera, or are
reluctant to be as creative as they are expected to be.

Some practical ideas to consider when creating podcasting projects

 P = Portability: Take advantage of the mobility offered by podcasting

and MP3 players and make mobile learning a priority. Encourage
students to access materials outside of class time and to make language
learning a part of their daily lives.
 O = Originality: Use authentic materials that have already been
created, but also encourage originality and creativity among learners in

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 designing their own recordings and their own responses to podcasts
they hear.
 D = Distribution. Remember that that podcasts can be widely
distributed to potential audiences, and that there are a number of
available distribution options (e.g., in class, out of class, mobile, etc.)
which teachers can explore.
 C = Collaboration. Take advantage of podcasting’s potential to create
communities of learners, and allow learners to interact with each
other and with native speakers.
 A = Authenticity. Podcasts should be used in academic contexts in the
same kinds of ways that they are used in non-academic settings.
Consider the
authenticity of your podcast project, and use podcasting in class in the
same way that you would use it in your everyday life. Make sure that it
is relevant and interesting to students’ lives and that its academic
implementation resembles natural podcasting use.
 S = Sustainability. Create reusable projects that can be used semester
after
semester and can become self-sustaining, in the interest of maximizing
your time and talents. Of course, projects can always be
modified as the course’s goals or tools change, but creating self-
sustaining projects will save time and energy.
 T = Technology. Prensky (2009) refers to our students’ “digital wisdom”
as an additional benefit of including technology-based tasks in our
curricula. This digital wisdom is a “twofold concept, referring both to

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 wisdom arising from the use of digital technology to access cognitive
power beyond our innate capacity and to wisdom in the prudent use
of technology to enhance our capabilities”.

Global Learning in a Pandemic:

The recent Covid-19 pandemic has highlighted the
interconnectedness of our world and the need for global
collaboration and intercultural awareness. This underscores the
importance of approaches to language learning and teaching that
prepare students to be the critically engaged citizens our global
era requires. Language researchers have identified
telecollaboration as a means to improve both foreign language
learning and intercultural competence (Belz, 2003; Chun, 2015;
Furstenberg, Levet, English, & Maillet, 2001; Guth & Helm, 2010;
Schenker, 2013). Given these benefits, O’Dowd and Lewis (2016)
suggest virtual exchange “go beyond being an isolated activity
pursued by practitioner researchers in the area of CALL and
should instead form part of the common battery of educational
tools (e.g. MOOCs and the flipped classroom) used by university
educators across academic disciplines” (p. 17).
Using virtual exchanges to deepen intercultural learning takes
inspiration from the Cultura project, developed at MIT in 1997,

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which began as an email exchange between France and the U.S.
to help students relativize their cultural values. However, two of
the project’s founders concede that the project, largely based on
exchanging written questionnaires, does not fully utilize today’s
interactive internet and mobile app capabilities (Furstenberg &
English, 2016). As videoconferencing tools grow in popularity,
O’Dowd and Lewis (2016) suggest more data be gathered about
building students’ intercultural abilities through virtual exchanges
via synchronous video platforms. Researchers mention a variety
of challenges with the recent generation of virtual exchanges,
however, including: increased pressure on teachers, technical and
scheduling difficulties, unstable project partners, varying
educational goals for students, communication failures and
reinforced stereotypes. (Chun, 2014; Goodwin-Jones, 2013;
O’Dowd & Ritter, 2006; Schenker, 2012; Ware, 2005; Ware &
Kramsch, 2005). Unfortunately, these real and perceived
difficulties have prevented virtual exchanges from becoming as
pervasive as research suggests they should be (O’Dowd, 2018).

Previous Studies on the Benefits of Technology:

Engagement: Some researchers maintain that one of the benefits of technology
use is an increase in student motivation, as fun and games are being brought into
the classroom (Lee 2000). This fun factor is a key benefit in a language classroom.
Moreover, the novelty of the new technologies or learners’ experience of those

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technologies in the classroom can enhance learners’ engagement and motivation
in fulfilling tasks.

