DATA COMMUNICATION

UNIT-1
INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING

SYLLABUS: Standards Organizations for Data Communications, Layered Network Architecture,

Open Systems Interconnection, Data Communications Circuits, Serial and parallel Data Transmission,
Data communications Networks, Alternate Protocol Suites.

DEFINITION OF COMMUNICATION:
Communication is the process of establishing connection or link between two points for
information exchange. The electronic equipment which are used for communication purpose, are
called communication equipment. Different communication equipment when assembled together form
a Communication System.

Ex: Line telephony and Line telegraphy, Radio telephony and Radio telegraphy, Radio
broadcasting, Point-to-Point communication and Mobile communication, Computer communication,
Radar Communication, Television broadcasting, Radio telemetry, Radio aids to navigation, Radio aids
to aircraft landing etc.

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF COMMUNICATION SYSTEM:

Figure 1: Communication System

Information Source: The place from which information or message originates is called as information
source. In general, there can be various messages in the form of words, group of words, code, symbols,
sound signal etc. However, out of these messages, only the desired message is selected and
communicated through the system.

Input Transducer: A transducer is a device which converts one form of energy into another form. The
message from the information source may or may not be electrical in nature. In a case when the
message produced by the information source is not electrical in nature, an input transducer is used to
convert it into a time-varying electrical signal. For example, in case of radio-broadcasting, a
microphone converts the information or message which is in the form of sound waves into
corresponding electrical signal.

Transmitter: The function of the transmitter is to process the electrical signal from different aspects.
In wire telephony, no real processing is needed. However, in long-distance radio communication,
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DATA COMMUNICATION
signal amplification is necessary before modulation. Modulation is the main function of the
transmitter. In modulation, the message signal is superimposed upon the high-frequency carrier signal.
Inside the transmitter, signal processing such as restriction of range of audio frequencies, amplification
and modulation of signal are achieved.

Channel and Noise: The term channel means the medium through which the message travels from the
transmitter to the receiver. It provides a physical connection between the transmitter and the receiver.
There are two types of channels, namely point-to-point channels and broadcast channels.
Example of point-to-point channels are wire lines, microwave links and optical fibers.
Example of a broadcast channel is a satellite in geostationary orbit, which covers about one third of the
earth’s surface.
During the process of transmission and reception the signal gets distorted due to noise introduced in
the system. Noise is an unwanted signal which tend to interfere with the required signal. Noise signal
is always random in character. Noise may interfere with signal at any point in a communication
system. However, the noise has its greatest effect on the signal in the channel.

Receiver: The main function of the receiver is to reproduce the message signal in electrical form from
the distorted received signal. This reproduction of the original signal is accomplished by a process
known as the demodulation or detection. Demodulation is the reverse process of modulation carried
out in transmitter.

Output Transducer: It is used to convert an electrical message signal into its original form. For
example, in radio broadcasting, the destination is a loudspeaker which works as a transducer i.e.
converts the electrical signal in the form of original sound signal.

Destination: It is the place where the original message signal has to be reached finally. It can be a loud
speaker, a display device, a printer, or a storage device.

DEFINITION OF MODULATION:

The process of changing some characteristic of carrier signal according to the instantaneous
values of the message signal is called as Modulation. The characteristics of a signal are: Amplitude,
Frequency and Phase.

Amplitude Modulation: The process of varying the amplitude of carrier signal according to the
instantaneous values of message signal keeping the frequency and phase of carrier as constant is called
as Amplitude Modulation.

Frequency Modulation: The process of varying the frequency of carrier signal according to the
instantaneous values of message signal keeping the amplitude and phase of carrier as constant is called
as Frequency Modulation.

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DATA COMMUNICATION
Phase Modulation: The process of varying the phase of carrier signal according to the instantaneous
values of message signal keeping the amplitude and frequency of carrier as constant is called as Phase
Modulation.

Table 1: Types of Modulation

Varying
S. No Type of Modulation Constant Parameters
Parameter

1 Amplitude Modulation Amplitude Frequency and Phase

2 Frequency Modulation Frequency Amplitude and Phase

3 Phase Modulation Phase Amplitude and Frequency

NEED FOR MODULATION:

1. Practical Height of Antenna: For the effective transmission of a signal, the height h of the
antenna should be at least λ / 4 in length where λ is the wavelength of the signal so that the
antenna can sense the variations of the signal properly.
2. Avoids interference of signals: The range of audio signal is from 20Hz to 20KHz. In radio
broadcasting, many stations use the same frequency band to broadcast their programs. If
modulation is not done, then the programs from different stations will get mixed up and the
receiver cannot listen to a particular station.
3. Allows Multiplexing of signals
4. Reduction of Noise: With the help of various modulation schemes, we can reduce the effect of
noise and can improve the quality of reception.
5. Range of communication can be increased.
6. Suitable receivers can be designed.
7. Receiving techniques are made simplified.

