JKSSB FORESTER PHYSICS (Class 9th and 11th portion)

AYAZ YOUSUF (Triple S)

( Villgam Handwara/Kupwara )

Best of luck and have a bright future ahead

 Quantity
Anything in our surrounding which can be measured directly or indirectly

Physical Quantity
A quantity capable of being measured and related to the matter & energy
directly or indirectly is called a physical quantity.

Types of Physical Quantities

1.Fundamental quantity :
Fundamental quantity or basic quantities are those, which are related to
matter & energy in such a way that they can't be expressed or measured
in terms of other quantities.
2. Derived quantities :
Derived quantities are those physical quantities which can be obtained
by the mathematical operations of the fundamental quantities.
 Limitations of dimensional analysis

1. It gives no idea about the dimensionless quantities.

2. Its mainly only applicable for the 3 parameters. It can't derive accurate
relation for more than 3 parameters.

3. It is only applicable for power functions. It fails in case of trigonometric

and exponential functions.
 Significant Figures
Significant figures indicates the precision of measurement which depends
on the least count of measuring instrument.
Every instrument involves errors. Measurements should be reported in
such a way that indicates precision of measurement.
Measurements that indicate more digits than the significant digits are
superfluous & also misleading about precision of measurement.
 Rules :

1. All the non-zero digits are significant.

2. All the zeros between two non-zero digits are significant, no matter
where the decimal point is, if at all.

3. If the number is less than one, the zeros on the right of decimal point
but to the left of the first non-zero digit are non significant.

4. The terminal or trailing zeros are in a number without a decimal point

are not significant.
5. The trailing zeros in a number with a decimal point are significant.
Accuracy :
Accuracy is the extent to which a reported measurement approaches
the true value.
It shows how close a measured value is to the true value.

Precision :
It is the degree of exactness of a measurement
It defines the limitation of a measuring instrument.
It depends on least count of measuring instrument.

Least Count:
The minimum quantity (or value) that can be measured by an instrument.
e.g., Meter scale , LC = 1mm
Astronomical Unit: It is avg distance between sun and earth.

Light year : Distance travelled by light in one year

Parsec : It also the unit of length.

 Kinematics
The branch of physics that is used to study the motion of an object
without concerning the forces that cause the motion.
Q. A particle moves on X-axis from x = 1.0 if the particle moves 5.0 units
in the positive direction and 3.0 units in the negative direction, then
the path length l is given by the expression

a) 5.0 - 3.0 + 1.0

b) 5.0 - 3.9 - 1.0
c) 5.0 + 3.0 - 1.0
d) 5.0 + 3.0
Q. A particle moves on X-axis from x = 1.0 if the particle moves 5.0 units
in the positive direction and 3.0 units in the negative direction, then
the displacement is given by the expression

a) 5.0 - 3.0
b) 5.0 - 3.9 - 1.0
c) 5.0 + 3.0 - 1.0
d) 5.0 + 3.0
Instantaneous Speed :
The speed of a body at any instant of time or a particular position.

Note :
Speedometer of a vehicle measures instantaneous Speed.
Uniform Speed :
A body is said to be moving with uniform Speed when it travels equal
distance in equal intervals of time.
It is possible when a body moves in a straight line i.e., it doesn't change
it's direction.

Non-uniform speed :
A body is said to be moving with non-uniform speed when it travels
equal distance in unequal intervals of time or unequal distance in equal
intervals of time.
Average Speed :
Average Velocity :
 3 ways in which velocity may change

a)when only direction changes e.g. Uniform circular motion.

b)when only magnitude changes e.g. Ball thrown up under gravity.

c)when both direction & magnitude changes e.g. Projectile motion.

Note :
Acceleration is a vector quantity.
It can be positive if velocity is increasing.
It can be negative if velocity is decreasing (Retardation)
 Uniform Acceleration :
If the magnitude & direction of acceleration of body remains constant.
eg., Motion of a freely falling body.
Motion of a bicycle going down the slope.
Motion of a ball rolling down an inclined plane.

Note :
If a body is moving with uniform acceleration, it is not necessary that
the body is moving in straight line. e.g., parabolic motion.
 Graphs Related To Motion

1.Displacement-Time graph (D-T)

a)When object is stationary / at rest

b)When object is moving with uniform velocity

c)when object is moving with non-uniform Velocity

Note :

1. Slope of displacement-time graph gives = velocity

2. Area under velocity-time graph gives = displacement

 2.Velocity-Time graph (V-T)

a)when object moves with uniform velocity or zero acceleration

b)when object moves with uniform acceleration

c)when object moves with non-uniform acceleration

Note :

1. Slope of velocity-time graph gives = acceleration

2. Area under acceleration-time graph gives = velocity

 Differentiation. Differentiation

Displacement Velocity Acceleration

Integration Integration
 Equations of Motion for a Uniformly Accelerated Motion

1.If a body comes to rest V = 0

2.If a body starts from rest U = 0
3.If a body moves with uniform velocity a = 0
Equations of Motion for a Freely Falling body under gravity
Vector Quantity
 Vector Quantity
It may be defined as a physical quantity which has both
magnitude & direction and obeys laws of vector addition.
Representation of a Vector :
Vector is represented by an arrow.
The length of arrow will represent magnitude of the vector.

Angle between any two vectors :

The angle between any two vectors should lie between 0° and 180° .
To make angle between any two vectors we have to join their tails by
parallel shifting.
Types of Vectors
Multiplication of a vector by a real no
 Vector Addition
A vector quantity can be added or subtracted only with another
vector quantity having same units.

Rule 01 : When two vectors are along the same direction :

They are added directly.