AR:
Augmented reality (AR) is a technology that simultaneously aligns
real and computer-generated three-dimensional virtual objects
with each other and integrates them into real-life (Azuma, 1997;
Azuma et al., 2001). This technology creates a mixed reality in
the same physical environment, allowing its users to observe
virtual objects presented with real-world entities (Wei et al.,
2015). These objects include 3D images, graphics, audio and/or
GPS (Ramya & Madhumathi, 2017). To view and interact with AR
content, including touching, moving, and interacting objects with
each other with virtual buttons, a user gets aid from a handheld
computer, computer monitor or a head-mounted display device.
Furthermore, this simple and interactive technology can be easily
used even by students without computer skills (Lu & Liu, 2015).
AR content is user friendly and easily accessible through an
application. As a result, all these features can enable AR to be
used as a privileged and attractive high-tech instructional
material with students, especially Generation Z students, called
“digital natives” (Prensky, 2001) and have grown up within the
era of technology.

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Advantages of AR:
The use of AR-based language teaching materials can help
language learners acquire, internalize, construct knowledge, and
improve their critical thinking skills (Liu & Tsai, 2013) with the
provision of AR-based scenarios, problems, and cases.

AR creates a rich learning environment with its 3D, interactive,

visual, and auditory and dynamic structure (Küçük et al., 2014),
so it can be used to teach vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation,
and four skills in language teaching and learning:
 Due to the auditory nature of AR, it can as well be used to
teach and improve pronunciation (Chen, 2018; Nugraha et
al., 2019).
 Sentences can be presented to language learners in a
context through which they can learn target grammar items
such as present simple. Therefore, AR can be used to teach
or improve the grammar of students in a meaningful context
(Aguirregoitia Mart‫ي‬nez et al., 2017; Liu & Tsai, 2013).
 AR allows language learners to see and listen to reading
passages and authentically interact with them, using
interactive AR animated books that try to visualize material
using codes embedded in them, enhancing memorability
(Dünser & Hornecker, 2007). Thus, AR can teach and
enhance students’ reading skills (Vate-U-Lan, 2012).
 It can also help present sample writing materials for students
to practice writing in language teaching (Liu & Tsai, 2013).

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  It can also support teaching speaking (Boonbrahm et al.,
2015) as it can animate a dialogue visually and orally.

Disadvantages of AR:
However, there are also some limitations or disadvantages of
using AR in education. Ibez et al (2014) stated that students could
lose sight of the more critical points they need to learn about the
subject by immersing themselves in the attraction of AR content.
In this case, what students learn is limited to the information
provided by AR. Moreover, since the interaction and experience
with AR are partially different from the real world, this may cause
students to have difficulties when exhibiting the same behavior in
the real world from time to time (Dünser et al., 2007). Besides,
technical disruptions (e.g., problems with installing the
application, sensitivity of AR to light, etc.) may also negatively
affect students’ concentration (Chang et al., 2015).

Digital story telling:

Digital storytelling (DST) is a method that combines the use of

technology and traditional storytelling (Signes, 2010) and can be
defined as writing and telling a story with computer-based
programs (Robin, 2006; Stanley, 2018), including multimedia such
as audio, text, video, and music (Moradi & Chen, 2019).

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According to the Center of Digital Storytelling (as cited in Robin,
2006, 2008), effective digital stories include seven key elements:
a. a point of view (showing the main points of a digital
story and its perspective to the audience),
b. a dramatic question (a key question that catches the
attention of the audience and engages them in the
story),
c. emotional content (concentrating on the issues that
connect the story to the audience in a powerful and
personal way),
d. the gift of your voice (recording a digital story with
one’s voice to help the audience understand the
context of the story),
e. the power of soundtrack (being integrated with audio
materials such as music),
f. economy (not overloading the audience by using too
much information),
g. pacing (being related to the rate of how the digital story
progresses).

In addition, Moradi and Chen (2019) stated that an

effective digital story is prepared in four phases:

1. pre-production (students’ deciding their topics for their

digital stories after their research, writing their scripts,
telling their stories traditionally, and preparing their
storyboards),

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 2. production (students’ preparing digital multimedia contents
related to the topics of their stories and then recording their
stories by using their voices),
3. post-production (students’ arranging the contents of their
stories and make their stories digital),
4. Distribution (students’ sharing their digital stories with other
people).