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DEFINITION OF DATA COMMUNICATION:

Data communication is the process of exchanging data between two devices through a
transmission medium. For data communication to occur, the communicating devices must be part of a
communication system made up of a combination of hardware (physical equipment) and software
(programs).

DATA COMMUNICATION CIRCUITS:

Figure 2: Block Diagram of Data Communication

Sender: It is a device that sends some data or messages to the receiver. The data can be in any form
like text messages, audio messages, video messages, photos, documents messages, etc. A sender is also
known as a source, transmitter, or node.

Receiver: It is a device that performs the process of receiving messages known as the Receiver. The
sender device location is typically different from the receiver device location.

Message: The message is an information or data to be communicated. The message may be in any
form like text, image, video clip, documents, etc., which is communicated through a medium.

Transmission Medium: It is the path through which the message or data sent by the sender reaches
the receiver. These mediums can be a wired path or a wireless path. A wired path like coaxial cable,
fiber-optic cables, etc., and a wireless path like radio waves and laser, etc.

Protocol: It is a set of rules that defines how the data will be transmitted between the devices. A
protocol is required in data communications. Without a protocol, two devices may be connected but
not communicating.

The effectiveness of a data communications system depends on four fundamental characteristics:

delivery, accuracy, timeliness, and jitter.
1. Delivery: The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be received by the
intended device or user and only by that device or user.

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2. Accuracy: The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have been altered in transmission
and left uncorrected are unusable.
3. Timeliness: The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered late are useless. In the
case of video and audio, timely delivery means delivering data as they are produced, in the same order
that they are produced, and without significant delay. This kind of delivery is called real-time
transmission.
4. Jitter: Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the uneven delay in the delivery of
audio or video packets. For example, let us assume that video packets are sent every 3D-ms. If some of
the packets arrive with 3D-ms delay and others with 4D-ms delay, an uneven quality in the video is the
result.
DATA COMMUNICATION CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENT:
A data communication circuit can be described in terms of circuit configuration and
transmission mode.
Circuit Configuration:
A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by communication links. A
node can be a computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending and/or receiving data
generated by other nodes on the network. A network is two or more devices connected through links. A
link is a communication pathway that transfers data from one device to another. For communication to
occur, two devices must be connected in some way to the same link at the same time. There are two
possible types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint.
Point-to-Point: A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices. The entire
capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those two devices. Most point-to-point
connections use an actual length of wire or cable to connect the two ends, but other options, such as
microwave or satellite links, are also possible.

Figure 3(a): Point-to-Point Connection

Multipoint: A multipoint (also called multidrop) connection is one in which more than two specific
devices share a single link. In a multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is shared, either
spatially or temporally. If several devices can use the link simultaneously, it is a spatially shared
connection. If users must take turns, it is a timeshared connection.

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DATA COMMUNICATION

Figure 3(b): Multi-point Connection

MODES OF DATA TRANSFERRING:
The data communication is divided into three types: simplex, half duplex and full duplex
communications.

Figure 4: Modes of Data Transferring

Simplex Mode:
In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional. Only one of the two devices on a link
can transmit, the other can only receive. The simplex mode can use the entire capacity of the channel
to send data in one direction.
Example: Keyboard and traditional monitors. The keyboard can only introduce input, the monitor can
only give the output.

Figure 5(a): Simplex Mode

Half-Duplex Mode:
In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time.
When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa. The half-duplex mode is used
in cases where there is no need for communication in both directions at the same time. The entire
capacity of the channel can be utilized for each direction.
Example: Walkie-talkie in which message is sent one at a time and messages are sent in both
directions.

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Figure 5(b): Half Duplex Mode

Full-Duplex Mode:
In full-duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously. In full-duplex
mode, signals going in one direction share the capacity of the link with signals going in another
direction, this sharing can occur in two ways:
 Either the link must contain two physically separate transmission paths, one for sending and the
other for receiving.
 Or the capacity is divided between signals traveling in both directions.
Full-duplex mode is used when communication in both directions is required all the time. The capacity
of the channel, however, must be divided between the two directions.
Example: Telephone Network in which there is communication between two persons by a telephone
line, through which both can talk and listen at the same time.

Figure 5(c): Full Duplex Mode

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SIMPLEX, HALF DUPLEX, AND FULL DUPLEX
TRANSMISSION MODES:
S. No Parameter Simplex Half Duplex Full Duplex
1 Direction of Uni-directional Bi-directional Bi-directional
communication communication but communication
one at a time. simultaneously.
2 Sender and Sender can send Sender can send Sender can send the
Receiver the data but that the data and also data and also can
sender can’t can receive the receive the data
receive the data. data but one at a simultaneously.
time.
3 Channel usage Usage of one Usage of one Usage of two
channel for the channel for the channels for the
transmission of transmission of transmission of data.
data. data.
4 Performance Provides less Provides less Provides better
performance than performance than performance than

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DATA COMMUNICATION
half duplex and full duplex. simplex and half
full duplex. duplex mode.
5 Bandwidth Utilizes the Lesser utilization Doubles the
Utilization maximum of a of single utilization of
single bandwidth. bandwidth at the transmission
time of bandwidth.
transmission.
6 Examples Keyboard and Walkie-Talkies. Telephone.
monitor.