Rule 02 : When two vectors are inclined to each other :

We have to join head of one vector with tail of another vector.
 Triangle law of vector addition

Statement : It states that if two vectors are represented in

magnitude and direction by the two sides of a triangle in same
order, then their resultant is represented in magnitude and
direction by the other side of triangle.
 Parallelgram law of vector addition

Statement : It states that if two vectors acting simultaneously

at a point are represented in magnitude and direction by the
two adjacent sides of a parallelogram, then their resultant is
represented completely in direction and magnitude by the
diagonal of the parallelgram.
 Product of two vectors

A. Dot product or Scaler product of two vectors

B. Vector product or cross product of two vectors
 Projectile Motion

Projectile : If any object or particle is thrown into air with some initial
velocity, then it moves under the effect of gravity alone and is called
the projectile and the motion of the body is called projectile motion.

Trajectory : The path followed by a projectile is called trajectory.

The path followed by a projectile is parabolic in nature.
When a projectile is thrown upwards making some angle with the ground
1. Time of flight : It is the time for which the projectile remains in air.
2. Maximum height : It is the highest vertical height reached by a
projectile.
3. Range : It is the total horizontal distance covered by a projectile.
Relation between max range and max height (for same intial velocity)
Relation between max range and max height (for same angle)
 Variation of Velocity Vector

Variation of angle between velocity vector and acceleration vector

 Dynamics of Motion

1. Angular displacement :
It is the ratio of arc distance to the radii.

2. Angular velocity :
It is the rate of change of angular displacement

3.Angular acceleration :
It is defined as the rate of change of angular velocity.
 Circular Motion
Whenever a body moves in a circular path the type of motion is called as
circular motion.
It is a two dimensional motion.
Circular motion involves acceleration of the moving body by a centripetal
force.

Centripetal force :
It is the real force.
It pulls the object towards the centre of circle.

Centrifugal force :
It is the imaginary force.
It tries to pull the objects away from centre.
Centripetal acceleration :
Vehicle on a banked road
 Projectile Motion

Time of flight :

Maximum height :

Horizontal range :
 Equations of Motion

1.If a body comes to rest V = 0

2.If a body starts from rest U = 0
3.If a body moves with uniform velocity a = 0
 Mechanics

A. Mechanics of B. Mechanics of C. Mechanics of

rigid bodies deformable bodies fluids

Statics Dynamics

Kinematics Kinetics
 Free Body Diagram (FBD)
A diagram which shows a part of system separately indicating all
external forces or applied forces , reactions , moments on a body.
Gh
Effect of force on a body depends upon
1. Magnitude of force
2. Nature of force (pull or push)
3. Point of application of force
4. Line of action of force

Unit : SI Unit = Newton (N) cgs unit = dyne

1 N = 105 dyne

Note : 1 kgf = 9.8 N

 Types of Forces

1. Contact forces :
The forces which develop due to contact between two bodies.
e.g.,
. frictional force, tension force, normal force, air resistance, applied
force (C or T), spring force.

2. Non-contact forces (Action at a distance forces)

e.g., gravitational force, electric force, the weak force, electromagnetic
force.
Note :

Fg : Fw : Fe : Fs = 1 : 1025 : 1036 : 1038

Weakest force : Gravitational force

Strongest force : strong nuclear force
 System of Forces

1. Coplanar forces :
The forces whose line of action lie on the same plane.

2. Collinear forces :
The forces whose line of action lie on same line.

3. Concurrent forces :
The forces which meet at one point.
The concurrent forces may or may not be collinear.

Coplanar Concurrent forces :

The forces which meet at one point & their line of action also lies on
same plane.

Coplanar non-concurrent forces :

The forces which don't meet at one point but their line of action lies
on the same plane.

Non-coplanar concurrent forces :

Non-coplanar non-concurrent forces :

 Force Equilibrium

If F1, F2 , F3 ........ are the concurrent forces acting on the same point,
then the point will be in equilibrium if

F1 + F2 + F3 + ............ = 0
Parallelgram law of forces
 Lami's Theorm
If 3 forces (coplanar & concurrent) are acting at a point be in equilibrium
, the each force is proportional to the sine of the angle between the other
two forces.
Unit : kg.
Also called law of Galalieo.
Impulse is equal to change in Momentum.
Area under Force-Time graph
2nd law gives the measurement of force
Note :
Law of conservation of linear momentum is applicable to a system of
particles.

It is governed by Newton's 2nd law.

Pulley :
 Lift :

a) when lift is stationary

b) when lift moves upwards

c) when lift moves downwards

Recoiling of Gun :

V = - mv/M

where
V = recoiling velocity or velocity with which gun moves backwards
v = velocity of bullet
M = mass of gun
m = mass of bullet
 Rocket Propulsion:

F = V × dm/dt

where
F = thrust
V = velocity of rocket
dm/dt = rate of burning of fuel (kg/s)
Ball hitting a wall :
 Friction
Friction is the resistance offered by a body when one body tries to move
over the another body.
Friction tries to oppose the relative motion between two bodies but
sometimes it also helps in motion between two bodies.
Friction is a self adjusting force which increases on increasing the
applied force till the object is at rest and at the verge of motion.
It is a type of contact force.

Cause of Friction : it is due to the intermolecular interaction or interbonding

between the two bodies or their surfaces.

Direction : it is always parallel to the surface of the object and acts

perpendicular to the normal.

Dependence : Depends on nature of material of body or surface.

 Types of Friction

1.Static Friction :
Static friction acts when there is tendency of motion between any two
bodies but actual relative velocity is zero.
It tries to make the objects at rest.
When there is no applied force (F) there is no static friction.
It is a self adjusting force.
2.Kinetic Friction :
Kinetic friction acts when there is relative motion between any two bodies.
Kinetic friction comes into play when applied force is greater then limiting
friction.

Note : Kinetic friction is constant force throughout but static friction is

self adjusting.
Variation of static and kinetic friction
Rolling Friction :
It comes into play when one body rolls over the other.
We convert sliding friction into rolling friction by providing whells, rollers
and bearings to a body.

