Annals of Nuclear Energy 203 (2024) 110516

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Annals of Nuclear Energy

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Thermal design and analysis of intermediate heat exchanger with

alternative coolants
Sun Yixiong , Qiu Liqing *, Lei Jin , Zhang Liang , Sun Sheng *, Jin Shuai
Nuclear Power Institute of China, Chengdu 610213, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The intermediate heat exchanger (IHX) is the key equipment of the irradiation test loop with alternative coolants
Intermediate heat exchanger including sodium, lead, Lead-Bismuth Eutectic Alloy (LBE), gas and liquid salt which are used in Generation IV
Alternative coolants reactors. The IHX should operate under various coolant conditions with large differences in power levels and
Design method
temperatures. The study conducts the thermal design and analysis on the IHX with alternative coolants. The
Shell-and-tube heat exchanger
Double wall tube
scheme for series of heat exchangers and the scheme for double wall tube are proposed. The double-walled-tube
Thermal analysis IHX has a lower pressure drop for most conditions and concentrate temperature difference on both sides of gap
for high-temperature conditions, making it more feasible. The secondary temperature is the determining factor of
heat transfer capacity, while LBE flow has a slight effect on the heat transfer coefficient. Adjusting the secondary
flow is effective in broadening the range of irradiation tests, but this is limited by the secondary flow and
temperature.

research reactor developed in Russia, is specifically engineered with

three external closed loops with alternative coolants (Dragunov et al.,
1. Introduction 2012). The conceptual design of the irradiation device is illustrated in
Fig. 1 (Tuzov, 2014). The primary loop, connected to the device, can
With the development of Generation IV nuclear energy systems, alter the coolants type, encompassing sodium, lead, LBE, gas and liquid
there has been a significant breakthrough in the design concept of nu­ salt, in accordance with the specific irradiated objects. As shown in
clear reactors (U.S. DOE, 2002). Compared to Generation III reactors in Fig. 1, the IHX is arranged at the top of the device to connect the primary
development and construction, Generation IV reactors are mainly fast and secondary loops. The secondary loop adopts sodium as the sec­
neutron reactors, which mostly adopt non-aqueous coolants. The ondary coolant to remove the heat from the primary loop and control the
development of Generation IV reactors has also prompted the develop­ loop power. Whereas the study adopts LBE instead of sodium as the
ment of advanced fuel elements suitable for the reactors, and the fuel secondary coolant due to its stable chemical properties and excellent
elements usually need to be irradiated through the irradiation test loop heat transfer capability. The primary loop conditions may encompass
in the research reactor to validate the reliability. The irradiation loop sodium, lead, LBE, gas and liquid salt, each characterized by markedly
comprises the in-pile irradiation device and external coolant loop. The distinct operational temperatures and power levels. Consequently, the
external coolant loop contains the primary loop, capable of simulating IHX, as the key equipment, should adapt to different primary coolant
the actual reactor environment for the fuel irradiation test, and the conditions and satisfy the varying heat transfer requirements with sig­
secondary loop, designed to remove heat from the primary loop. Facil­ nificant variation in heat transfer temperature differences.
itating the thermal exchange between the primary and secondary loops The study conducts the structural design and thermal analysis of the
is the intermediate heat exchanger (IHX). However, most irradiation IHX with alternative coolants relevant to Generation IV reactors. The
loops in the world based on research reactors are pressurized water IHX in this study is particularly well-suited for application in the
loops, which are inherently incapable of providing a non-aqueous working conditions with variable operation conditions or large heat
coolant environment to evaluate the performance of fuel elements transfer temperature differences. Furthermore, its applicability extends
designed for Generation IV reactors (Sienicki and Grandy, 2016; Wen­ to some degree within Generation IV reactor systems.
hua et al., 2018). Coolant conditions involving liquid metal, molten salt and gas
Against this backdrop, the MBIR, a multipurpose fast neutron

* Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (Q. Liqing), [email protected] (S. Sheng).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anucene.2024.110516
Received 31 August 2023; Received in revised form 16 February 2024; Accepted 27 March 2024
Available online 2 April 2024
0306-4549/© 2024 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S. Yixiong et al. Annals of Nuclear Energy 203 (2024) 110516

Nomenclature ΔTm log-mean temperature difference, K

ε relative roughness
A overall heat transfer area, m2 ζf frictional drag coefficient
cp specific heat capacity, J/(kg⋅K) ζj1 local drag coefficient at inlet
Di internal shell diameter, m ζj2 local drag coefficient at outlet
d0 tube outer diameter, m η heat transfer margin
def equivalent diameter for flow, m λ thermal conductivity, W/(m⋅K)
det equivalent diameter for heat transfer, m ν dynamic viscosity, Pa⋅s
di tube inner diameter, m ρ density, kg/m3
h convective heat transfer coefficient, W/(m2⋅K)
K total heat transfer coefficient, W/(m2⋅K) Subscripts
L effective length of tube, m a actual value
m mass flow rate, kg/s in inlet
Nu Nusselt number out outlet
n tube number s shell-side
p tube pitch, m t tube-side
Q heat transfer power, W th theoretical value
T temperature, K w tube wall
u flow rate, m/s Abbreviations
Greek IHX intermediate heat exchanger
Δpf frictional pressure drop, Pa IHX-D IHX based on double wall tube
Δpj1 local pressure drop at inlet, Pa IHX-S IHX based on series connection
Δpj2 local pressure drop at outlet, Pa LBE lead bismuth eutectic alloy