NETWORK TOPOLOGIES:
Network topology refers to the arrangement of different elements like nodes, links, and devices
in a computer network. It defines how these components are connected and interact with each other.
The topology of a network is the geometric representation of the relationship of all the links and
linking devices (usually called nodes) to one another.

Figure 6: Types of topologies

Mesh Topology:
In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other device. The
term dedicated means that the link carries traffic only between the two devices it connects. To find the
number of physical links in a fully connected mesh network with N nodes, we first consider that each
node must be connected to every other node. We need N(N - 1) physical links. However, if each
physical link allows communication in both directions (duplex mode), we can divide the number of
N (N −1)
links by 2. In other words, we can say that in a mesh topology, we need N C = duplex-mode
2
2
links. To accommodate that many links, every device on the network must have N – 1 input/output
ports to be connected to the other N - 1 stations. In Mesh Topology, the protocols used are AHCP (Ad
Hoc Configuration Protocols), DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol), etc.

Figure 7(a): Mesh Topology

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Advantages of Mesh Topology
i. Communication is very fast between the nodes.
ii. Mesh Topology is robust.
iii. The fault is diagnosed easily. Data is reliable because data is transferred among the devices
through dedicated channels or links.
iv. Provides security and privacy.
Disadvantages of Mesh Topology
i. Installation and configuration are difficult.
ii. The cost of cables is high as bulk wiring is required, hence suitable for less number of devices.
iii. The cost of maintenance is high.
Star Topology:
In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a central controller,
usually called a hub. The devices are not directly linked to one another. Unlike a mesh topology, a star
topology does not allow direct traffic between devices. The controller acts as an exchange: If one
device wants to send data to another, it sends the data to the controller, which then relays the data to
the other connected device. In Star Topology, many popular Ethernet LAN protocols are used as CD
(Collision Detection), CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access), etc.

Figure 7(b): Star Topology

Advantages of Star Topology
i. If N devices are connected to each other in a star topology, then the number of cables required
to connect them is N. So, it is easy to set up.
ii. Each device requires only 1 port i.e. to connect to the hub, therefore the total number of ports
required is N.
iii. It is Robust. If one link fails only that link will affect and not other than that.
iv. Easy to fault identification and fault isolation.
v. Star topology is cost-effective as it uses inexpensive coaxial cable.
Disadvantages of Star Topology
i. If the concentrator (hub) on which the whole topology relies fails, the whole system will crash
down.
ii. The cost of installation is high.
iii. Performance is based on the single concentrator i.e. hub.
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Bus Topology:
One long cable act as a backbone to link all the devices in a network. Nodes are connected to
the bus cable by drop lines and taps. A drop line is a connection running between the device and the
main cable. A tap is a connector that either splices into the main cable or punctures the sheathing of a
cable to create a contact with the metallic core. As a signal travels along the backbone, some of its
energy is transformed into heat. Therefore, it becomes weaker and weaker as it travels farther and
farther. For this reason, there is a limit on the number of taps a bus can support and on the distance
between those taps.

Figure 7(c): Bus Topology

Advantages of Bus Topology
i. It is the easiest network topology for linearly connecting peripherals or computers.
ii. It works very efficiently well when there is a small network.
iii. The length of cable required is less than a star topology.
iv. It is easy to connect or remove devices in this network without affecting any other device.
v. Very cost-effective as compared to other network topology i.e. mesh and star
vi. It is easy to understand topology.
vii. Easy to expand by joining the two cables together.
Disadvantages of Bus Topology
i. Bus topology is not good for large networks.
ii. Identification of problems becomes difficult if the whole network goes down.
iii. Troubleshooting individual device issues is very hard.
iv. Need terminators are required at both ends of the main cable.
v. Additional devices slow the network down.
vi. If the main cable is damaged, the whole network fails or splits into two.
vii. Packet loss is high.
viii. This network topology is very slow as compared to other topologies.
Ring Topology:
In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection with only the two
devices on either side of it. A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to device,
until it reaches its destination. Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater. When a device receives
a signal intended for another device, its repeater regenerates the bits and passes them along.