Advantage: We can carry heavy and larger objects from one place to
another with ease.
 Laws of Limiting Friction
1.The force of friction is always opposite to the direction of motion of an
object.

2.The magnitude of force of friction is directly proportional to the

magnitude of normal reaction.

3.Frictional force between any two surfaces doesn't depend upon the area
of contact between two surfaces.

4.Frictional force depends upon the type of material and the nature of
surface (rough or smooth)
Friction
Friction On Inclined Plane
 Angle of Friction

It is the angle made by the resultant of friction (f) and normal reaction (R)
with the normal reaction.
 Angle of Repose

It is defined as the angle of the inclined plane with the horizontal such
that the body placed on it is just at the verge of sliding.
Relation between Kinetic Energy and Momentum
Work-Energy Theorm
 Conservative Force :
A force is said to be conservative if the work done by the force in
moving a body between any two points is independent of the path
followed.
It depends on the initial and final position.

Work done by the force in moving a particle along a closed path is

zero.

e.g., all central forces (Gravitational force, Electrostatic force)

Non-conservative force :
A force is said to be non-conservative of the work done by the force
in moving a body between any two points depends on the nature of
path followed.
It doesn't depend on the initial and final position.

Work done by the force in moving a body along a closed path is not
zero.

e.g., Frictional force , Viscous force

Collisions
 Elastic Collision Inelastic Collision
1. Momentum is conserved Momentum is conserved

2. Total energy is conserved Total energy is conserved

3. Kinetic energy is conserved Kinetic energy is not conserved

4. The mechanical energy is not Apart or whole ME may be

converted to any other form converted to any other form
( e.g., sound energy)

5. All forces involved are Some or all forces are non

conservative in nature. conservative in nature.
Perfectly Inelastic Collision :
Those collisions in which the interacting bodies stick together after the
collision and move together with a common velocity.
Elastic Collision in one Dimension
 Coefficient of Restitution
It is defined as the ratio of velocity of separation to the velocity of
approach.
 Velocity of Centre of mass

Note : If net external force acting on a system is zero, then velocity of

centre of mass of the system remains constant.
 Acceleration of Centre of mass

Note : Motion of centre of mass is affected only by external forces.

(Internal forces may affect the motion of internal forces)
 Torque

It is the turning effect of a force.

If a force is able to rotate the body about an axis, the force is said to
exert a torque on the body.

It is vector quantity.
Work done by a torque
 Angular Momentum

Angular momentum of a particle about a given axis is the moment of

linear momentum of the particle about that axis.

It is a vector quantity.
Relationship between Torque & Angular Momentum
 Law of conservation of Angular Momentum

If no external torque acts on a system then the total angular momentum

is conserved.
 Applications :

1. Bellet dancer.

2. Motion of planets around sun in elliptical orbit.

3. Egg rolling.
Types of Motion in a Rigid Body
 Rigid Body

A body is said to be rigid if it doesn't undergo any change in its shape

and size

Rigid body Equilibrium

 Moment of Inertia

The property of a body due to which it resists any change in its condition
of rest or rotational motion is called moment of inertia.
The moment of inertia of a rigid body about any axis of rotation is the
sum of of the product of masses of the particles and the square of their
respective distance from axis of rotation.
Collisions
 Gravitation

Mass :
It is the amount of matter contained
It is the measure of inertia of an object.

Inertia Mass

Higher the inertia of a body higher is mass.

Quantity : scaler.
SI unit : kg.
Weight :
It is the force with which a body is attracted to the centre or mid point of
the earth.
It is the measure of gravitational pull of an object.

Weight = mass × acceleration

F = ma
F = mg
W = mg

Quantity : vector.
SI unit : Newton (N)
Note :
Mass is constant/equal/same everywhere in the universe. (It doesn't
depend on gravity)
Weight depends on gravitational pull therefore it varies with gravity.

Earth 🌎 g=
Moon 🌝 g =

Mercury g = minimum.
1.Earth :

2.Moon :

3.Space :

4.Centre of Earth :
Weightlessness :
Weff = 0
Inside a spacecraft or satellite.
At the centre of earth.
In free fall.
Gravitation :

Higher the mass lower is acceleration & lower the mass higher is acceleration.
Universal Law of Gravitation :
Every object in this universe attracts every other object with a force which
is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them.

F = Gm1m2
r
Unit of G : Nm2/kg2

Value of G = 6.67×10-11
 Dimensions:

Gravitational constant is a scaler quantity.

It's value is same throughout the universe.

Note :

Gravitational force is the weakest force.

The gravitational force of attraction between two bodies is not affected

by the presence of nearby bodies.
Free fall :
It is the motion of an object under the effect of gravity alone.
Here initial velocity (u) = 0

Velocity with which body will hit the ground =

Time taken by body to hit the ground =

Acceleration due to Gravity : (g)
The constant acceleration of an object in free fall is known as acceleration
due to gravity.

g = GM
R

where G = Gravitational constant =

M = mass of earth =
R = radius of earth =

g = 9.8 m/s2
 Relationship between g & G

Note : The value of acceleration due to gravity is independent of shape,

size , mass of the body but depends on mass & radius of earth or planet
due to which there is gravity pull.
*Value of g on moon =
Value of g on sun =

*Among planets Mercury has least value of g and Jupiter has max value of
g.
 Note :
1. If the radius of a planet decreses by n% , keeping it's mass unchanged
, the acceleration due to gravity on its surface increases by 2n%

2. If the mass of a planet increases by n% , keeping it's radius unchanged

, the acceleration due to gravity on its surface increases by n%

3 If the density of a planet increases by n% , keeping it's radius unchanged

, the acceleration due to gravity increases by n%
 Variation in the value of g

1. Due to Altitude (h) :

When we move above the surface of earth , g goes on

decreasing.
2. Due to depth (d) :

When we move below the surface of earth , g goes on

decreasing, it is max at earth's surface and becomes
zero at the centre of the earth.
3. Due to rotation of earth about its own axis :

At equator :

At poles :

The value of g is minimum at equator and maximum at poles.