(Lawson, 2017; Xiang et al., 2018), plate heat exchangers (PHX) (Wang
et al., 2022), plate-and-fin heat exchangers (Qi et al., 2011), finned-tube
heat exchangers (Bhuiyan and Islam, 2016), printed circuit heat
exchanger (PCHX) (Yuan et al., 2022; Guangxu et al., 2020; Lei and
Savvas, 2020), double-pipe heat exchangers (Eric et al., 2021), and
bayonet tube heat exchangers are all the configurations in high-
temperature applications. Among these, the STHXs and PHXs are the
most widely employed. The STHXs are utilized for high-temperature and
high-pressure heat transfer between gases and liquids. They might be
fabricated of various materials and used for specific working conditions,
making them the most versatile heat exchangers. In support of the
German Nuclear Process Heat Project, a 10 MW STHX capable of 950℃
operation was designed, fabricated and tested at 950℃, the results
confirmed the performance and structural integrity (Colin, 1996). A
helium-to-helium IHX with the capacity of 10 MW operated at very high
temperature of about 900℃ in Ref. (Kazuhiko et al., 1991). The PHXs,
characterized by compact design, necessitate minimal space for a given
heat capacity compared to STHXs. While the PHXs cannot be opened,
the utilization is confined to heat transfer fluids with insignificant
fouling (Mahmoudinezhad et al., 2023). The PCHX is one of the most
prominent IHX configurations for very high-temperature reactors, with
many advantages including good pressure capabilities and supporting a
wide range of temperatures. Heat transfer from gas to gas, such as the
supercritical CO2 process, is the main application. Additionally, the
PCHXs are utilized for heat transfer involving LBE, molten salt and other
Generation IV coolants (Hong et al., 2024; Qingzi Zhu and Bamdad,
2021).
At present, the conventional shell-and-tube heat exchangers are still
the prevalent configuration of the IHX applied to the pressurized water
irradiation loops. The pressurized water loop of the High Flux Engi­
neering Test Reactor (HFETR) located at the Nuclear Power Institute of
China adopted the regenerative heat exchanger to reduce the thermal
Fig. 1. Device of external closed loop with alternative coolants.
stress caused by the temperature difference between primary water and
secondary water (Gang et al., 2022; Junping et al., 2022). The regen­
erative heat exchanger comprised regeneration section and cooling
usually involve high temperature. However, heat exchangers designed
section, the former was tube-and-shell structure and the latter was
for very high-temperature applications is different from the general heat
casing structure. The cooler of the Supercritical-water Cooled Reactor-
exchangers in terms of designs, configurations and materials (Mah­
Fuel Qualification Test Loop of LVR-15 (Raqué et al., 2012) consisted
moudinezhad et al., 2023). The shell-and-tube heat exchangers (STHX)

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S. Yixiong et al. Annals of Nuclear Energy 203 (2024) 110516