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Figure 7(d): Ring Topology

Advantages of Ring Topology
i. The data transmission is high-speed.
ii. The possibility of collision is minimum in this type of topology.
iii. Cheap to install and expand.
iv. It is less costly than a star topology.
Disadvantages of Ring Topology

i. The failure of a single node in the network can cause the entire network to fail.
ii. Troubleshooting is difficult in this topology.
iii. The addition of stations in between or the removal of stations can disturb the whole topology.
iv. Less secure.
NETWORK CATEGORIES:
A computer network is a collection of two or more computer systems that are linked together. A
network connection can be established using either cable or wireless media. Hardware and software
are used to connect computers and tools in any network.
Types of Computer Networks:

Figure 8: Categories of network

Personal Area Network (PAN):
PAN is the most basic type of computer network. This network is restrained to a single person,
that is, communication between the computer devices is centred only on an individual’s workspace.
PAN offers a network range of 1 to 100 meters from person to device providing communication. Its
transmission speed is very high with very easy maintenance and very low cost. This uses Bluetooth,
IrDA, and Zigbee as technology. Examples of PAN are USB, computer, phone, tablet, printer, PDA,
etc.

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Advantages of PAN
i. PAN is relatively flexible and provides high efficiency for short network ranges.
ii. It needs easy setup and relatively low cost.
iii. It does not require frequent installations and maintenance
iv. It is easy and portable.
v. Needs fewer technical skills to use.
Disadvantages of PAN
i. Low network coverage area/range.
ii. Limited to relatively low data rates.
iii. Devices are not compatible with each other.
iv. Inbuilt WPAN devices are a little bit costly.
Local Area Network (LAN)
LAN is the most frequently used network. A LAN is a computer network that connects
computers through a common communication path, contained within a limited area, that is, locally. A
LAN encompasses two or more computers connected over a server. The two important technologies
involved in this network are Ethernet and Wi-fi. It ranges up to 2km & transmission speed is very high
with easy maintenance and low cost. Examples of LAN are networking in a home, school, library,
laboratory, college, office, etc.

Advantages of a LAN
i. Privacy: LAN is a private network; thus, no outside regulatory body controls it, giving it a
privacy.
ii. High Speed: LAN offers a much higher speed (around 100 MBPS) and data transfer rate
comparatively to WAN.

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iii. Supports different transmission mediums: LAN support a variety of communications
transmission medium such as an Ethernet cable (thin cable, thick cable, and twisted pair), fiber
and wireless transmission.
iv. Inexpensive and Simple: A LAN usually has low cost, installation, expansion and maintenance
and LAN installation is relatively easy to use, good scalability.
Disadvantages of LAN
i. The initial setup cost of installing Local Area Network is high because there is special software
required to make a server.
ii. Communication devices like an ethernet cable, switches, hubs, routers, cables are costly.
iii. LAN administrator can see and check personal data files as well as Internet history of each and
every LAN user. Hence, the privacy of the users is violated
iv. LANs are restricted in size and cover only a limited area
v. Since all the data is stored in a single server computer, if it can be accessed by an unauthorized
user, can cause a serious data security threat.
Campus Area Network (CAN)
CAN is bigger than a LAN but smaller than a MAN. This is a type of computer network that is
usually used in places like a school or colleges. This network covers a limited geographical area that is,
it spreads across several buildings within the campus. CAN mainly use Ethernet technology with a
range from 1km to 5km. Its transmission speed is very high with a moderate maintenance cost and
moderate cost. Examples of CAN are networks that cover schools, colleges, buildings, etc.

Advantages of CAN
i. Speed: Communication within a CAN takes place over Local Area Network (LAN) so data
transfer rate between systems is little bit fast than Internet.
ii. Security: Network administrators of campus take care of network by continuous monitoring,
tracking and limiting access. To protect network from unauthorized access firewall is placed
between network and internet.
iii. Cost effective: With a little effort and maintenance, network works well by providing fast data
transfer rate with multi-departmental network access. It can be enabled wirelessly, where

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DATA COMMUNICATION
wiring and cabling costs can be managed. So, to work with in a campus using CAN is cost-
effective in view of performance
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
A MAN is larger than a LAN but smaller than a WAN. This is the type of computer network
that connects computers over a geographical distance through a shared communication path over a city,
town, or metropolitan area. This network mainly uses FDDI, CDDI, and ATM as the technology with a
range from 5km to 50km. Its transmission speed is average. It is difficult to maintain and it comes with
a high cost. Examples of MAN are networking in towns, cities, a single large city, a large area within
multiple buildings, etc.

Advantages of MAN
i. MAN offers high-speed connectivity in which the speed ranges from 10-100 Mbps.
ii. The security level in MAN is high and strict as compared to WAN.
iii. It supports to transmit data in both directions concurrently because of dual bus architecture.
iv. MAN can serve multiple users at a time with the same high-speed internet to all the users.
v. MAN allows for centralized management and control of the network, making it easier to
monitor and manage network resources and security.
Disadvantages of MAN
i. The architecture of MAN is quite complicated hence, it is hard to design and maintain.
ii. This network is highly expensive because it required the high cost to set up fiber optics.
iii. It provides less fault tolerance.
iv. The Data transfer rate in MAN is low when compare to LANs.
Wide Area Network (WAN)
WAN is a type of computer network that connects computers over a large geographical distance
through a shared communication path. It is not restrained to a single location but extends over many
locations. WAN can also be defined as a group of local area networks that communicate with each
other with a range above 50km. Here we use Leased-Line & Dial-up technology. Its transmission
speed is very low and it comes with very high maintenance and very high cost. The most common
example of WAN is the Internet.