The value of g , increases as we move from equator to the poles.

4. Due to shape of earth :

 Gravitational Field
The space around a body in which any other body experiences a force
of attraction is called the gravitational field of the first body.

Gravitational field intensity

The force experienced by a unit mass placed at a point in a gravitational
field is called the gravitational field strength or intensity of gravitational
field at that point.
 Gravitational Potential
The gravitational potential at a point in the gravitational field of a body
is defined as the amount of work done in bringing a unit mass from
infinity to that point.
Relation between Gravitational Field Intensity & Gravitational Potential
 Gravitational Potential Energy
The gravitational potential energy of a body at a point in a gravitational
field of another body is defined as the amount of work done in bringing
the given body from infinity to that point.
 Escape Velocity
It is the minimum velocity required to give an object so that it just
escapes the gravitational pull of the earth or a planet.
 Orbital Velocity
It is that velocity at which a body will revolve around the earth in an
orbit.

Body will continue to revolve in an orbit if

Gravitational force = Centripetal force
Relation between Escape Velocity and Orbital Velocity
1. V < Vo , body will return back

2. V = Vo , body will revolve around the earth in circular orbit

3. Vo < V < Ve , body will revolve around the earth in elliptical orbit

4. V = Ve , body will escape gravitational field of earth in

parabolic path

5. V > Ve , body will escape further away from earth in hyperbolic

path.
 Geostationary Satellite
A satelite which revolves around the earth with the same angular
speed in the same direction as is done by the earth.
The height of geostationary Satellite is about 35800 km.
Kepler's Laws :

1.Law of orbit : All planets revolve around the sun in an elliptical orbit with
sun situated at one of the foci.
2.Law of Area : The radial velocity of a planet around the sun is constant.

3.Law of Period : The square of the time period of revolution of a planet

around the sun is directly proportional to the cube of average distance of
planet from the sun.

Note :
Keplers 2nd law follows law of conservation of Angular Momentum
Gravitational Field
 Which of the following is a vector quantity
a)mass b)distance c)work d)weight (SSC)

If mass of an object on earth is 120kg .It's weight on moon will be

a)120kg b)120N c)200kg d)200N (RRB)

Weight of an object is not zero in

a)satellite b)inside centre of earth
c)freely falling lift. d)at the surface of earth (RRB/SSC)
AYAZ YOUSUF (Triple S)

( Villgam Handwara/Kupwara )

Best of luck and have a bright future ahead

 Young's Modulus (Y or E)
It is defined as the ratio of normal stress to longitudinal strain.

Unit:
Dimension:
*It is defined for solids only.
*For a rigid body , Y is infinity.
*Steel is more elastic than rubber ,thus Ysteel > Yrubber
 Bulk Modulus (B or K)
It is defined as the ratio of normal stress to volumetric strain.

Unit:
Dimension:
*Bulk Modulus is very high for solids and very low for gases.
Bsolid > Bliquid > Bgas
For Gases : Bulk Modulus is of 2 types

i) Isothermal Bulk Modulus :

ii) Adiabatic Bulk Modulus :

*Adiabatic Bulk Modulus > Isothermal Bulk Modulus

 Shear Modulus of Rigidity ( )
It is defined as the ratio of shear stress or tangential stress to the shear
strain.

Unit:
Dimension:
*It is defined only for solids.
 Poisson's Ratio ( )
It is defined as the ratio of lateral strain to the longitudinal strain.

It is unitless & dimensionless.

*Theoritically its value lies between -1 & 0.5
*Practically its value lies between 0 & 0.5
Cork = 0 , Metals = 0.25 to 0.4 , Rubber = 0.5
Stress-Strain Curve
Elasticity :
It is the property of material due to which a material after unloading
regains it's original position provided that the stress generated in the
material due to external loading is under elastic limit.
It is the resistance to stretching.
Ductility :
It is that property of a material by which it undergoes a considerable
amount of deformation beyond yield point without rupture.

e.g., Gold , iron, steel, copper, Aluminium

Brittleness :
It is the lack of ductility , a brittle material rupture with little or no plastic
deformation.

e.g. bricks, glass , stone

Toughness :
It is the property of material that provides resistance against impact
loading.
Hardness :
It is the property of a material to resist against surface abrasion,
scratch, inundations
 Malleability :
Malleability is extension in a direction without rupture.
(Material can be beaten or rolled into plates)
 Fluid

A substance in liquid state and gaseous state is referred to as fluid

e.g., water , air , kerosene, CO2
A fluid offers no resistance to change in shape.
Density :
It is defined as mass per unit volume
Specific Weight :
It is defined as the ratio of weight of fluid to the volume of fluid.
 Specific Gravity & Relative Density :
It is defined as the ratio of density of a substance to the density of
standard liquid at a specific specified temperature.
 Vapour Pressure
It is the equilibrium pressure which a vapour exerts on the free surface
of liquid.
It is the pressure at which liquid boils.
 Bulk Modulus and Compressibility

Bulk Modulus :
It is defined as the change in pressure of system or change in direct
stress per unit volumetric strain

Compressibility: It is the inverse of bulk modulus.

 Intermolecular forces in Fluids

1. Adhesion : It is the force acting between two different surfaces or

between molecules of two different surfaces.
e.g., milk and water.

2. Cohesion : It is the force acting between molecules of same medium.

 Viscosity
When two layers of the fluid resist the motion of each other such a property
of fluid is called viscosity.

It is the measure of resistance of fluid to flow.

It is due to internal friction forces that develop between different layers of
fluid when they are forced to move relative to each other.
Basic cause of viscosity in liquids is cohesion.
Basic cause of viscosity in gases is due to molecular collision.