Table 1 IHX configuration is capable of meeting the diverse heat transfer re­
Design inputs of IHX. quirements of different coolant conditions with significant differences in
Primary coolant Design power (kW) Tube-side temperature (℃) heat transfer temperature differences and loop powers.
Inlet Outlet
2. Mathematical and physical models
Sodium 1000 550 350
LBE 500 500 350
Lead 500 550 400 2.1. Design inputs of IHX
FLiBe 300 650 630
Helium (7 MPa) 100 650 300 In the study, the primary coolants include liquid metal (sodium, lead,
LBE), helium and LiF-BeF2 (FLiBe), which is the preferred Molten Salt
Reactor (MSR) primary coolant choice (Romatoski and Hu, 2017), and
of 19 U-tubes, and the IHX of secondary loop was the double-pipe
LBE is the secondary coolant. The temperatures for irradiation tests vary
structure with helium gap to establish large temperature difference.
depending on the specific Generation IV reactor fuels being tested. The
There are few irradiation loops with non-aqueous coolants around the
irradiation device is connected to the IHX through the irradiation loop
world, moreover, the majority of these loops are either in the conceptual
pipe. The coolant flows from the outlet of irradiation device to the inlet
design stage or only constructed out of pile. The coolant of irradiation
of the IHX through the loop pipe, and the loop pipe is insulated to
loop of Fast Flux Test Facility was sodium, the IHX was a spiral tube heat
prevent the heat removal from coolant. Therefore, the inlet temperature
exchanger to increase the heat transfer area (Cabell, 1980). High Tem­
on the tube side is essentially equal to the outlet temperature of the
perature Helium Loop (HTHL) (Berka et al., 2015) built by the Nuclear
irradiation device. Furthermore, the outlet temperature on the tube side
Research Institute Rez arranged heat regenerator in the irradiation de­
should take into account the range of temperature that primary pump
vice to minimize heat losses, and the heat regenerator was also tube-and-
can sustain. Based on research on the design parameters of Gen-IV re­
shell structure. For LBE, molten salt and other coolants, there are various
actors (Pioro, 2017), the design inputs for the IHX are listed in the
experimental loops to study the flow and heat transfer characteristics or
Table 1. The reference (Xinde, 2007) summarized the experiment results
carry out other experiments, where the heat exchangers are mainly
of compatibility tests of austenitic stainless steel and LBE. 316L stainless
conventional tube-and-shell heat exchangers or Print Circuit Heat
steel exhibited remarkable corrosion resistance below 470℃. The pro­
Exchanger. The LBE-helium experimental loop was constructed at the
tective oxide film formed on the surface of 316L stainless steel is com­
Institute of Engineering Thermophysics, Chinese Academy of Science to
plete and thin, ensuring the reliability of stainless steel by preventing
research how to improve heat transfer efficiency of LBE-helium heat
serious corrosion. Consequently, it is advisable to maintain the tem­
exchanger based on accelerator driven sub-critical system (Wang et al.,
perature of secondary LBE below the threshold of 470℃.
2017). Considering the high temperature of LBE, heavy liquid metal
loop KYLIN-II adopted the heat exchanger with double wall tube (Liu
et al., 2018) to maintain a given temperature drop and monitor the 2.2. Design method
leakages from LBE. Based on Monju and Joyo fast neutron reactors
experimental loops, Fujui University operated 50 MW molten salt- The IHX with alternative coolants must satisfy the conditions of so­
molten salt heat exchanger and molten salt-air heat exchanger to dium, lead, LBE, helium and liquid salt systems simultaneously. There­
obtain the tube side and shell side heat transfer correlations, the former fore, the design methodology differs from that of the heat exchanger
was tube-and-shell heat exchanger and the latter was finned tube air designed for a single condition. As shown in Fig. 2, the key points in this
cooler (Mochizuki and Takano, 2009). Qian Jin (Qian et al., 2017) methodology include the initial calculation of geometric dimensions,
investigated two tube-and-shell heat exchangers experimentally to heat transfer calculation and parameters matching verification for
provide basis for the subsequent research, including a gas cooled one alternative coolant working conditions.
with finned tubes and a molten salt to salt one with segmental baffles in The structure design and heat transfer calculation are both based on
the shell side. the Na-LBE working condition, where the power is highest and the
In summary, both STHXs and PCHXs are the prospective configura­ largest heat transfer area is required. The initial structure is determined
tions for the IHX with alternative coolants. STHXs, boasting the broadest by these two steps. The method for calculating geometric dimensions of
range of applications, including IHXs in test loops, exhibit relatively the IHX is identical to that of traditional heat exchanger design. The total
uncomplicated structures. This simplicity facilitates ease of optimization heat transfer coefficient is estimated based on the given Na-LBE condi­
and structural redesign. Therefore, the STHX is the preferred configu­ tion, and then used to calculate the heat transfer area, allowing for the
ration of the test loop IHX with alternative coolants. geometric design of the heat transfer unit. The heat transfer calculation
Nevertheless, heat exchanger designs are generally based on specific is essential in evaluating whether the heat transfer capacity of the IHX
conditions, implying that the IHX with alternative coolants can only be matches the power of Na-LBE working condition. Parameter matching
designed based on a particular coolant condition. When the loop coolant verification for alternative coolant working conditions is necessary to
is switched to an alternative coolant, the actual operation condition of ensure effective operation of the IHX for all conditions. Heat transfer
the IHX deviates from the initial design parameters, including variations capacity can be adjusted by altering the temperature and flow rate of the
in coolant temperature and loop power. If the IHX adopts the above secondary LBE. Because of the high temperature corrosion effect of LBE
configurations including the typical STHXs and PCHXs, this transition on structural materials, the temperature of LBE should not exceed
results in a mismatch between the heat transfer capacity of the IHX and 470℃, where the oxide film on the surface of stainless steel maintains its
the power requirements of the irradiation loop. Moreover, there are thickness and completeness.
large temperature differences between the hot and cold side coolants
under conditions involving high-temperature coolants such as helium or 2.3. Models for heat transfer and flow
molten salt. It is imperative to consider the applicability of typical
STHXs under large temperature difference conditions. In this study, a 2.3.1. Heat transfer model
novel IHX design based on the STHX configuration is proposed, that is, The heat balance equation Eq. (1) is used to calculate flow rates of
the IHX with alternative coolants. The feature of this design lies in its tube-side fluid and shell-side fluid for a given working condition. The
adaptability, wherein the heat transfer characteristics, including the properties of fluids are summarized in Appendix A.
heat transfer area and heat transfer coefficient, can be systematically ( ) ( )
adjusted with changes in loop coolant conditions. Consequently, a single Q = cp,t mt Tt,in − Tt,out = cp,s ms Ts,in − Ts,out (1)

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S. Yixiong et al. Annals of Nuclear Energy 203 (2024) 110516

Fig. 2. Overall design flowchart of IHX with alternative coolants.

heat transfer tube, the heat transfer of IHX mainly includes the heat
conduction of the tube and the heat convection of fluids on both sides of
the tube. The outer wall of the tube is taken as the reference surface, and
K, the total heat transfer coefficient, is calculated by Eq. (4).
1
K= ( ) (4)
d0 1
⋅
di ht
+ 2λd0w ⋅ln d0
di
+ h1s

where λw is the thermal conductivity of the tube, ht and hs indicate the

convective heat transfer coefficients on each side of the tube respec­
tively, d0 is the outer diameter of tube and di is the inner diameter of
Fig. 3. Main flow channel on the shell side. tube.
Nut ⋅λt
ht = tube side
where Q is the heat transfer power, cp is the specific heat capacity of det,t
(5)
fluid, T is the temperature of fluid and m is the mass flow rate of fluid. Nus ⋅λs
The subscripts t and s represent the tube-side fluid and shell-side fluid, hs = shell side
det,s
and the subscripts in and out represent the inlet and outlet, respectively.
The mean temperature difference is calculated according to the where Nu is the Nusselt number, λ is the thermal conductivity of fluid
design inputs. Estimate the total heat transfer coefficient, and then the and det is the equivalent diameter for heat transfer, the subscripts t and s
heat transfer area is available by Eq. (2). The result is the basis of geo­ mean the tube-side fluid and shell-side fluid.
metric structural design. The calculation of Nusselt number and the equivalent diameter are
crucial for the heat transfer model. The Nusselt number can be obtained
A = Q/(K⋅ΔTm ) (2)
from the heat transfer correlations, which are summarized in Appendix
where ΔTm is the log-mean temperature difference, which is calculated B. The equivalent diameter is equal to 4A/P, where A represents the
by Eq. (3), A is the heat transfer area, and K is the total heat transfer cross-sectional area of the flow channel and P represents the wetted
coefficient. perimeter. Tube-side flow channel is the inner pipe of heat transfer tube,
( ) ( ) so det,t = di. However, the main flow channel on shell side is depicted in
Tt,in − Ts,out − Tt,out − Ts,in Fig. 3, so det,s is calculated using the following equation.
ΔTm = [( ) ( )] (3)
ln Tt,in − Ts,out − Tt,out − Ts,in ( )
πd 2
4 × 12p2 sin π3 − 12 × 40
The key to heat transfer calculation is calculating the heat transfer
det,s = (6)
coefficient. The calculation of theoretical heat transfer area also adopts 1
2
πd0
Eq. (2). Without considering the fouling resistance inside and outside the

