Operational

Amplifiers
What is an Op-Amp
◼ Low cost integrating circuit consisting of:
 Transistors
 Resistors
 Capacitors

◼ Able to amplify a signal due to an external

power supply
◼ Name derives from its use to perform
operations on a signal.
Applications of Op-Amps
◼ Simple Amplifiers
◼ Summers
◼ Comparators
◼ Integrators
◼ Differentiators
◼ Active Filters
◼ Analog to Digital Converters
Symbol for an Op-Amp

+V

Inverting Input Terminal

Non-Inverting Input Terminal

-V
Operational Amplifier
• An op amp is a high voltage gain, DC amplifier with high input
impedance, low output impedance, and differential inputs.
• Positive input at the non-inverting input produces positive output
• Positive input at the inverting input produces negative output.
741 Op Amp IC
 IC Product

OFFSET OUTPUT A 1 8 V+
NULL
1 8 N.C.

-IN 2 7 V+ -IN A 2 − 7 OUTPUT B

−
+
+IN 3 + 6 OUTPUT
+IN A 3 − 6 -IN B

OFFSET V− 4 + 5 +IN B
V− 4 5 NULL

DIP-741 Dual op-amp 1458 device

7 Operational Amplifier
◼ Operational
amplifiers (op-
amps) are among
the most widely
used building
blocks in
electronics
 they are
integrated circuits
(ICs)
◼ often DIL or SMT
Basic Operational Amplifier Circuit

The basic circuit of an operational amplifier is as shown in the figure

above. An op-amp has a differential amplifier input stage and emitter
follower output stage.
Transistors Q1 and Q2 forms a differential amplifier, where the
difference input voltage is applied to the base terminals of Q1and Q2.
Transistor Q3 operates as an emitter follower and provides low output
impedance.
The output of the basic op-amp circuit VOUT is given as,

VOUT = VCC –VRC – VBE3

VOUT = VCC – IC2RC – VBE

Where, VRC is the voltage across the resistor RC and VBE3 is the
base-emitter voltage of transistor Q3.
◼ Assume that the transistors Q1 and Q2 are matched transistors i.e.,
they have equal VBE levels and equal current gains.
◼ If both transistors base terminals are connected to ground, the
emitter currents IE1 and IE2 are equal and both IE1 and IE2 flow
through the common resistor RE.
◼ The emitter current is given by the relation,

◼ IE1 + IE2 = VRE / RE

◼ If both Q1 and Q2 bases connected to ground,

i.e. VRE = VEE – VBE

◼ Therefore, IE1 + IE2 = (VEE – VBE) / RE

◼ When a positive voltage is applied to the non-inverting input

terminal, the base of Q1 is pulled up by the input voltage and its
emitter terminal follows the input signal. Since Q1 and Q2 emitters
are connected together, the emitter of Q2 also gets pulled up by the
positive input at the non-inverting terminal. The base of Q2 is
grounded, so the positive voltage at its emitter causes a reduction in
its base-emitter voltage VBE2. The reduction in VBE2 causes the
emitter current IE2 to decrease and consequently IC2 also reduced.

◼ It can be noted that a positive input at pin #3 gives a positive output,

hence the name non-inverting input terminal.
An Ideal Operational Amplifier
◼ An ideal op-amp would be an ideal voltage
amplifier and would have: Av = , Ri = 
and Ro = 0

Equivalent circuit of an ideal op-amp

Op Amp Equivalent Circuit
vd = v2 – v1
A is the open-loop voltage gain
v2

v1
Voltage controlled
voltage source
 Operational Amplifier
• Can model any amplifier as a "black-box" with a parallel input
impedance Rin, and a voltage source with gain Av in series with an
output impedance Rout.
 Ideal op-amp
• Place a source and a load on the model

RS

+
RL
vout
-

So the equivalent circuit of an

• Infinite internal resistance Rin (so vin=vs). ideal op-amp looks like this:
• Zero output resistance Rout (so vout=Avvin).
• "A" very large
• iin=0; no current flow into op-amp
IC Circuit
Block Diagram
Internally, the typical op-amp has a differential input, a
voltage amplifier, and a push-pull output.
The differential amplifier amplifies the difference in the
two inputs.