Newton's Law of Viscosity

It states that shear stress is directly proportional to the strain rate or rate
of angular deformation.
Effect of Temperature on Viscosity :
 Surface Tension
At the interface of two immixable fluids a net downward force acts and
causes downward curvature of the surface

The tendency of a liquid surface to contract to the minimum possible area

is due to surface tension.
It enables the fluid to resist tensile stress.
Surface tension is defined as the work done per unit surface area and this
work done is stored in the form of surface energy.

Surface tension is also defined as the force per unit length of surface.

Unit:
Dimension:
Variation in Surface tension :
The surface tension of liquid decreases with increase in temperature.
At critical point of liquid its surface tension is zero.

Highly soluble impurities ( NaCl ) increase the surface tension of water

Sparingly soluble substances ( Phenol ) decrease surface tension.

Detergent or soap decrease surface tension..

 Applications of Surface Tension :

1.Drop Formation (liquid drop) :

2.Bubble Formation (soap bubble)

 Surface Energy
It is defined as the amount of work done against the force of surface
tension in increasing the liquid surface of a given area at constant
temperature.
Relation between Surface Tension and Surface Energy
Wetting and Non-wetting Fluid
 Capillarity
Capillarity is the phenomenon of rise or fall of a liquid in a small tube
relative to the adjacent general level of liquid when the tube is held
vertically in the liquid.

Capillary rise:
Occurs in wetting fluid.
Adhesion > cohesion
Angle of contact < 90°
Meniscus is concave
e.g., Water-Glass
Capillary Fall:
Occurs in non-wetting fluid.
Cohesion > adhesion
Angle of contact > 90°
Meniscus is convex.
e.g., mercury-glass
 Ideal Fluid

Viscosity, shear stress , surface tension = zero

Bulk modulus = infinity

Incompressible (constant density)

 Fluid Statics
It deals with the study of conditions under which fluids are at rest in
stable equilibrium.
In static condition only hydrostatic force act (pressure force & gravity
force)

Pressure : It is defined as the thrust acting per unit area of the surface
in contact with liquid.

Pressure always act normal to the surface.

1. Atmospheric Pressure :
It is the pressure exerted due to weight of air.

It ist decreases slowly , then rapidly with altitude.

It is measured by Barometer.
Absolute Pressure : It is the pressure measured by taking absolute zero
pressure as refrence.

Gauge Pressure : It is the pressure measured by taking local atmospheric

pressure as refrence.
It can positive or negative.
It is measured by Manometer.

Vaccum Pressure : It is the pressure measured below the local

atmospheric pressure.
It is also called negative gauge Pressure or suction pressure.
Hydrostatic pressure

Absolute pressure
 Variation of pressure

Pressure varies linearly with depth.

Pressure increased as depth increases, but pressure gradient is constant
with depth.
Pressure is constant in horizontal plane but pressure gradient is zero.
 Pascal's Law
It states that the pressure at a point in a fluid at rest is equally transmitted
in all directions.
Pressure intensity is same in all directions at a point when there is no
relative motion of one layer of fluid over the other.

Applications of Pascal's law :

1.Hydraulic lift

2.Hydraulic brake.
 Buoyancy and Floatation

Buoyancy : When a body is wholly ( submerged ) or partially (floating)

immersed in a fluid, an upward force (hydrostatic lift) is exerted by the
static fluid on the body.
This upward force is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by
the body & is called as force of buoyancy.
(Archimedes Principle)

Centre of buoyancy :
The point through which the buoyant force acts.
The centre of gravity of the volume of the liquid displaced.
 Note :

If FB = W , partially submerged body (floating body)

FB > W , body will not sink (floating body)

FB < W , body will sink (submerged body)

Floating body : A body floats in liquid when weight of body is equal to
the buoyant force.
Metacentre :
It is a hypothetical point point about which a body oscillates, when
the body is slightly displaced from the equilibrium position.
It is the point of intersection of vertical line through the new centre of
buoyancy and the centre line.
1. Stable equilibrium 2. Unstable Equil. 3. Neutral Equil
 Flow of Fluid

1. Steady and unsteady flow :

Steady : if the fluid properties like velocity, pressure, discharge, etc.
doesn't change with time.

2. Compressible and incompressible flow :

Compressible : if density of fluid doesn't remain constant.

Incompressible : if density of fluid remains constant
 Other flows
1.Sreamline flow :
It is that flow of liquid in which every particle of fluid follows exactly the
same path as its preceding particle and has same velocity as that of its
preceding particle.
Reynolds No. = 0 to 2000
2.Laminar flow:
It is the flow in which fluid moved in the form of layers.
The velocity of liquid flow is always less than critical velocity
Reynolds no < 2000

3.Turbulent flow :
It is that flow in which fluid moves irregularly.
The velocity of fluid is always greater than that of critical velocity.
Reynolds no. > 4000
 Continuity Equation
In an incompressible and non-viscous fluid flow in a streamline motion
through a tube of non-uniform cross-section , the product of area of
cross-section and the velocity of flow remains constant at every point in
the tube.

It is based on conservation of mass.

 Bernoulli's Theorm
It states that in a streamline flow of incompressible and non-viscous
fluid through a tube of non-uniform cross section ,
the sum of pressure head , velocity head & datum head remains constant.
 Assumptions :
1.Flow is laminar.
2.Flow is irrotaional
3.Flow is non-viscous
4.Flow is steady along a streamline
5.Flow is incompressible.
 Bernoulli's Theorm Applications
1.Bunsens burner.
2.Atomiser or sprayer.
3.Blowing of roof during storm.
4.Aerofoil or lift of an aeroplane.
5.Curved motion of spinning ball (Magnus effect)
6.Venturimeter , Pitot tube etc.
 Torricelli's Theorm
It states that the velocity of efflux ie., the velocity with which the liquid
flows out an orifice (small hole) is equal to that which a freely Falling
body would acquire in falling through a vertical distance equal to the
depth of the orifice below the free surface of liquid.
i.e.,
 Stokes Law
It states that the backward drag force acting on a small spherical body
of radius r moving with velocity v through a viscous medium is given by
 Terminal Velocity
When a spherical body falls through a viscous medium , it's velocity
increases, till the viscous drag plus upward thrust become equal to
the weight of the body.
After that the body moves with a constant velocity called terminal
velocity.
 Part 03

Heat and Calorimetry

 Heat
It is a form of energy that flows from one body to another by virtue of
temperature difference between them.