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Advantages of WAN
i. It covers large geographical area which enhances the reach of organization to transmit data
quickly and cheaply.
ii. The data can be stored in centralized manner because of remote access to data provided by
WAN.
iii. The travel charges that are needed to cover the geographical area of work can be minimized.
iv. WAN enables a user or organization to connect with the world very easily and allows to
exchange data and do business at global level.
Disadvantages of WAN
i. Traffic congestion in Wide Area Network is very high.
ii. The fault tolerance ability of WAN is very less.
iii. Noise and error are present in large amount due to multiple connection point.
iv. The data transfer rate is slow in comparison to LAN because of large distances and high
number of connected systems within the network.
Comparison between Different Computer Networks
S.
Parameters PAN LAN CAN MAN WAN
No
Personal
Local Area Campus Area Metropolitan Wide Area
1 Full Name Area
Network Network Area Network Network
Network
Bluetooth,
Ethernet & FDDI, CDDI, Leased Line,
2 Technology IrDA, Ethernet
Wi-Fi ATM Dial-Up
Zigbee
Above 50
3 Range 1-100 m Up to 2km 1 – 5 km 5-50 km
km
Transmission
4 Very High Very High High Average Low
Speed
Private or Private or
5 Ownership Private Private Private
Public Public
Very
6 Maintenance Very Easy Easy Moderate Difficult
Difficult
7 Cost Very Low Low Moderate High Very High
PROTOCOLS:
In computer networks, communication occurs between entities in different systems. An entity is
anything capable of sending or receiving information. However, two entities cannot simply send bit
streams to each other and expect to be understood. For communication to occur, the entities must agree

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DATA COMMUNICATION
on a protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. A protocol defines what is
communicated, how it is communicated, and when it is communicated. The key elements of a protocol
are syntax, semantics, and timing.
Syntax: The term syntax refers to the structure or format of the data, meaning the order in which they
are presented. For example, a simple protocol might expect the first 8 bits of data to be the address of
the sender, the second 8 bits to be the address of the receiver, and the rest of the stream to be the
message itself.
Semantics: The word semantics refers to the meaning of each section of bits. How is a particular
pattern to be interpreted, and what action is to be taken based on that interpretation? For example, does
an address identify the route to be taken or the final destination of the message?
Timing: The term timing refers to two characteristics: when data should be sent and how fast they can
be sent. For example, if a sender produces data at 100 Mbps but the receiver can process data at only 1
Mbps, the transmission will overload the receiver and some data will be lost.
STANDARDS ORGANIZATIONS FOR DATA COMMUNICATION:
Standards are developed through the cooperation of standards creation committees, forums, and
government regulatory agencies.
Standards Creation Committees:
Many organizations are dedicated to the establishment of standards, data tele-communications
in North America rely primarily on those published by the following:
i. International Organization for Standardization (ISO): It is a multinational body. It is active
in developing cooperation in the realms of scientific, technological, and economic activity.
ii. International Telecommunication Union-Telecommunication Standards Sector (ITU-T):
The United Nations responded by forming, as part of its International Telecommunication
Union (ITU), a committee, the Consultative Committee for International Telegraphy and
Telephony (CCITT). This committee was devoted to the research and establishment of
standards for telecommunications in general and for phone and data systems in particular.
iii. American National Standards Institute (ANSI): It is a completely private, nonprofit
corporation not affiliated with the U.S. federal government. However, all ANSI activities are
undertaken with the welfare of the United States and its citizens occupying primary
importance.
iv. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE): It aims to advance theory,
creativity, and product quality in the fields of electrical engineering, electronics, and radio as
well as in all related branches of engineering, development and adoption of international
standards for computing and communications.

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DATA COMMUNICATION
v. Electronic Industries Association (EIA): It is aligned with ANSI. It has made significant
contributions by defining physical connection interfaces and electronic signaling specifications
for data communication.
Forums:
Telecommunications technology development is moving faster than the ability of standards
committees to ratify standards. Standards committees are procedural bodies and by nature slow-
moving. To accommodate the need for working models and agreements and to facilitate the
standardization process, many special-interest groups have developed forums made up of
representatives from interested corporations. The forums work with universities and users to test,
evaluate, and standardize new technologies. By concentrating their efforts on a particular technology,
the forums are able to speed acceptance and use of those technologies in the telecommunications
community. The forums present their conclusions to the standards bodies.
Regulatory Agencies:
All communications technology is subject to regulation by government agencies such as the
Federal Communications Commission (FCC) in the United States. The purpose of these agencies is to
protect the public interest by regulating radio, television, and wire/cable communications. The FCC
has authority over interstate and international commerce as it relates to communications.
LAYERED NETWORK ARCHITECTURE:
Layered Architecture in a computer network is defined as a model where a whole network
process is divided into various smaller sub-tasks. These divided sub-tasks are then assigned to a
specific layer to perform only the dedicated tasks. A single layer performs only a specific type of task.
To run the application and provide all types of services to clients a lower layer adds its services to the
higher layer present above it. Therefore, layered architecture provides interactions between the sub-
systems. If any type of modification is done in one layer it does not affect the next layer.