+
Push-pull
Differential Voltage
amplifier
Vin amplifier amplifier(s) Vout
output
– input stage gain stage
stage
Non-ideal Op Amp
◼ Output voltage is limited by supply voltage(s)
◼ Finite gain (~105)
◼ Limited frequency response
◼ Finite input resistance (not infinite)
◼ Finite output resistance (not zero)
◼ Finite slew rate slew rate = dv0 (t ) dtMAX
◼ Input bias currents
◼ Input bias current offset
◼ Input offset voltage
◼ Finite common mode rejection ratio (CMRR)
Signal modes
The input signal can be applied to an op-amp in differential-
mode or in common-mode. V in

Vout
Differential-mode signals are +
applied either as single-ended
(one side on ground) or
double-ended (opposite phases –
Vin
on the inputs). Vout
+

Differential signals
Signal modes
The input signal can be applied to an op-amp in differential-
mode or in common-mode. V in

–
Common-mode signals are
Vout
applied to both sides with the
+
same phase on both.
Vin
Usually, common-mode –
signals are from unwanted Vout
sources, and affect both inputs +
in the same way. The result is Vin
that they are essentially Common-mode
cancelled at the output. signals
Common-Mode Rejection Ratio
The ability of an amplifier to amplify differential signals and
reject common-mode signals is called the common-mode
rejection ratio (CMRR).
Aol
CMRR is defined as CMRR =
Acm
where Aol is the open-loop differential-gain
and Acm is the common-mode gain.
 Aol 
CMRR can also be expressed in decibels as CMRR = 20log  
 cm 
A
 Common-Mode Rejection Ratio
Example:

What is CMRR in decibels for a typical 741C op-amp?

The typical open-loop differential gain for the 741C is 200,000 and the
typical common-mode gain is 6.3.
Solution:

 Aol 
CMRR = 20log  
 cm 
A
200, 000
= 20 log = 90 dB
6.3
(The minimum specified CMRR is 70 dB.)
Voltage and Current Parameters

VO(p-p): The maximum output voltage swing is determined

by the op-amp and the power supply voltages
VOS: The input offset voltage is the differential dc voltage
required between the inputs to force the output to zero volts
IBIAS: The input bias current is the I1 + I 2
I BIAS =
average of the two dc currents required 2
to bias the differential amplifier
IOS: The input offset current is the
I OS = I1 − I 2
difference between the two dc bias
currents
Impedance Parameters –

ZIN(d)
ZIN(d) : The differential input impedance
is the total resistance between the inputs +

–
ZIN(cm) : The common-mode input
ZIN(cm)
impedance is the resistance between
each input and ground +

–
Zout: The output impedance is the Zout

resistance viewed from the output of the

circuit. +
Other Parameters
Slew rate: The slew rate is the maximum rate of change of
the output voltage in response to a step input voltage
Vout
Slew Rate =
Example: t Vout (V)
Determine the slew rate for the output
13
response to a step input. 12
Solution:

Vout ( +12 V ) − ( −12 V )

0 t

Slew Rate = =
t 4.0 μs –12
–13
4.0 ms
= 6 V/ms
Negative Feedback
Negative feedback is the process of returning a portion of
the output signal to the input with a phase angle that opposes
the input signal.
The advantage of negative
feedback is that precise values Vin +
Vout
of amplifier gain can be set. In
Vf –
addition, bandwidth and input
Internal inversion makes Vf
and output impedances can be 180° out of phase with Vin.
controlled. Negative
feedback
circuit
 Ideal Vs Practical Op-Amp
Ideal Practical Ideal op-amp
+ AVin
Open Loop gain A  105 Vin ~ Vout
Bandwidth BW  10-100Hz − Zout=0

Input Impedance Zin  >1M

Output Impedance Zout 0 10-100 
Practical op-amp
Output Voltage Vout Depends only Depends slightly +
on Vd = (V+−V−) on average input Zin Zout
Differential Vc = (V++V−)/2 Vin Vout
~
mode signal Common-Mode
signal − AVin
CMRR  10-100dB
Typical Op Amp Parameters
Parameter Variable Typical Ideal Values
Ranges
Open-Loop
Voltage Gain
A 105 to 108
∞
105 to 1013 
Input
Resistance
Ri
∞
Output Ro 10 to 100  0
Resistance
Supply Vcc/V+ 5 to 30 V N/A
Voltage -Vcc/V- -30V to 0V N/A
 Operational A type of amplifier that has very high voltage
amplifier gain, very high input impedance, very low
output impedance and good rejection of
common-mode signals.