SI unit : joule
Practical unit : calorie

1 calorie : amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1g of

water from 14.5°C to 15.5°C
 Temperature
It is measure of degree of hotness or coldness of the body.

Temperature Scales :
Scale name Lower fixed point Upper fixed point

1.Celsius 0°C 100°C

2.Fahrenheit 32°F 212°F

3.Reaumer 0°R 80°R

4.Kelvin 273 K 373 K

Relation between temperature Scales
 Thermal Expansion
The increase in the dimensions of a body due to the increase in
temperature.

Solids : increase will be in length, area & volume.

Fluids : increase will be only in volume.

Thermal Expansion in Solids

1. Coefficient of linear expansion : it is defined as the increase in length
per unit original length per degree rise in temperature.

2. Coefficient of area expansion : it is defined as the increase in surface

area per unit original surface area per degree rise in temperature.

3. Coefficient of volume expansion : it is defined as the increase in

volume per unit original volume per degree rise in temperature.
 Specific heat or specific heat capacity
It is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of
unit mass of the substance through 1° C.

SI unit :
Practical unit :
Specific heat of water =

Note :
Water is used as a coolant in automobile radiators as well as heater in
hot water bags because water has larger specific heat capacity.
 Molar specific heat or molar heat capacity
It is defined as amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one
mole of the substance through 1° C.

SI unit :

Types of molar specific heat :

1. Molar specific heat at constant volume (Cv)
2. Molar specific heat at constant pressure (CP)
 Calorimetry
Calorimetry means measurement of heat.

Principle : Heat gained by body = heat lost by the body

Change of state
 Heat Transfer
There are 3 modes by which heat can be transferred from one place to
another place (or from one body to another body)

1. Conduction :
It is the mode of transfer in which heat is transmitted from one point to
another point through the body or substance without the actual motion
of particles.
Heat transfer occur due to vibration or collision of particles.
It occurs mainly in solids.
2. Convection :
It is a mode of transfer in which heat is transferred from one place to
another by the actual motion of particles.
It is possible only in fluids.
It occurs on account of difference in densities.

Application : Sea breeze , cooling during nights.

3. Radiation :
It is the mode of transfer in which heat is transmitted from one place to
other directly , without the necessity of intervening medium.
A body emit radiation wheather it is solid, liquid or gas.
Transformation of heat occurs in the form of electromagnetic waves.
It is the fastest mode of heat transfer.

e.g., heat from sun reaching earth,

heat emiited from a filament of lamp.

Concept of black body.

 Black body
Black body absorbs 100% radiation and reflect none.

Application : In winter we wear dark clothes (black)

The bottom of utensils are blackened.
 Stefan Boltzman Law
It states that the radiant energy emitted by a perfectly black body per
unit area per second is directly proportional to the fourth power of its
absolute temperature.
 Wein's Displacement Law
It states that the wavelength corresponding to which the energy emitted
by a perfectly black body is maximum is inversely proportional to the
absolute temperature of the black body.
 Newton's Law of Cooling
It states that the rate of loss of heat of a body is directly proportional to
the difference of temperature of the body & the surroundings.
Stress-Strain Curve
 Thermodynamics (Marks= 06)
Q1.State Zeroth law and hence define temperature.
Q2.Defferntiate path function and state function.
Q3.Define isobaric , Isochoric ,isothermal and adiabatic processes.
Q4.Differntiate intensive and extensive processes.
Q5.State first law of thermodynamics and give it's mathematical form.
Q6.State 2nd law of thermodynamics (Kelvin plank statement and
Clausis statement)
Q7.Whta are reversible and irreversible processes.
Q8.What is Carnot Engine and state Carnot Theorm.
Q9.Numericals on Heat Engine or Carnot Engine.
1.System : The region in space upon which our study is foccused.
2.Surrounding : Anything external to the system in the universe.
3.Boundary : Line separating the system and surrounding.

Types of System Mass Transfer Energy Transfer Example

1.Closed system No Yes Ice engine cylinder with

closed walls,
Balloon.

2.Open system Yes Yes Compressor,

Turbine.

3.Isolated system No No Well insulated thermal

flask,
Universe.
 Temperature
Temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness of a body.
It is a relative term.

Thermal Equilibrium
 Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
It states that if two systems A and B are separately in thermal equilibrium
with a third system C , then the systems A and B are also in thermal
equilibrium with each other.
OR
There exists a scaler quantity called temperature which is a property of
all thermodynamic systems, such that equality of temperatures is the
only condition for the thermodynamic systems to be in thermal equilibrium.

It defines the property of temperature.

Path Function State Function

1.A property whose value depends upon the path 1.A property whose value doesn't depend upon path
followed followed but depends on end points

2.e.g., Work , heat 2.e.g., Ethalpy , entropy , internal energy ,

free energy
Pressure remains Volume remains Temp. remains No heat flows
Constant Constant Constant
 Heat
it is a mode of energy transfer due to temperature difference
between the system and surrounding.
Path function.
Scaler.
Work
Work is the mode of energy transfer brought about by means that don't
involve temperature difference.
Work done by the system is equal to area under P-V diagram.

Path function.
Scaler.
1. Isothermal process :

2. Adiabatic process :

3. Isochoric process :

4. Isobaric process :
 Internal Energy
Energy possessed by a system due to molecular motion (kinetic energy)
and molecular configuration (potential energy)
Cyclic Process :
In a cyclic process, the system returns to its initial state.