Use of Digital Storytelling in Language Teaching:

According to the four phases (Moradi & Chen, 2019) of preparing a digital story,
language learners are expected to write their scripts for their stories, tell them,
and record them by using their voices while preparing a digital story for their
language lessons. Therefore, they read, write, listen, and speak in the target
languages they learn. This indicates that DST can improve language learners’
listening skills (Obari & Lambacher, 2012), speaking skills (Arroba & Acosta, 2021;
Eissa, 2019; Meri-Yilan, 2020; Mesa & Alejandro, 2020), writing skills (Balaman,
2018; Chiang, 2020; Kim & Lee, 2018; Mesa & Alejandro, 2020), and reading skills
(Brenner, 2014; Gimeno-Sanz, 2015; Enokida, 2016). In addition, DST can improve
language learners’ vocabulary (Leong et al., 2019; Tajeri et al., 2017) and
pronunciation (Gimeno-Sanz, 2015; Mirza, 2020) now that they learn new words
in writing the scripts of their stories and practice pronunciation while recording
their digital stories.

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According to the four phases of preparing a digital story ( Moradi & Chen, 2019),
language learners are supposed to prepare their digital stories in pairs or groups
on their own by completing different procedures such as deciding their topics for
their digital stories after their research, preparing digital
multimedia contents related to the topics of their stories, and arranging the
contents of their stories. All these procedures require them (a) to think critically
about how to do research for their stories, to organize the stories, and to present
them and (b) to deal with any problems they may encounter while preparing their
digital stories. Therefore, DST can help learners to improve their organizational
and research skills (Mirza, 2020; Sevilla-Pavَn et al., 2012) as well as their
presentation, problem-solving, and critical thinking skills (Sevilla-Pavَn et al.,
2012).

Chatbots for Language Learning:

Chatbots are software programs that simulate human conversations (Berns et al.,
2018; Fryer et al., 2017; Wang & Petrina, 2013). The first notable chatbot, Eliza,
developed in the 1960s, gave users the (shortterm) illusion of conversing with a
Rogerian psychotherapist. Weizenbaum (1966) aim was to study the “natural
language communication between man and machine” (p. 36), yet it is the
appealing idea of virtual personal assistants that has prevailed, has led to
successful applications in business, personal development and education.
Language learners can benefit from this development to increase opportunities
for conversational practice, starting with talking to their smartphone’s voice
assistant (Dizon & Tang, 2020), or by using any general app in their second

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language (L2). For example, Luka advises on restaurants, weather and news; Lark
is a pocket coach and nutritionist; Penny, a virtual bank manager; or Hello
Hipmunk, a reactive travel consultant. These virtual assistants not only provide
good language practice if used in the L2, but they also have real-life relevance.

Gamification:
In literature, we can see the growth of games with the evolution of technology,
and the role of both in education particularly on EFL.
Gamification sits well with the globalized and modern English language class in
higher education, where student-centric approaches cater to a more culturally
heterogeneous and technologically inclined learning environment.

Distinct from game-based learning, gamification adds game elements to a

nongame situation, while the former uses existing games to enhance the learning
process.

Meaningful gamification works as a facilitator in motivating students to read

background material and grasp key concepts that in turn facilitate a flipped
classroom, as students come to class with a level of competency with the material
that enables them to participate in discussions.

The tool of gamification also allows writing skills to be reinforced after they have
been introduced to the classroom, by providing an engaging platform whereby
students can practice these skills in various quests that are created for this
purpose.

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 What differentiates “serious games” from other forms of gaming is that
education is the primary goal, rather than entertainment. Scholars now take
seriously the notion that “using games as an educational tool provides
opportunities for deeper learning”, and a Pearson research report suggests
that educational digital games
1. are built on sound learning principles,
2. provide more engagement for the learner,
3. provide personalized learning opportunities,
4. teach 21st-century skills, and
5. provide an environment for authentic and relevant assessment.

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