Differential A mode of op-amp operation in which two

mode opposite-polarity signals voltages are applied to
the two inputs (double-ended) or in which a
signal is applied to one input and ground to the
other input (single-ended).

Common mode A condition characterized by the presence of

the same signal on both inputs
 Open-loop The voltage gain of an op-amp without external
voltage gain feedback.

Negative The process of returning a portion of the output

feedback signal to the input of an amplifier such that it is
out of phase with the input.

Closed-loop The voltage gain of an op-amp with external

voltage gain feedback.

Gain- A constant parameter which is always equal to

bandwidth the frequency at which the op-amp’s open-loop
product gain is unity (1).
Inverting Amplifier
An inverting amplifier is a configuration in which the
noninverting input is grounded and the signal is applied
through a resistor to the inverting input.
Feedback forces the inputs to Rf
be nearly identical; hence the
inverting input is very close to Ri
0 V. The closed-loop gain of –
the inverting amplifier is Vout
Vin
Rf +
Acl (I) = −
Ri

0 V (virtual ground)
Inverting Amplifier
Current into op amp is zero R2
ii
ii
v− = v+ = 0 vi v−
- vo
R1 v+
v − 0 vi +
ii = i =
R1 R1

0 − v0 −v0
ii = = vi −v0
R2 R2 =
R1 R2

vo R
AF = =− 2
vi R1
Inverting Amplifier
RF iout

iin R

Vin

Vout RF
=−
Vin R
 Inverting Amplifier
Example:

Determine the gain of the inverting amplifier shown.

Solution:
Rf

Rf 82 k
Acl (I) = −
Ri Ri
–
82 k 3.3 k
=− Vout
3.3 k Vin +

= −24.8

The minus sign

indicates inversion.
Noninverting Amplifier
A noninverting amplifier is a configuration in which the
signal is on the noninverting input and a portion of the
output is returned to the inverting input.
Feedback forces Vf to be equal
+
to Vin, hence Vin is across Ri.
Vout
With basic algebra, you can Vin –
show that the closed-loop gain Rf
Vf Feedback
of the noninverting amplifier is circuit
Rf
Acl (NI) = 1 +
Ri

Ri
◼ Example
Design an inverting amplifier with a gain of -25

From above
Vo R
G= =− 1
Vi R2
If G = -25 then
R1
− = −25
R2
R1 = 25R2
Therefore choose R2 = 1 k and R1 = 25 k
Non-inverting Amplifier
Since the gain is assumed infinite, if Vo is
vi v+ finite then the input voltage must be zero.
+ vo
v− Hence V− = V+ = Vi
-

Closed-loop voltage gain

R2
R1 vo
AF =
vi
R1
vi = v+ = v− = vo
R1 + R2

vo R
AF = = 1+ 2
vi R1
Non-Inverting Amplifier
RF iout

iin R
C

Vin

Vout RF
= 1+
Vin R
 Noninverting Amplifier
Example:

Determine the gain of the noninverting amplifier shown.

Solution:
Vin +
Rf Vout
Acl (NI) = 1 + –
Ri Rf
82 k
82 k
= 1+
3.3 k Ri
3.3 k
= 25.8
◼ Example
Design a non-inverting amplifier with a gain of 25

From above Vo R1 + R2
G= =
Vi R2
If G = 25 then
R1 + R2
= 25
R2
R1 + R2 = 25R2
R1 = 24R2
Therefore choose R2 = 1 k and R1 = 24 k
Basic Operational Amplifier
Circuits
◼ Inverting and non-inverting amplifiers
◼ A unity gain buffer amplifier
Analysis
This is a special case of the non-inverting
amplifier with R1 = 0 and R2 = 
Hence
R + R2 R1 0
G= 1 = +1= +1= 1
R2 R2 