There are three different types of elements of a layered architecture. They are described below:

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DATA COMMUNICATION
 Service: Service is defined as a set of functions and tasks being provided by a lower layer to a
higher layer. Each layer performs a different type of task. Therefore, actions provided by each
layer are different.
 Protocol: Protocol is defined as a set rule used by the layer for exchanging and transmission of
data with its peer entities. These rules can consist details regarding a type of content and their
order passed from one layer to another.
 Interface: Interface is defined as a channel that allows to transmit the messages from one layer
to the another.
Need of Layered Architecture:
i. Divide and Conquer Approach
ii. Easy to Modify
iii. Modularity
iv. Easy to Test
Application of Layered Architecture in Computer Networks
 OSI (Open System Interconnection) Model
 TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) /IP (Internet Protocol) Model
OSI (OPEN SYSTEM INTERCONNECTION) MODEL:
It is a 7-layer architecture with each layer having specific functionality to perform. It was
developed by ISO in 1984. It is used to design protocols and technologies based on the principles
outlined in the OSI model to facilitate efficient data transmission and networking operations. When
we transfer information from one device to another, it travels through 7 layers of OSI model. First
data travels down through 7 layers from the sender’s end and then climbs back 7 layers on the
receiver’s end. Data flows through the OSI model in a step-by-step process:
Layer Layer
Purpose Example
Number Name
7 Application Layer Applications create the data. HTTP, FTP, POP3, STMP
6 Presentation Layer Data is formatted and encrypted. ASCII, EBCDIC, JPEG, MIDI
Connections are established and
5 Session Layer RPC, PAP, L2TP, gRPC
managed.
Data is broken into segments for
4 Transport Layer TCP, UDP, SCTP
reliable delivery.
Segments are packaged into
3 Network Layer IPv4, IPv6, IPsec, ICMP
packets and routed.
Packets are framed and sent to PPP, IEEE 802.22, Ethernet,
2 Data Link Layer
the next device. DSL, ARP, Network Card
Frames are converted into bits
1 Physical Layer USB, RJ Cable, Radio Channel
and transmitted physically.

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(OR)

Application Layer: It is implemented by the network applications. These applications produce the
data to be transferred over the network. The examples are browser, skype messenger, etc. The main
functions of the application layer are given below.
i. Network Virtual Terminal (NVT): It allows a user to log on to a remote host.

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DATA COMMUNICATION
ii. File Transfer Access and Management (FTAM): This application allows a user to access files in
a remote host, retrieve files in a remote host, and manage or control files from a remote
computer.
iii. Mail Services: Provide email service.
iv. Directory Services: This application provides distributed database sources and access for global
information about various objects and services.
The protocols used are HTTP, FTP, POP3, STMP.
Presentation Layer: The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer. The data from the
application layer is extracted here and manipulated as per the required format to transmit over the
network. The main functions of the Presentation Layer are given below:
i. Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.
ii. Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into another form or code. The
encrypted data is known as the ciphertext and the decrypted data is known as plain text. A key
value is used for encrypting as well as decrypting data.
iii. Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the network.
Session Layer: This layer is responsible for the establishment of connection, maintenance of sessions,
and authentication, and also ensures security. The main functions of the Session Layer are given
below:
i. Session Establishment, Maintenance, and Termination: The layer allows the two processes to
establish, use, and terminate a connection.
ii. Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints that are considered
synchronization points in the data. These synchronization points help to identify the error so
that the data is re-synchronized properly, and ends of the messages are not cut prematurely and
data loss is avoided.
iii. Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start communication with each
other in half-duplex or full-duplex.
Transport Layer: The transport layer provides services to the application layer and takes services
from the network layer. The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments. It is responsible for
the end-to-end delivery of the complete message. The transport layer also provides the
acknowledgment of the successful data transmission and re-transmits the data if an error is found.
At the sender’s side: The transport layer receives the formatted data from the upper layers, performs
Segmentation, and also implements Flow and error control to ensure proper data transmission. It also
adds Source and Destination port numbers in its header and forwards the segmented data to the
Network Layer.