In a cyclic process work done is equal to the area under the cycle.

Change in internal energy in a cyclic process is always zero.

In a cyclic process, the total heat absorbed equals the work done by
the system.
 Thermodynamic Variables
Those macroscopic quantities which help in defining the thermal
equilibrium conditions.
It's value depends upon the particular state and not the path followed.
eg., pressure , temperature, volume.
Note : Heat and Work are not thermodynamic state variables.
Intensive Property Extensive Property

1.These are independent on amount of 1.These are dependent on amount of matter.

matter.

2.e.g, Temperate, Pressure, Density 2.e.g, Mass ,Volume, Internal Energy

 First Law of Thermodynamics
It states that if ∆Q amount of heat is given to a system, a part of this is
used in increasing the internal energy by an amount ∆U and rest is used
in doing the work (∆W).
It is based on the law of conservation of energy.

∆Q = ∆U + ∆W
 Sign conventions

1.Heat given to a system or heat absorbed by a system (+)

2.Heat given by system or released by a system (-)
3.Work done by system (+)
4.Work done on system (-)
5.Increase in ∆U (+)
6.Decrease in ∆U (-)
 Heat Engine
It is a device which converts heat energy into the work continuously
through a cyclic process.
It has 3 parts
1.a hot reservoir called source
2.a working substance
3.a cold reservoir sink

Efficiency :
 Refrigerator
It is a heat engine working in reverse direction.

Coefficient of Performance:
 2nd Law of Thermodynamics
It states that no heat engine can have efficiency equal to one or no
refrigerator has a coefficient of performance infinity.

1.Kelvin-Planck statement :
It is impossible to derive a continuous supply of work without rejecting
a part of heat to the cold body.
Efficiency of a heat Engine can never be 100%.

2.Clausis statement :
It is impossible to transfer heat from a body at low temperature to a body
at high temperature without performing some work.
 Reversible and Irreversible Processes
Reversible Process:
A reversible Process is one which can be retraced in the opposite
direction.
e.g. a quasi-static isothermal expansion of an ideal gas in a cylinder
fitted with a frictionless movable piston.
Irreversible Process:
An irreversible process is one which can't be retraced back in opposite
direction.
All spontaneous processes of nature are irreversible.
e.g. transfer of heat from a hot body to a cold body,
diffusion of gas.
 Carnot Engine
It is ideal heat engine based on Carnot's reversible cycle.
It's working consists of 4 steps i.e,
Isothermal expansion, adiabatic expansion, isothermal compression
and adiabatic compression.

Efficiency :
Carnot Theorm:
No engine working between two given temperatures can have efficiency
greater than that of the Carnot Engine working between the same two
temperatures.
Efficiency of Carnot Engine is independent of the nature of the working
substance.
Q1.State different gas laws ?
Q2.Give pastulates of kinetic theory of gases?
Q3.Discuss the kinetic interpretation of temperature. Hence define
absolute temperature.
Q4.Deduce relation between kinetic energy and Temperate?
Q5.Write down the relation between pressure and kinetic energy?
Q6.Define and write down the equations for following
i) Root mean square velocity.
ii) Average velocity.
iii) Most probable velocity.
Q7. Numericals
Q8.Heat capacity ratio and degree of freedom relation.
Kinetic Theory of an Ideal Gas
Kinetic Interpretation of Temperature
Relation Between Pressure and Kinetic Energy
 Different Velocities of Molecules

1.Root Mean Square Velocity :

It is defined as the square root of square of average velocity of all
molecules.
2.Average Velocity :
It is defined as the average of velocity of all molecules.

3.Most Probable Velocity :

It is defined as the velocity acquired by larger fraction of molecules.
 Specific Heat Capacity :
Heat required to raise the temperature of a unit mass by 1°c

S = ∆Q / m∆T

Molar Heat Capacity:

Heat required to raise the temperature of one molar substance by 1°c

a) Molar Heat Capacity at constant Pressure

b) Molar Heat Capacity at constant Volume

 Mayer's Formula

Heat Capacity Ratio

1.Monoatomic Gas

H,O

2.Diatomic Gas

H2 , 02
3.Polyatomic Gas

H2O, CO2

Relation Between Heat Capacity Ratio and Degree of Freedom

 Absolute Temperature
Temp.= 0°K , or -273°c
The temperature at which kinetic energy of a molecule becomes zero.
Thus at absolute temp. , no molecular motion will occur.

Law of Equipartition of Energy

It is defined at absolute temperature.
It states that the kinetic energy is equally distributed among all degrees
of freedom.
 Degree of Freedom
Total number of possible motions available for a molecule or atom.

It's of 3 types.
a) translational b)rotational c)vibrational

Mathematically : f = 3N - K
1.Monoatomic

2.Diatomic

3.Triatomic
(non-linear)
 Mean Free Path
It is the average distance covered by a molecule between two
successive collisions and is given by
Q1. Find rms speed of 5 molecules of a gas with speeds
1, 3, 5, 7, 9 km/s respectively.

Q2.At what temperature will be rms velocity of hydrogen be double

of its velocity at STP , pressure remaining constant.