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S. Yixiong et al. Annals of Nuclear Energy 203 (2024) 110516

Therefore, the heat transfer margin, η, is defined as follows:

Aa − Ath
η= × 100% (8)
Ath

where Ath is the theoretical heat transfer area of the IHX.

Considering the accuracy of the heat transfer correlation, the
reduction of the heat transfer capacity due to the corrosion and blockage
of heat transfer tube and so on, a heat transfer area margin of approxi­
mately 25 % is more conservative for the shell-and-tube heat exchanger
(Meizhong and Zhongzheng, 2018; Songwen, 2002). However, within
acceptable bounds, a margin falling within the range of 10 % to 20 % is
deemed suitable. If the heat transfer area margin is less than 25 %, it
typically indicates that the heat transfer capacity of IHX matches the
power of the loop, thereby implying that the structural design is
reasonable.

2.3.2. Pressure drop model

Fig. 4. Heat exchangers connected in series. While considering the primary coolant, the pressure drop contains
the frictional loss along the tube, represented by Δpf,t, and local losses at
the inlet and outlet, which are Δpj1,t and Δpj2,t respectively. For the
Table 2 secondary LBE, the pressure drop only considers frictional loss along the
Specifications of IHX-S. shell side, represented by Δpf,s.
Items Value
l ρt u2t
Internal diameter of the tube (m) 0.007 Δpf,t = ζf,t (9)
di 2
External diameter of the tube (m) 0.011
Tube pitch (m) 0.015
Effective length of tube (m) 0.4 ρt u2t
Δpj1,t = ζj1 (10)
Internal shell diameter (m) 0.12 2
Tube number 37
Maximum number of series 5 ρt u2t
Δpj2,t = ζj2 (11)
2

l ρs u2s
Δpf,s = ζf,s (12)
def,s 2

where ζ is the drag coefficients, ρ is the density of fluid, u is the velocity

of fluid, the subscripts t and s mean the tube-side fluid and shell-side
fluid, def,s represents the equivalent diameter of shell-side flow and is
defined as follows:
( )
4 πD2i /4 − nπd02 /4
def,s = (13)
πDi + nπd0

where Di is the internal diameter of the IHX shell, n is the number of heat
Fig. 5. Cross-section view of IHX-S. transfer tubes and d0 is the outer diameter of tube.
Studies have indicated that there is no significant difference in the
flow characteristics between the conventional fluids and fluids such as
Table 3 liquid metals and molten salts (Yingwei et al., 2018; Zhipeng et al.,
Specifications of IHX-D. 2021; Sheng et al., 2020). Thus, ζ is calculated by the correlations
Items Value suitable for water.
Internal diameter of inner tube (m) 0.006 0.316
External diameter of inner tube (m) 0.009 ζf = (14)
Re0.25
Internal diameter of outer tube (m) 0.010
External diameter of outer tube (m) 0.012 ( )
Tube pitch (m) 0.015 nπdi2 /4
ζj1 = 0.5 1 − (15)
Effective length of tube (m) 1.4 πD2i /4
Internal shell diameter (m) 0.14
Tube number 61 ( )2
nπdi2 /4
ζj2 = 1− (16)
πD2i /4
where p is the tube pitch of heat transfer tubes, d0 is the outer diameter
of tube. where Re = ρude/μ, is the Reynolds number, di is the inner diameter of
The actual heat transfer area of IHX, Aa, is defined as follows, with tube, Di is the internal diameter of the IHX shell.
the outer wall of the tube being taken as the reference surface. In case where ζf refers to ζf,t, de is equal to di. On the other hand, if ζf
refers to ζf,s, de is equal to def,s.
Aa = nπd0 L (7)

where n is the number of heat transfer tubes and L is the effective length
of heat transfer tube.

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S. Yixiong et al. Annals of Nuclear Energy 203 (2024) 110516

Fig. 6. Schemata diagram of IHX-D.

Fig. 7. Theoretical heat transfer area variation curve with secondary LBE flow for IHX-S.

3. Thermal design of IHX across an extensive range to accommodate multiple conditions.

Q = KAΔTm (17)
3.1. Geometric structure and main dimensions
One option to adjust the heat transfer area A is connecting tube-and-
Eq. (17) indicates that the heat transfer capacity of IHX is dependent shell heat exchangers in series, where primary coolant flows through all
on the total heat transfer coefficient K, the heat transfer area A and the the heat exchangers along tube side, while secondary LBE flows through
temperature difference Δtm. Because power levels and temperature selected heat exchangers as needed for heat transfer. The schematic
differences vary significantly for different coolant conditions, in order to diagram is shown in Fig. 4. The key of this method is to determine the
achieve the necessary heat transfer, the IHX must adjust either A or K maximum number of heat exchangers that can be connected in series.

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S. Yixiong et al. Annals of Nuclear Energy 203 (2024) 110516

Fig. 8. Theoretical heat transfer area variation curve with secondary LBE flow for IHX-D.

