Sets and Relations One Shot - Maths Made Easy by Pavankumar Jyotiram Bevnale

Sets & Relations
One Shot
▪ Introduction
The concept of set serves as a fundamental part of the present-day

mathematics. Today this concept is being used in almost every branch
of mathematics. Sets are used to define the concepts of relations and
functions. The study of geometry, sequences, probability, etc. requires
the knowledge of sets.
The theory of sets was developed by German mathematician Georg

Cantor (1845-1918). He first encountered sets while working on
“problems on trigonometric series”. In this Chapter, we discuss some
basic definitions and operations involving sets.
▪ Set
A set is a well-defined collection of objects.
There are two methods of representing a set :

(i) Roster or tabular form
(ii) Set-builder form.
• Roaster form
In roster form, all the elements of a set are listed, the elements are
being separated by commas and are enclosed within braces { }.
For example, the set of all even positive integers less than 7 is
described in roster form as {2, 4, 6}.
• Set-builder Form
In set-builder form, all the elements of a set possess a single common

property which is not possessed by any element outside the set.
For example, in the set {a, e, i, o, u}, all the elements possess a
common property, namely, each of them is a vowel in the English
alphabet, and no other letter possess this property. Denoting this set
by V, we write V = {x : x is a vowel in English alphabet}
Types of Sets
1) Empty Set : A set which does not contain any element is called the
empty set or the null set or the void set.
2) Finite and Infinite Sets : A set which is empty or consists of a

definite number of elements is called finite otherwise, the set is
called infinite.
3) Equal Sets : Two sets A and B are said to be equal if they have the
same elements and we write A = B. Otherwise, the sets are said to
be unequal, and we write A ≠ B.
▪ Subsets
A set A is said to be a subset of a set B if every element of A is also an

element of B.
In other words, A ⊂ B if whenever a ∈ A, then a ∈ B. It is often

convenient to use the symbol “⇒” which means implies. Using this
symbol, we can write the definition of subset as follows:
A ⊂ B if a ∈ A ⇒ a ∈ B
o Note
1) Every set A is a subset of itself, i.e., A ⊂ A.

2) Since the empty set φ has no elements, we agree to say that φ is a
subset of every set.
3) Let A and B be two sets. If A ⊂ B and A ≠ B , then A is called a
proper subset of B and B is called superset of A.
For example, A = {1, 2, 3} is a proper subset of B = {1, 2, 3, 4}.
▪ Universal Set
A universal set is the set that contains all the objects or elements under
consideration for a particular discussion or problem, often denoted by
U. It serves as the comprehensive set in which all other subsets are
defined.
Venn Diagrams
▪ Venn Diagrams
Most of the relationships between sets can be represented by means

of diagrams which are known as Venn diagrams. Venn diagrams are
named after the English logician, John Venn (1834-1883). These
diagrams consist of rectangles and closed curves usually circles. The
universal set is represented usually by a rectangle and its subsets by
circles.
In Venn diagrams, the elements of the sets are written in their
respective circles
Illustration 1 :
U = {1,2,3, ..., 10} is the universal set of which A = {2,4,6,8,10} is a

subset.
Operations on Sets
• Union of Sets
Let A and B be any two sets. The union of

A and B is the set which consists of all the
elements of A and all the elements of B,
the common elements being taken only
once. The symbol ‘∪’ is used to denote
the union.
Example - Let A = { 2, 4, 6, 8} and

B = { 6, 8, 10, 12}. Find A ∪ B
o Some Properties of the Operation of Union
(i) A ∪ B = B ∪ A (Commutative law)

(ii) ( A ∪ B ) ∪ C = A ∪ ( B ∪ C) (Associative law )
(iii) A ∪ φ = A (Law of identity element, φ is the identity of ∪)
(iv) A ∪ A = A (Idempotent law)
(v) U ∪ A = U (Law of U)
• Intersection of Sets
The intersection of sets A and B is the set
of all elements which are common to
both A and B. The symbol ‘∩’ is used to
denote the intersection. The intersection
of two sets A and B is the set of all those
elements which belong to both A and B.
Ex. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10} and

B = { 2, 3, 5, 7 }
A ∩ B = { 2, 3, 5, 7 }
o Some Properties of Operation of Intersection
(i) A ∩ B = B ∩ A (Commutative law)

(ii) ( A ∩ B ) ∩ C = A ∩ ( B ∩ C ) (Associative law)
(iii) φ ∩ A = φ, U ∩ A = A (Law of φ and U)
(iv) A ∩ A = A (Idempotent law)
(v) A ∩ ( B ∪ C ) = ( A ∩ B ) ∪ ( A ∩ C ) (Distributive law )
• Difference of Sets
The difference of the sets A and B in this

order is the set of elements which belong to
A but not to B. Symbolically, we write A – B.
Ex. Let A = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, B = { 2, 4, 6, 8 }.