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At the receiver’s side: Transport Layer reads the port number from its header and forwards the Data
which it has received to the respective application. It also performs sequencing and reassembling of the
segmented data.
The main functions of the Transport Layer are given below:
i. Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from the (session) layer, and
breaks the message into smaller units. Each of the segments produced has a header associated
with it. The transport layer at the destination station reassembles the message.
ii. Service Point Addressing: To deliver the message to the correct process, the transport layer
header includes a type of address called service point address or port address. Thus, by
specifying this address, the transport layer makes sure that the message is delivered to the
correct process.
Services Provided by Transport Layer:
1. Connection-Oriented Service: It is a three-phase process that includes: Connection Establishment,
Data Transfer, Termination/disconnection. In this type of transmission, the receiving device sends an
acknowledgment, back to the source after a packet or group of packets is received. This type of
transmission is reliable and secure.
2. Connectionless service: It is a one-phase process and includes Data Transfer. In this type of
transmission, the receiver does not acknowledge receipt of a packet. This approach allows for much
faster communication between devices.
Connection-oriented service is more reliable than connectionless Service.
Network Layer: The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other
located in different networks. It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to
transmit the packet, from the number of routes available. The sender & receiver’s IP addresses are
placed in the header by the network layer.
The main functions of the Network Layer are given below:
i. Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from source to
destination. This function of the network layer is known as routing.
ii. Logical Addressing: To identify each device inter-network uniquely, the network layer defines
an addressing scheme. The sender & receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by the
network layer. Such an address distinguishes each device uniquely and universally.
Data Link Layer (DLL): The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the
message. The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error-free from one node to
another, over the physical layer. When a packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of the DLL
to transmit it to the Host using its MAC address. The Data Link Layer is divided into two sublayers:
i. Logical Link Control (LLC)
ii. Media Access Control (MAC)

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DATA COMMUNICATION
The packet received from the Network layer is further divided into frames depending on the frame size
of the NIC (Network Interface Card). DLL also encapsulates Sender and Receiver’s MAC address in
the header. The Receiver’s MAC address is obtained by placing an ARP(Address Resolution Protocol)
request onto the wire asking “Who has that IP address?” and the destination host will reply with its
MAC address.

The main functions of the Data Link Layer are given below:
i. Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way for a sender to transmit
a set of bits that are meaningful to the receiver. This can be accomplished by attaching special
bit patterns to the beginning and end of the frame.
ii. Physical Addressing: After creating frames, the Data link layer adds physical addresses (MAC
addresses) of the sender and/or receiver in the header of each frame.
iii. Error Control: The data link layer provides the mechanism of error control in which it detects
and retransmits damaged or lost frames.
iv. Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the data may get corrupted
thus, flow control coordinates the amount of data that can be sent before receiving an
acknowledgment.
v. Access Control: When a single communication channel is shared by multiple devices, the
MAC sub-layer of the data link layer helps to determine which device has control over the
channel at a given time.
Physical Layer: The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the physical layer. It is responsible for
the actual physical connection between the devices. The physical layer contains information in the
form of bits. It is responsible for transmitting individual bits from one node to the next. When
receiving data, this layer will get the signal received and convert it into 0s and 1s and send them to the
Data Link layer, which will put the frame back together.

Functions of the Physical Layer

Bit Synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization of the bits by providing a clock.
This clock controls both sender and receiver thus providing synchronization at the bit level.
Bit Rate Control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate i.e. the number of bits sent per
second.
Physical Topologies: Physical layer specifies how the different, devices/nodes are arranged in a
network i.e. bus, star, or mesh topology.

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Transmission Mode: Physical layer also defines how the data flows between the two connected
devices. The various transmission modes possible are Simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex.

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TCP (TRANSPORT CONTROL PROTOCOL) / IP (INTERNET PROTOCOL) MODEL:
It stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol, which are the core protocols of the
Internet. It consists of four layers: the Link Layer, the Internet Layer, the Transport Layer, and the
Application Layer. Each layer has specific functions that help manage different aspects of network
communication, making it essential for understanding and working with modern networks. was
designed and developed by the Department of Defense (DoD) in the 1960s and is based on standard
protocols. The TCP/IP model is a concise version of the OSI model. It contains four layers, unlike the
seven layers in the OSI model. The TCP/IP Model divides the data into packets at the sender’s end and
the same packets have to be recombined at the receiver’s end to form the same data
Layers of TCP/IP Model
1. Application Layer
2. Transport Layer (TCP/UDP)
3. Network/Internet Layer (IP)
4. Network Access Layer / Data Link Layer

Application Layer
This layer is analogous to the transport layer of the OSI model. It is responsible for end-to-end
communication and error-free delivery of data. It shields the upper-layer applications from the
complexities of data. The three main protocols present in this layer are: HTTP and HTTPS: HTTP
stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. It is used by the World Wide Web to manage communications
between web browsers and servers. HTTPS stands for HTTP-Secure. It is a combination of HTTP with
SSL (Secure Socket Layer). It is efficient in cases where the browser needs to fill out forms, sign in,
authenticate, and carry out bank transactions.