Table 4
Standard working conditions for IHX-S and IHX-D.
(a)The IHX-S

Primary Tube-side inlet temperature Primary coolant mass flow (kg/ Shell-side inlet temperature Secondary LBE mass flow (kg/s) Number of series
coolant (℃) s) (℃)

Sodium 550 3.93 290 45.2 5

Pb 500 34.3 330 25.7 5
LBE 500 23.4 300 25.0 5
Helium 650 0.0551 230 10.5 2
FLiBe 650 6.29 320 16.2 1
(b)The IHX-D
Primary Tube-side inlet temperature Primary coolant mass flow (kg/ Shell-side inlet temperature Secondary LBE mass flow (kg/s) Medium in gap
coolant (℃) s) (℃)
Sodium 550 3.93 290 46.2 Sodium
Pb 500 34.3 330 25.8 Sodium
LBE 500 23.4 300 25.2 Sodium
Helium 650 0.0551 240 8.91 Helium
FLiBe 650 6.29 320 15.7 Helium

The maximum and minimum heat transfer areas are calculated based on (IHX-S). A cross-sectional view of the IHX-S is illustrated in Fig. 5.
the sodium and FLiBe working conditions, respectively, and then the To adjust the total heat transfer coefficient K, double wall heat
maximum number of series can be obtained by taking the ratio of the transfer tube structure is feasible for a single heat exchanger. Adjust the
maximum area to the minimum area. conductive resistance of heat transfer tube and, as a result, the total heat
Comprehensively considering the coolant flow rate in the heat transfer coefficient, by altering the thermally conductive medium in the
transfer tubes, the tube pitch and the tube arrangement of IHX, Table 2 gap between the two walls of tube. The loop power is much lower for
presents the main dimensions of the IHX based on series connection FLiBe-LBE and helium-LBE conditions compared to liquid metal

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S. Yixiong et al. Annals of Nuclear Energy 203 (2024) 110516

Fig. 9. Wall temperature distribution of heat transfer tube in axial direction.

series. It is obvious that a specific combination of secondary LBE flow

Table 5
and inlet temperature, which makes the theoretical area equal to the
Pressure drops of IHX-S and IHX-D.
actual area of a certain number of heat exchangers in series, exists for
(a)The IHX-S any coolant condition. For the lead or LBE condition, four or five units in
Primary coolant Tube-side pressure drop (kPa) Shell-side pressure drop (kPa) series are adequate, two or three units suffice for the helium condition
Sodium 58.3 2.80 and a signal unit for the FLiBe condition.
Pb 353.2 1.3 The main parameters adjustable for IHX-D are the flow and inlet
LBE 169.9 1.2 temperature of the secondary LBE and thermal conductivity of gap,
Helium 1.3 0.2 while the actual area remains invariable. Fig. 8 displays the variation in
FLiBe 20.7 0.1
the theoretical area. Sodium is used for liquid metal conditions, while
(b)The IHX-D
Primary coolant Tube-side pressure drop (kPa) Shell-side pressure drop (kPa) helium is used for helium or FLiBe condition as the medium in the gap.
Sodium 22.2 2.80 The variation trend for Fig. 8 follows the same pattern as that of Fig. 7.
Pb 133.7 1.4 The actual area remains constant and is also marked in the figures.
LBE 64.6 1.3
Obviously, the IHX-D also satisfies the parameters matching.
Helium 1.1 0.2
FLiBe 37.6 0.5
4. Results and discussion

conditions, while the temperature is much higher. Consequently, the 4.1. Performance comparison
thermal conductivity of the medium in the gap ought to significantly
vary for different conditions. In order to alter effectively, the liquid or Combining the design inputs and the results of parameters matching,
gas mediums are recommended. Based on thermal calculation, sodium is the standard conditions for the above two IHXs are summarized in
the recommended medium for liquid metal conditions while helium is Table 4, providing the basis for the subsequent calculation and analysis.
preferred for FLiBe or helium conditions. In Section 3.2 the parameters matching of above two IHXs were
Taking into account the coolant flow rate in the tubes, the tube pitch verified. The results indicate that both structures are feasible. However,
and the tube arrangement of IHX, Table 3 shows the main dimensions of the IHX-S has only one unit for the FLiBe working condition, but the
IHX based on double wall tube (IHX-D). Fig. 6 displays the schematic temperature difference between FLiBe and secondary LBE is significant.
diagram. Fig. 9 shows the axial temperature distribution of the tube units for both
IHXs under FLiBe condition. It is observed that the temperature differ­
3.2. Parameters matching verification for alternative coolant working ence is concentrated on both sides of the tube for the IHX-S, and the
conditions variation in temperature along the tube wall is also extremely large.
However, the large temperature difference can generate considerable
Both of the IHXs mentioned above are designed for Na-LBE working thermal stress, which ultimately damages the structure of IHX. In
condition, wherein the heat transfer area margins satisfy the re­ contrast, the IHX-D concentrates the temperature difference on the both
quirements. It is necessary to verify whether the heat transfer capacity of sides of the gap, with extremely small temperature differences on the
IHX matches the loop power for other coolant conditions. internal and external tubes. Hence, the latter has a more appropriate
For the IHX-S, the flow and inlet temperature of the secondary LBE as structure for the high-temperature helium or FLiBe condition.
well as the number of series are adjustable. It indicates that the pa­ The pressure drops of IHX-S and IHX-D are calculated using the
rameters matching is adequate when the theoretical heat transfer area is pressure drop model, and the results are presented in Table 5. Due to
equal to the actual area of a certain number of heat exchangers in series. higher tube-side flow rates, the pressure drops of tube side are generally
Fig. 7 illustrates the variation of the theoretical heat transfer area with higher than those of shell side. Comparison of the pressure drops of the
the flow of the secondary LBE on different inlet temperatures for various two types of IHXs reveals that IHX-D exhibits significantly lower tube-
coolant conditions. The theoretical heat transfer area decreases as the side pressure drops than IHX-C for most coolant conditions, except for
secondary flow increases at constant inlet temperature. The extent of the the FLiBe condition. The difference is particularly considerable for
decreases in area increases as the inlet temperature reduces. The figures liquid metal conditions. The structure of the series connection increases
highlight the actual areas of various numbers of heat exchangers in the local pressure drops of sudden expansions and retractions, thereby

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S. Yixiong et al. Annals of Nuclear Energy 203 (2024) 110516

Fig. 11. Temperature difference curve with secondary LBE flow rate for FLiBe
working condition.