Find A – B and B – A
Ans. 1) A – B = { 1, 3, 5 }
2) B – A = { 8 }
• Complement of a Set
Let U be the universal set and A a subset

of U. Then the complement of A is the set
of all elements of U which are not the
elements of A.
Ex. Let U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10} and

A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}. Find A′
Ans. A′ = { 2, 4, 6, 8,10 }
o Some Properties of Complement Sets
(i) A ∪ A′ = U
(ii) A ∩ A′ = φ
2. De Morgan’s law:
(i) (A ∪ B)´ = A′ ∩ B′
(ii) (A ∩ B)′ = A′ ∪ B′
3. Law of double complementation : (A′)′ = A
4. Laws of empty set and universal set φ′ = U and U′ = φ.
These laws can be verified by using Venn diagrams.

Set Theory
Formulas
1) 𝑛 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = 𝑛 𝐴 + 𝑛 𝐵 − 𝑛 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵
2) 𝑛 𝐴𝑈𝐵 = 𝑛 𝐴 + 𝑛 𝐵 {When A and B are disjoint sets)
3) 𝑛 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 ∪ 𝐶 = 𝑛 𝐴 + 𝑛 𝐵 + 𝑛 𝐶 − 𝑛 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 − 𝑛 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶 −
𝑛 𝐶∩𝐴 +𝑛 𝐴∩𝐵∩𝐶
Practice
Questions
•
Suppose A is a set of 2 colors and B is a set of 3 objects, i.e., A = {red,
blue} and B = {b, c, s}, where b, c and s represent a particular bag, coat
and shirt, respectively.
How many pairs of colored objects can be made from these two sets?
(red, b), (red, c), (red, s), (blue, b), (blue, c), (blue, s). Thus, we get 6
distinct objects.
▪ Cartesian Products of Sets
Given two non-empty sets P and Q. The cartesian product P × Q is the

set of all ordered pairs of elements from P and Q, i.e.,
P × Q = { (p,q) : p ∈ P, q ∈ Q }
• Note
1) Two ordered pairs are equal, if and only if the corresponding first
elements are equal and the second elements are also equal.
2) If there are p elements in A and q elements in B, then there will be
pq elements in A × B, i.e., if n(A) = p and n(B) = q, then n(A × B) = pq.
3) A × A × A = {(a, b, c) : a, b, c ∈ A}. Here (a, b, c) is called an ordered
triplet.
Practice Questions
Relations
• Consider the two sets P = {a, b, c} and Q = {Ali, Bhanu, Binoy, Chandra,
Divya}.
• The cartesian product of P and Q has 15 ordered pairs which can be

listed as
• P × Q = {(a, Ali), (a,Bhanu), (a, Binoy), ..., (c, Divya)}.
• We can now obtain a subset of P × Q by introducing a relation R between

the first element x and the second element y of each ordered pair (x, y)
as
• R= { (x,y): x is the first letter of the name y, x ∈ P, y ∈ Q}.
• Then R = {(a, Ali), (b, Bhanu), (b, Binoy), (c, Chandra)}

Visual
Representation
▪ Relation
A relation R from a non-empty set A to a non-empty set B is a subset of

the cartesian product A × B.
The subset is derived by describing a relationship between the first
element and the second element of the ordered pairs in A × B. The
second element is called the image of the first element
o Note
1) The set of all first elements of the ordered pairs in a relation R from
a set A to a set B is called the domain of the relation R.
2) The set of all second elements in a relation R from a set A to a set B
is called the range of the relation R. The whole set B is called the
codomain of the relation R. Note that range ⊂ codomain.
Types of Relations
▪ Empty Relation
An empty relation (or void relation) is one in which there is no relation

between any elements of a set.
For example, if set A = {1, 2, 3} then, one of the void relations can be
R = {x, y} where, |x – y| = 8. For empty relation, R = φ ⊂ A × A
▪ Universal Relation
A universal (or full relation) is a type of relation in which every element

of a set is related to each other.
Consider set A = {a, b, c}.