Thus the circuit has a gain of unity

◼ At first sight this might not seem like a very useful circuit, however it
has a high input resistance and a low output resistance and is
therefore useful as a buffer amplifier
 Op amp circuit 1: Voltage follower
(unity buffer amplifier) • So vO=vIN
•or, using equations
R1 + R2
vO = vIN
R2
R1 = 0
R2 = 
• What's the application of this circuit?
•Buffer
voltage gain = 1 Useful interface between different circuits:
input impedance=∞ Has minimum effect on previous and next
output impedance=0 circuit in signal chain
RS ROUT

RIN AVIN RL
VS VIN VOUT
 Voltage Follower

Special case of noninverting amplifier is a voltage follower

Since in the noninverting amplifier

vo = v1(1+ R2 /R1) so when R2=0

vo = v1

=>
Summing Circuits
• Used to add analog signals
• Voltage averaging function into
summing function

Calculate closed loop gain for each input

− Rf − Rf − Rf
ACL1 = ACL1 = ACL1 =
R1 R2 R3

Rf Rf Rf
Vo = Vin  ACLn Vo = −V1  − V2  − V3 
R1 R2 R3

If all resistors are equal in value: Vo = −(V1 + V2 + V3 )

Difference Circuit
• Used to subtract analog
signals
• Output signal is proportional
to difference between two
inputs

V 2 (R3 + R1 )R4 V1 R3
Vout = −
( R4 + R2 ) R1 R1

If all resistors are equal: Vout = V2 − V1

Integrating Circuit
• Replace feedback resistor of
inverting op-amp with capacitor
• A constant input signal generates
a certain rate of change in output
voltage
• Smoothes signals over time
Differentiating Circuit
• Input resistor of inverting op-amp
is replaced with a capacitor
• Signal processing method which
accentuates noise over time
• Output signal is scaled derivative
of input signal
Filters

◼ Low Pass Filters

◼ High Pass Filters
◼ Band Pass Filters
Low Pass Filter
• Used to filter out signals above a
specified frequency
• Example: Noise

Frequency range is governed by:

1
f =
2  R  C
Where
R = R2
C = C2
High Pass Filter
• Filters out frequencies below a specified
frequency
• Reverse locations of resistors and
capacitors in a low pass filter
Band Pass Filter

• Created by combining a high and low pass filter

• Only allows signals within frequency ranges specified by the
low and high pass filters to pass
 Comparator Circuit

V1 is Vref
V2 is Vin

• Determines if one signal is bigger than another

• No negative feedback, infinite gain and circuit saturates
• Saturation: output is most positive or most negative value
OR Gate

If U1 or/and U2 = 5V,
U3 = 5V
If U2 and U1 = 0V,
U3 = 0V
Offset Comparator

R2
If U2  .U1
R1 + R2
U3 = 0V
5.R1 + U1.R2
If U2 
R1 + R2
U3 = 5V
Real Vs Ideal Op Amp
Parameters Ideal Typical

Input ∞ 106Ω
Impedance
Output 0Ω 100-1000Ω
Impedance
Voltage Gain ∞ 105 - 109

Common Mode 0 10-5

voltage
Non-Ideal Op-Amps
◼ Gain Bandwidth
◼ Falloff Frequency
◼ Slew Rate (ΔV/ΔT)
◼ Rise Time
Gain Bandwidth
◼ Gain Bandwidth Product (GBP)- is the
product of the open-loop gain and the
bandwidth at that gain.
◼ For practical purposes the actual gain
should only be 1/10 to 1/20 of the open
loop gain at a given frequency to ensure
that the op-amp will operate without
distortion.
Open and Closed Loop Response
Important Parameters for Op-Amps
◼ Input Parameters
 Voltage (Vicm)
 Offset voltage
 Bias current
 Input Impedance
◼ Output Parameters
 Short circuit current
 Voltage Swing
 Open Loop Gain
 Slew Rate
References
◼ David G Alciatore & Michael B. Histand,
Introduction to Mechatronics and
Measurement Systems
◼ http://www.elexp.com/t_gain.htm
◼ http://allaboutelectronics.com
◼ Electronics book