4.2. Investigation of the influence of secondary LBE on heat transfer

capacity of IHX

The verification of parameters matching indicates that the heat

transfer capacity of IHX is influenced by the inlet temperature and flow
rate of secondary LBE. Eq. (2) shows that the theoretical heat transfer
area is associated with the total heat transfer coefficient and tempera­
ture difference for a specific heat transfer power. Changes in LBE flow
will affect not only the coefficient, but also the shell-side outlet tem­
perature, thus affecting the temperature difference. Changes in inlet
temperature will directly affect the temperature difference.
Fig. 10 shows the variation in total heat transfer coefficient of the
IHX-D with the secondary LBE flow. The bar charts present the pro­
portion of thermal resistance of each part. Since liquid metals have
similar thermal properties, the liquid metal conditions are analyzed
using LBE as a representative. The bar charts illustrate that the total
thermal resistance is majorly dominated by the conductivity resistance
of tube for liquid metal conditions, where sodium is the conductive
medium in the gap. For helium or FLiBe condition, helium is the
conductive medium in the gap, the structure greatly increases the
thermal conduction resistance of tube, which is also dominant. More­
over, the convective resistance of the tube-side coolant is much greater
than that of shell-side LBE. Consequently, the coefficient variation
caused by a change in secondary LBE flow is usually small, regardless of
the coolant conditions. The curve charts present the variation in the total
heat transfer coefficient.
Fig. 10(a) shows the variation for LBE working condition, wherein
the coefficient increases by 0.53 % as the secondary flow increases by
42.9 %, and the overall improvement in the heat transfer capacity of IHX
is extremely insignificant. The decrease in the average temperature of
secondary LBE is proportionate to the flow rate increase. Correspond­
ingly, the thermal conductivities of the helium in gap and double wall
tube decrease. As a result, there is even a slight drop in the coefficient for
helium and FLiBe working conditions, which are shown in Fig. 10(b) and
(c). Hence, the secondary LBE flow has a negligible effect on the heat
Fig. 10. Variation in the total heat transfer coefficient and thermal resistance
transfer coefficient for all coolant conditions. It means that the effect of
of IHX-D with the secondary LBE flow.
flow rate on the heat transfer capacity is ultimately manifested in the
heat transfer temperature difference. To demonstrate the point, the
contributing to these results. variation in heat transfer temperature difference with the secondary LBE
After conducting a comprehensive comparison, it is found that the flow rate is analyzed. Taking FLiBe working condition as an example,
IHX-D performs better and is preferred for alternative coolant condi­ the inlet temperature of shell-side LBE is 320℃, Fig. 11 shows that the
tions. Therefore, all subsequent analyses of heat transfer characteristics outlet temperature of shell-side LBE decreases with an increase in LBE
will be conducted using the IHX-D. flow, which facilitates an intensified temperature difference, thereby
increasing the theoretical heat transfer area.

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S. Yixiong et al. Annals of Nuclear Energy 203 (2024) 110516

Fig. 12. Variation in theoretical heat transfer area with LBE inlet temperature.

4.3. Analysis of the coupling characteristics of thermal parameters for

primary and secondary loop

The heat transfer capacity of IHX plays a vital role in determining the
test capability of the irradiation loop. In order to widen the range of
irradiation test, the test temperature and primary coolant flow are
adjustable within a certain range. Correspondingly, the heat transfer
capacity of IHX changes, so it is indispensable to analyze the coupling
characteristics of thermal parameters.
The working condition will depend on the specific requirements of
irradiation test. Variation in the target irradiation temperature results in
the alteration of the tube-side inlet temperature of IHX, with an unal­
tered flow rate. The variation has a great influence on the heat transfer
capacity of IHX and deviates the actual heat transfer power from the
design value. Fig. 13 shows the effect of tube-side inlet temperature on
heat transfer power of IHX for different coolant conditions while
maintaining a constant primary coolant flow rate. There is an approxi­
mate linear relationship between the power and the inlet temperature
within a certain range. Heat transfer power for the lead condition varies
the most, with an increase from 70.4 % to 123.8 % of the design power
Fig. 13. Variation in heat transfer power with inlet temperature of pri­ as the inlet temperature increases from 450℃ to 540℃. While the power
mary coolants. for FLiBe condition varies the least, with an uptick from 91.8 % to 120.9
% when the inlet temperature increases from 630℃ to 700℃. The de­
The inlet temperature of shell-side LBE directly affects the temper­ gree of power variation is closely related to the heat transfer tempera­
ature difference and, hence, the theoretical area. Fig. 12 depicts the ture difference. High temperature differences for helium or FLiBe
direct relationship between the theoretical area and the LBE inlet tem­ condition result in power being more insensitive to inlet temperature
perature, and the liquid metal conditions are more sensitive to the inlet variation when compared to liquid metal conditions.
temperature variation. Taking the sodium working condition as an Adjusting secondary flow is an effective method to maintain the heat
example, when the inlet temperature of shell-side LBE rises from 270℃ transfer power at the original level by reestablishing the temperature
to 320℃, the area expands by 101.8 %. In comparison, the area for difference, which might get disturbed due to the change in the inlet
helium condition increases by 73.6 %, and the area for FLiBe condition temperature of primary coolant. Fig. 14 demonstrates the effect of tube-
expands by 29.1 % for a 70℃ rise in the inlet temperature. Since the side inlet temperature on power with different shell-side LBE flows. The
temperature difference for helium and FLiBe conditions is compara­ sodium condition represents the conditions with high secondary flow
tively significant, the sensitivity of heat transfer capacity to temperature and temperature, while the helium condition represents the conditions
variation is lower than that for liquid metal conditions. with low secondary flow and temperature. When the inlet temperature is
lower than the design value, IHX operates at lower power levels, which
can restore to the design power by increasing the secondary flow. For the
sodium condition, increasing the secondary flow up to 140 % of the
design flow only sustains the power at the design level when the inlet