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SSH: SSH stands for Secure Shell. It is a terminal emulations software similar to Telnet. The reason
SSH is preferred is because of its ability to maintain the encrypted connection. It sets up a secure
session over a TCP/IP connection.
NTP: NTP stands for Network Time Protocol. It is used to synchronize the clocks on our computer to
one standard time source. It is very useful in situations like bank transactions.
Transport Layer
The TCP/IP transport layer protocols exchange data receipt acknowledgments and retransmit
missing packets to ensure that packets arrive in order and without error. End-to-end communication is
referred to as such. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol are transport
layer protocols at this level (UDP).
TCP: Applications can interact with one another using TCP as though they were physically connected
by a circuit. TCP transmits data in a way that resembles character-by-character transmission rather than
separate packets. A starting point that establishes the connection, the whole transmission in byte order,
and an ending point that closes the connection make up this transmission.
UDP: The datagram delivery service is provided by UDP, the other transport layer protocol.
Connections between receiving and sending hosts are not verified by UDP. Applications that transport
little amounts of data use UDP rather than TCP because it eliminates the processes of establishing and
validating connections.
Network Layer
This layer parallels the functions of OSI’s Network layer. It defines the protocols which are
responsible for the logical transmission of data over the entire network. The main protocols residing at
this layer are as follows:
IP: IP stands for Internet Protocol and it is responsible for delivering packets from the source host to
the destination host by looking at the IP addresses in the packet headers. IP has 2 versions: IPv4 and
IPv6. IPv4 is the one that most websites are using currently. But IPv6 is growing as the number of
IPv4 addresses is limited in number when compared to the number of users.
ICMP: ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol. It is encapsulated within IP datagrams and
is responsible for providing hosts with information about network problems.
ARP: ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol. Its job is to find the hardware address of a host
from a known IP address. ARP has several types: Reverse ARP, Proxy ARP, Gratuitous ARP, and
Inverse ARP.
The Internet Layer is a layer in the Internet Protocol (IP) suite, which is the set of protocols that define
the Internet. The Internet Layer is responsible for routing packets of data from one device to another
across a network. It does this by assigning each device a unique IP address, which is used to identify
the device and determine the route that packets should take to reach it.

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Network Access Layer
It is a group of applications requiring network communications. This layer is responsible for
generating the data and requesting connections. It acts on behalf of the sender and the Network Access
layer on the behalf of the receiver. The packet’s network protocol type is identified by network access
layer. Error prevention and “framing” are also provided by this layer. Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP)
framing and Ethernet IEEE 802.2 framing are two examples of data-link layer protocols.
COMPARISON OF THE TCP/IP AND OSI MODEL:

Sl.
TCP/IP OSI
No
OSI refers to Open Systems
1 TCP refers to Transmission Control Protocol.
Interconnection.
TCP/IP uses both the services of session and OSI uses different session and presentation
2
presentation layer in the application layer itself. layers.
TCP/IP follows connectionless a horizontal
3 OSI follows a vertical approach.
approach.
The Transport layer in TCP/IP does not In the OSI model, the transport layer
4
provide assurance delivery of packets. provides assurance delivery of packets.
While in the OSI model, Protocols are
Protocols cannot be replaced easily in TCP/IP
5 better covered and are easy to replace with
model.
the technology change.
TCP/IP model network layer only provides Connectionless and connection-oriented
6 connectionless (IP) services. The transport services are provided by the network layer
layer (TCP) provides connections. in the OSI model.
DATA TRANSMISSION BETWEEN TWO DEVICES:
Data transmission refers to the movement of the bits over some physical medium connecting
two or more devices. It also defines whether bits may travel in both directions simultaneously or
devices must take turns sending and receiving. There are two methods used for transferring data
between computers which are given below: Serial Transmission and Parallel Transmission.

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Serial Transmission:
In Serial Transmission, data-bit flows from one computer to another computer in bi-direction.
In this transmission, one-bit flows at one clock pulse. In Serial Transmission, 8 bits are transferred at a
time having a start and stop bit.

The two main reasons for serial transmission are:

i. Serial networks can be continued over long distances at much less cost because, fewer physical
wires are required, and intermediate electronic elements are less cheap.
ii. Using only one physical wire defines that there are never timing issues caused by one wire
being slightly higher than another.
The sender and receiver must include a small amount of hardware that changes data from the parallel
form used in the machine to the serial structure used on the wire. A single chip, Universal
Asynchronous Receiver and Transmitter (UART) handles conversion for asynchronous networks, or a
related chip, Universal Synchronous-Asynchronous Receiver and Transmitter (USART) handles
conversion for synchronous networks.
Parallel Transmission:
In parallel transmission, binary data is grouped into bits. The number of groups corresponds to
the number of threads between the sender and receiver, and the groups are transmitted simultaneously.
This method allows for groups of bits (bytes) to be transmitted faster than serial transmission.
However, because separate lines are required for each bit, building infrastructure this way would be
costly. So, mostly parallel transmission is done within devices, like computer processors, for example.
In Parallel Transmission, many bits are flow together simultaneously from one computer to another
computer. Parallel Transmission is faster than serial transmission to transmit the bits. Parallel
transmission is used for short distance. Parallel transmission can be used with a wired channel that
uses multiple, separate wires.

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