Q3. At what temperature is the Vrms of a hydrogen molecule equal

to that of an oxygen molecule which is at 47°c.
AYAZ YOUSUF (Triple S)

( Villgam Handwara/Kupwara )

Best of luck and have a bright future ahead

 Part A : Oscillations
Q1.Explain periodic motion and oscillatory motion with examples ?
Q2.Define SHM. Derive an expression for displacement , velocity and
acceleration of a particle executing SHM.
Q3.Derive an expression for kinetic energy, potential energy and total
energy of a particle executing SHM.
Q4.What is the force law of SHM.
Q6.What is simple pendulum , show that the motion of a simple pendulum
is SHM. Derive an equation for its time period.
OR
Derive an expression for time period T of a simple pendum using
dimension analysis ?
Q7.What are undamped and damped oscillations.
Force equation :
1. In this motion , oscillation or vibration occur along a straight line(linear)

2. It is a special type of oscilattory motion in which n = 1

3. Acceleration of particle is always directed towards mean position.

4. Acceleration is directly proportional to displacement.

5. It involves harmonic functions like sin , cos

 Characteristics of SHM (Kinematic terms of SHM)

1. Time period :
Time taken by particle to complete one oscillation.

2. Frequency :
The number of oscillations covered by a particle in one second.
3. Amplitude :
The maximum displacement of a particle.

4. Displacement equation :
5. Velocity :
6. Acceleration
Graphs
 Phase Difference between Displacement, Velocity & Acceleration

1. Between Displacement and Velocity = π/2 or 90°

Velocity is ahead of displacement by π/2

2. Between Displacement and Acceleration = π or 180°

Acceleration is ahead of displacement by π

3. Between Velocity and Acceleration = π/2 or 90°

Acceleration is ahead of velocity by π/2
 Energy in SHM

1. Kinetic Energy :
2.Potential Energy :
Force Law for SHM
Time Period of Spring Pendulum
Time Period of Simple Pendulum
 Undamped and Damped Oscillations

Undamped Oscillations :
When a simple harmonic system oscillates with a constant amplitude
which doesn't change with time , it's oscillations are known as undamped
oscillations.

Damped Oscillations :
When a simple harmonic system oscillates with a decreasing amplitude
with time , it's oscillations are known as damped oscillations.
The energy of the system executing damped oscillations goes on
decreasing with time.
The damping force are active and are generally friction or viscous
forces.
The damping force is given by

The differential equation is given by

 Free , Forced and Resonant oscillations
Free Oscillations :
When a system oscillates with its own natural frequency without the
help of any external periodic force , it's oscillations are known as
free oscillations.

Forced Oscillations :
When a system oscillates with the help of an external periodic force,
other than its own natural frequency, it's oscillations are known as
forced or driven oscillations.
Differential equation :
Resonance :
It is a special case of forced oscillation. It is the phenomenon in which
a system is made to vibrate by external force whose angular frequency
is equal to the natural frequency of the system.
At Resonance ,the amplitude is max.
Condition for resonance :
 Part B : Waves
Q1.Distinguish between transerse waves and longitudinal waves.
Q2.What is a plane ProgressiveWave .Write down eauation for its displacement
,velocity.
Q3.What is a stationary wave.
Q4.Discuss the formation of stationary wave in a stretched string fixed at both
ends of the different modes of vibration.
Q5. Law of vibrating stretched string (Dimensional Analysis)
Q6. What is an organ pipe.Expalin different modes in
a) a closed organ pipe b)an open organ pipe
Q7.Beats
Q8.Doppler effect.
5. Wave velocity or Speed of a Wave :
It is defined as the distance travelled by the wave in one second.
 6. Intensity of Wave :
It is defined as the amount of energy flow per unit area per unit time
in a direction perpendicular to the propagation of wave.
Plane Progressive Wave
Slope :

Velocity :

Acceleration :
Relationship between Phase Difference, Path Difference & Time Diffrence
Speed of Transverse Wave
Speed of Longitudinal Wave
 Newton's Formula
Newton assumed that propagation of sound wave is an isothermal
process.

Laplace Correction
Laplace assumed that propagation of sound wave in a gas is an
adiabatic process.
 Superposition Principle of Waves
It gives the algebraic sum of displacements of two or more waves
travelling in a medium.
y = y1 + y2 + y3 +......+ yn

a) Same phase

b)Different phase

Note : Superposition of waves gives rise to 3 phenomenon

 Stationary Wave
When two progressive waves of same amplitude , time period and
frequency travel in opposite directions at same speed,
then resultant wave formed, which doesn't appear to travel is called
stationary wave.

Types:
1.Transverse stationary wave :
Produced in i) Stretched string ii) Sonometer

2. Longitudinal stationary wave :

Produced in i) Organ pipe ii) Resonance tube
Equation of stationary wave :

Wave along + X-axis

Wave along - X-axis
Net wave formed

*Stationary waves are characterized by antinodes & nodes.

1. Antinode :
Amplitude is maximum
2. Node :
Amplitude is minimum
 Vibrations in a Stretched String of length 'L' fixed at both ends

Max amplitude ,

Min amplitude ,

As string is fixed at x = 0 & x = L

Thus nodes are formed at x = 0 & x = L

At x = L , min amplitude
 Note : Speed of a transverse wave on a stretched string is

Modes of Vibration of String :

1. First mode or First harmonic or Fundamental mode

2. Second mode or First overtone

3. Third mode or Second overtone

nth Mode
 Laws of Vibrating Stretched String
The fundamental frequency of a stretched string is given by

i) Law of Length :

ii) Law of Tension :

iii) Law of Mass :

 Organ Pipe
It is cylindrical tube which may be closed at one end or open at both ends

Antinode : formed at open end

Node : formed at closed end
 A. Closed organ pipe

1. First mode

2. Second mode
3. Third mode

Note : In a closed pipe , only odd harmonics are formed

nth Mode
 B. Open organ pipe

1. First mode

2. Second mode
3. Third mode

Note : In an open pipe , all harmonics are formed

nth Mode
 Beats
When two waves of nearly equal frequencies ( but not exactly equal) ,
travelling with same speed in the same direction, when superimpose
each other give rise to beats.
e.g.,
Beat Frequency :
It is defined as the number of beats heard per second.

Time Period :
Applications of Beats :
1.To determine frequency of tunning fork.
2. Used in the running of musical instruments (Guitar 🎸 etc)
3.Used in detecting dangerous gases in mines.
4. Used in radio reception.