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S. Yixiong et al. Annals of Nuclear Energy 203 (2024) 110516

Fig. 14. Curve of power-inlet temperature with different LBE flow.

Fig. 15. Effects of primary inlet temperature on secondary flow and outlet temperature at design power.

Fig. 16. Influence of primary flow on secondary flow and outlet temperature.

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S. Yixiong et al. Annals of Nuclear Energy 203 (2024) 110516

temperature of sodium decreases to 533℃. However, for the helium (1) The thermal design model of IHX is established. The IHXs based
condition, compensating effect of secondary flow has a less significant on the series of heat exchangers and double wall tube are
impact. Conversely, if the inlet temperature crosses the design value on designed. Parameters matching verification shows that both IHX-
the higher side, then the situation is reverse, and decreasing the sec­ S and IHX-D satisfy the heat transfer requirements for alternative
ondary flow becomes an effective measure. The outlet temperature of coolant conditions.
secondary LBE will increase correspondingly, but excessive temperature (2) The performance comparison between IHX-S and IHX-D shows
can deteriorate the corrosion of structural materials by LBE. Due to the that IHX-D is more suitable for the alternative coolant conditions.
limitations of flow and temperature of secondary LBE, the adjustment For helium and FLiBe conditions, the temperature difference for
has a certain range. IHX-S is concentrated on both sides of the tube, while for IHX-D,
Fig. 15 depicts the permissible inlet temperature range at the design it is concentrated on both sides of the helium gap, resulting in less
power, taking the sodium and helium conditions as examples. As the thermal stress to mitigate the structural damage. Moreover, the
primary inlet temperature increases, the LBE flow reduces and the outlet pressure drop of IHX-S is much higher than that of IHX-D due to
temperature increases to regulate power at the design value. The tem­ its serial structure.
perature range for the sodium condition is determined by the upper limit (3) The influence of flow and temperature of shell-side LBE on the
of secondary LBE flow and outlet temperature. In contrast, an extensive heat transfer capacity of IHX is analyzed. The secondary flow has
flow boost is necessary even for slight reduction in helium temperature a slight effect on the total heat transfer coefficient. Thus, the in­
to maintain the power for the helium condition. Furthermore, due to the fluence of flow rate is ultimately reflected in the influence on heat
low design inlet temperature of LBE, helium temperature has a signifi­ transfer temperature difference. Besides, the heat transfer ca­
cant uplifting range. However, when the inlet temperature of helium pacity of IHX for liquid metal conditions is more sensitive to the
reaches a certain level, the LBE flow is already quite low. variation in the secondary LBE temperature.
The number of fuel elements directly determines the power of the (4) To broaden the irradiation temperature range, it is effective to
irradiation loop. The primary flow is adjusted synchronously with the adjust secondary LBE flow to maintain the heat transfer power of
number of fuel elements to maintain the irradiation temperature at the IHX at the design level. To alter the number of irradiated fuel
design value. Correspondingly, the secondary flow is adjusted to remove elements, the primary flow is adjusted synchronously with loop
the heat. The impact of primary flow on the outlet temperature and the power, and the secondary flow should also be adjusted to satisfy
flow of secondary LBE is demonstrated in Fig. 16, where the inlet and parameters matching requirements. For both helium and FLiBe
outlet temperature on tube side and shell-side inlet temperature are kept conditions, the high heat capacity of coolants makes the flow and
constant. Regardless of the coolant conditions, an increase in the pri­ temperature of secondary LBE more sensitive to the variation in
mary flow raises the secondary LBE flow and causes a reduction in the primary parameters. However, the variation is constrained within
outlet temperature. However, when the primary flow exceeds a specific a certain range due to the limits of the secondary LBE flow and
threshold, the LBE flow increases to such an extent that it exceeds the temperature.
regulation range of the secondary pump. On the other hand, a decrease
in primary flow leads to a significant increase in LBE outlet temperature, CRediT authorship contribution statement
which can result in severe corrosion effects of LBE on the materials.
Therefore, the extent of the primary flow deviating from the design Sun Yixiong: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing – original
conditions is subject to the secondary LBE flow and temperature. A draft, Writing – review & editing. Qiu Liqing: Conceptualization,
comparison of the curves for different conditions reveals that the vari­ Project administration, Supervision. Lei Jin: Investigation, Formal
ation in LBE flow and temperature for helium and FLiBe conditions is analysis. Zhang Liang: Resources, Validation. Sun Sheng: Project
apparently greater than that for liquid metal conditions. The reason for administration, Supervision. Jin Shuai: Investigation.
this is the higher heat capacity of helium and FLiBe than liquid metals. A
relatively slight increase in primary flow beyond the design value ne­ Declaration of competing interest
cessitates a considerable LBE flow compensation. Conversely, a slight
decrease in primary flow from the design value leads to a rise in the The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
outlet temperature of LBE. interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
5. Conclusion
Data availability
Irradiation loop with alternative coolants is a new concept of loop for
the steady-state irradiation test of various Gen-IV fuel elements. As the The authors do not have permission to share data.
key equipment, the IHX ought to meet the heat transfer requirements at
different power levels and coolant temperatures. The paper presents the Acknowledgments
thermal design of IHX and a series of heat transfer characteristics ana­
lyses. It can be concluded that: This research did not receive any specific grant from funding
agencies in the public, commercial, or non-profit sectors.