Now one of the universal relations will be R = {x, y} where, |x – y| ≥ 0.
For universal relation, R = A × A
▪ Identity Relation
In an identity relation, every element of a set is related to itself only.
For example, in a set A = {a, b, c}, the identity relation will be

I = {a, a}, {b, b}, {c, c}. For identity relation, I = {(a, a), a ∈ A}
▪ Inverse Relation
Inverse relation is seen when a set has elements which are inverse pairs
of another set.
For example, if set A = {(a, b), (c, d)}, then inverse relation will be
R-1 = {(b, a), (d, c)}.
So, for an inverse relation, R-1 = {(b, a): (a, b) ∈ R}

▪ Reflexive Relation
In a reflexive relation, every element maps to itself.
For example, consider a set A = {1, 2,}.

Now an example of reflexive relation will be R = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (1, 2), (2, 1)}.
The reflexive relation is given by (a, a) ∈ R

▪ Symmetric Relation
In a symmetric relation, if a = b is true then b = a is also true.

In other words, a relation R is symmetric only if (b, a) ∈ R is true when
(a,b) ∈ R.
An example of symmetric relation will be R = {(1, 2), (2, 1)} for a set
A = {1, 2}.
So, for a symmetric relation, aRb ⇒ bRa, ∀ a, b ∈ A

▪ Transitive Relation
For transitive relation, if (x, y) ∈ R, (y, z) ∈ R, then (x, z) ∈ R.
For a transitive relation, aRb and bRc ⇒ aRc ∀ a, b, c ∈ A

▪ Equivalence Relation
If a relation is reflexive, symmetric and transitive at the same time, it is

known as an equivalence relation.
Practice Questions
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Sets & Relations

The concept of set serves as a fundamental part of the present-day

The theory of sets was developed by German mathematician Georg

A set is a well-defined collection of objects.

There are two methods of representing a set :

In set-builder form, all the elements of a set possess a single common

2) Finite and Infinite Sets : A set which is empty or consists of a

A set A is said to be a subset of a set B if every element of A is also an

In other words, A ⊂ B if whenever a ∈ A, then a ∈ B. It is often

1) Every set A is a subset of itself, i.e., A ⊂ A.

Most of the relationships between sets can be represented by means

U = {1,2,3, ..., 10} is the universal set of which A = {2,4,6,8,10} is a

Let A and B be any two sets. The union of

Example - Let A = { 2, 4, 6, 8} and

(i) A ∪ B = B ∪ A (Commutative law)

Ex. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10} and

(i) A ∩ B = B ∩ A (Commutative law)

The difference of the sets A and B in this

Ex. Let A = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, B = { 2, 4, 6, 8 }.

Let U be the universal set and A a subset

Ex. Let U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10} and

3. Law of double complementation : (A′)′ = A

4. Laws of empty set and universal set φ′ = U and U′ = φ.

These laws can be verified by using Venn diagrams.

2) 𝑛 𝐴𝑈𝐵 = 𝑛 𝐴 + 𝑛 𝐵 {When A and B are disjoint sets)

Given two non-empty sets P and Q. The cartesian product P × Q is the

• The cartesian product of P and Q has 15 ordered pairs which can be

• We can now obtain a subset of P × Q by introducing a relation R between

• Then R = {(a, Ali), (b, Bhanu), (b, Binoy), (c, Chandra)}

A relation R from a non-empty set A to a non-empty set B is a subset of

An empty relation (or void relation) is one in which there is no relation

A universal (or full relation) is a type of relation in which every element

Consider set A = {a, b, c}.

In an identity relation, every element of a set is related to itself only.

For example, in a set A = {a, b, c}, the identity relation will be

So, for an inverse relation, R-1 = {(b, a): (a, b) ∈ R}

In a reflexive relation, every element maps to itself.

For example, consider a set A = {1, 2,}.

The reflexive relation is given by (a, a) ∈ R

In a symmetric relation, if a = b is true then b = a is also true.

So, for a symmetric relation, aRb ⇒ bRa, ∀ a, b ∈ A

For transitive relation, if (x, y) ∈ R, (y, z) ∈ R, then (x, z) ∈ R.

For a transitive relation, aRb and bRc ⇒ aRc ∀ a, b, c ∈ A

If a relation is reflexive, symmetric and transitive at the same time, it is

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