Appendix A. . Thermophysical properties of multiple coolants

The thermophysical properties of liquid metals (sodium, LBE, lead) are calculated according to Ref. (Fazio et al., 2015) and (Sobolev, 2011), and
the thermophysical properties of FLiBe are calculated according to Ref. (Romatoski and Hu, 2017). The correlations are listed in the Table A1, where T
is the Kelvin temperature. The thermophysical properties of helium are available in the REFPROP properties database.

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S. Yixiong et al. Annals of Nuclear Energy 203 (2024) 110516

Table A1
The correlations of thermophysical properties of multiple coolants
Coolant Thermophysical properties Correlation

Sodium Density ρ kg/m3 ρ = 1020 − 0.247T

Dynamic viscosity ν Pa⋅s lnη = 556.835/T − 0.3958lnT − 6.4406
Thermal conductivity λ W/(m⋅K) λ = 103 − 0.0468T
Heat capacity cp J/(mol⋅K) cp = 37.05 − 1.75 × 10− 2 T + 9.27 × 10− 6 T2
LBE Density ρ kg/m3 ρ = 11062 − 1.2175T
Dynamic viscosity ν Pa⋅s η = 4.656 × 10− 4 e773.2/T
Thermal conductivity λ W/(m⋅K) λ = 0.72158 + 0.0233T − 8.1098 × 10− 6 T2
Heat capacity cp J/(kg⋅K) cp = 160 − 0.024T
Lead Density ρ kg/m3 ρ = 11420 − 1.242T
Dynamic viscosity ν Pa⋅s η = 4.636 × 10− 4 e8610/RT
Thermal conductivity λ W/(m⋅K) λ = 9.32 + 0.0108T
Heat capacity cp J/(kg⋅K) cp = 156 − 0.0144T
FLiBe Density ρ kg/m3 ρ = 2413 − 0.488T
Dynamic viscosity ν Pa⋅s η = 1.16 × 10− 4 e3755/T
Thermal conductivity λ W/(m⋅K) λ = 1.1
Heat capacity cp J/(kg⋅K) cp = 2386

Appendix B. . Heat transfer correlations

Subbotin et al. (Subbotin et al., 1963) obtained the heat transfer data of liquid sodium flowing in the circular tube experimentally. Li Song et al.
(Song et al., 2019) organized the experimental data of sodium flowing on the surface of stainless steel in the above experiments, and fitted them to
obtain the heat transfer correlation with higher accuracy.
Nut = 6.05 + 0.032Pe0.69 40 < Pet < 300
t
(B1)
Nut = 5.04 + 0.037Pe0.75
t 300⩽Pet ⩽1250

where, Nut and Pet are the Nusselt number and Peclet number of tube side, respectively.
For the liquid heavy metal (Pb, LBE), Cheng correlation (Cheng and Tak, 2006) is adopted to calculated the Nusselt number for the tube-side.
Nut = A + 0.018Pe0.8
t (B2)

where,
⎧
⎨ 4.5 Pet ⩽1000
A = 5.4 − 9 × 10− 4 Pet 1000⩽Pet ⩽2000
⎩
3.6 Pet ⩾2000

Gnilinski correlation (Gnielinski, 1976) can be used to calculate heat transfer of traditional fluids in a circular tube with high accuracy.
Furthermore, the researches indicate that there is no obvious difference between the characteristics of convective heat transfer of molten salt and that
of traditional fluids.
[ ( )2/3 ]
(f /8)(Ret − 1000)Prt d
Nut = ( ) 1+ ct (B3)
1 + 12.7(f /8)1/2 Pr2/3 − 1 l
t

where, f is the drag coefficient which is calculated by Petukhov correlation, ct is the correction factor. The correlation can be applied under the
condition of 0.5 ≤ Prt ≤ 2000, 2300 ≤ Ret ≤ 5 × 106.

f = (0.79lnRet − 1.64)− 2
(B4)
Rachkov et al. (Rachkov et al., 2015) organized the results of IPPE’s (Leipunskii Institute for Physics and Power Engineering) experimental study
on heat exchange and temperature distribution of coolant in the channels of fuel assemblies in lead cooled fast reactors. For the triangular
arrangement, the heat transfer correlation of LBE is as follows.
( )
( )− 13 ( )2 0.56+0.19 dp
p p p 0
Nus = 7.75 − 20 + 0.041/ ⋅Pes (B5)
d0 d0 d0

where, Nus and Pes refer to the Nusselt number and Peclet number of shell side, respectively. The correlation can be applied under the condition of 1.2
≤ p/d0 ≤ 1.95; 1 ≤ Pes ≤ 4000; 0.001 ≤ Prs ≤ 0.03. p is equal to the tube pitch and d0 is equal to the outer diameter of heat transfer tube.
During the preparation of this work the authors used ChatGPT in order to improve language and readability. After using this tool, the authors
reviewed and edited the content as needed and take(s) full responsibility for the content of the publication.

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S. Yixiong et al. Annals of Nuclear Energy 203 (2024) 110516

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