Communication Models

• A communication model is a framework that explains how

information is transmitted from a sender to a receiver through a
communication channel. It outlines the essential components and
processes involved in the transmission of a message.
• Two communication models are
• TCP/IP Model (Practical Model)
• OSI Model (Theoretical Model)
TCP/IP Model
• TCP/IP is a protocol suite used in the Internet today.
• It is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules,
• Each module provides a specific functionality.
OSI VS TCP/IP MODEL
• OSI model has seven layers, while TCP/IP model has five layers
• Two layers, session and presentation, are missing from the TCP/IP protocol suite.
• Last two layers Network Interface and Hardware devices are renamed in this book as data link
layer and physical layer.
• Why OSI model lack the success?
• The OSI model appeared after the TCP/IP protocol suite.
• OSI was completed when TCP/IP was fully in place.
• Changing TCP/IP would cost more.
• Some layers in OSI model were not clearly defined. Eg no protocols defined for session and
presentation layer.
• When OSI was implemented by an organization in a different application, it didn’t show
enough performance to entice the Internet authority to switch from the TCP/IP protocol suite
to the OSI model.
• But still OSI model is good tool for understanding networking concepts.
 OSI Model
• Open System Interconnection.
• Network model, used for designing network architecture.
• Developed by the International Standard Organization (ISO) in 1983.
• Provides a logical framework for data communication through computer networks.
• Most widely accepted model
• Purpose → open system is a set of protocols that allows any two different systems to
communicate regardless of their underlying architecture.
• Open system → open to others for information exchange.
• Layers of the OSI Model
• Physical
• Data Link
• Network
• Transport
• Session
• Presentation
• Application
 OSI Model
Upper Layers
• Upper layers
• Application
• Presentation
• Session
• Work as user support layers.
Lower Layers
• Lower layers
• Transport
• Network
• Data Link
• Physical
• Work as network support layers.
• Related to the physical components of the network
and how data transportation between the devices
occurs.
Layering Principles:
• The first principle of layering dictates that if we want bidirectional communication, each
layer can perform two opposite tasks. Eg one layer can speak and listen oppositely.
• The second principle that we need to follow in protocol layering is that the two objects
under each layer at both sites should be identical.
Logical Connection
• There is a logical connection between each layer.
• Logical Connection is an imaginary connection between two layers.
• At each layer identical objects are present on both sides.
The interaction between layers in the OSI model
 Encapsulation / Decapsulation
Encapsulation is the process of adding headers
(and sometimes footers) to data as it moves down
through the layers of the OSI or TCP/IP model.
Each layer of the model adds its own specific
information to the data, forming what
is called a protocol data unit (PDU) for that layer.

Decapsulation is the reverse process of

encapsulation. It occurs at the receiving end,
where the data travels up through the layers
of the OSI or TCP/IP model. Each layer
removes its corresponding header (and
trailer) and passes the remaining data up to
the next layer until the original data is
delivered to the application layer.

An exchange using the OSI model

 message M
source
application
Encapsulation: an
segment
datagram Hn Ht
Ht M
M
transport
network
end-end view
frame Hl Hn Ht M link
physical
link
physical

switch

destination Hn Ht M network
M application Hl Hn Ht M link Hn Ht M
Ht M transport physical
Hn Ht M network
Hl Hn Ht M link router
physical
Introduction: 1-10
 Functions of Layers of OSI Model
1. Application Layer
• Topmost layer of the OSI model.
• Provides a user interface for exchanging information between users.
• End to end delivery
• Process to process communication.
• Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
• Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
• File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
• Terminal Network (TELNET) and Secure Shell (SSH)

• Example: users exchange information on Internet (application program).

Interaction of application layers at different hosts
application

▪ Application programs run on mobile

transport
network
network
data link
(different) end systems physical
national or global ISP

▪ communicate over network

▪ e.g., web server software
communicates with browser software
no need to write software for local or
regional ISP
network-core devices
home network
▪ network-core devices do not run user application
transport
content
provider
applications network
data link
network datacenter
application
network
transport

▪ applications on end systems allows

physical network
data link
physical
for rapid app development,
propagation enterprise
network

Application Layer: 2-12

Client-server paradigm
server: mobile network
▪ always-on host national or global ISP

▪ permanent IP address
▪ often in data centers, for scaling
clients: local or
regional ISP
▪ contact, communicate with server
▪ may be intermittently connected home network content
provider
▪ may have dynamic IP addresses network datacenter
network

▪ do not communicate directly with

each other
enterprise
▪ examples: HTTP, IMAP, FTP network

Application Layer: 2-13

Peer-peer architecture
▪ no always-on server mobile network
▪ arbitrary end systems directly national or global ISP

communicate
▪ peers request service from other
peers, provide service in return to
other peers local or
regional ISP
• self scalability – new peers bring new
service capacity, as well as new service home network content
demands provider
network datacenter

▪ peers are intermittently connected network

and change IP addresses

• complex management enterprise
▪ example: P2P file sharing [BitTorrent]
network

Application Layer: 2-14

Processes communicating
process: program running clients, servers
within a host client process: process that
initiates communication
▪within same host, two server process: process
processes communicate that waits to be contacted
using inter-process
communication (defined by
OS) ▪ note: applications with
P2P architectures have
▪processes in different hosts client processes &
communicate by exchanging server processes
messages
Application Layer: 2-15
Sockets
▪ process sends/receives messages to/from its socket
▪ socket analogous to door
• sending process shoves message out door
• sending process relies on transport infrastructure on other side of
door to deliver message to socket at receiving process
• two sockets involved: one on each side

application application
socket controlled by
process process app developer

transport transport
network network controlled
link by OS
link Internet
physical physical

Application Layer: 2-16

 Functions of Layers of OSI Model
2. Presentation Layer
• Performs data transformations to provide a common interface for user applications.
• Data Conversion
• Sender side → converts data into standard format that network requires.
• Receiver side → changes data from standard format into the format, the receiver can
understand it. (Conversion from ASCII to EBCDIC, formatting eg mm/dd/yy to dd/mm/yy)
• Encryption & Decryption
• Encryption → Sender, transforms original data/information into another form.
• Encrypted information is sent over the network.
• Decryption → Receiver, re-transforms (decrypts) the information back to its original form.
• Compression
• Sender side → compresses data into a small size (to reduce data transmission duration)
• Receiver side → de-compresses the data.(you upload raw image, it is compressed using jpeg to
reduce size, hence data is delivered quickly)
 Functions of Layers of OSI Model
3. Session Layer
• Establishes, maintains, and manages connections between end-user applications.
• Session → The connection between applications running on separate computers
• Dialog Control (Full-Duplex or Half-Duplex). In a half-duplex session, two users in a
voice call may speak one at a time, while in a full-duplex session, both can speak
simultaneously.
• The session layer adds checkpoints, called synchronization points, into the data
stream, which allows the communication to be restarted from the last checkpoint in
case of a failure.
• Session Security. Before starting a session, the session layer might require the user
to authenticate their identity via username and password.
• Session Multiplexing. Multiple tabs are open. Each maintaining a seprate session
with its web server.
 initiate TCP
connection
RTT

request file

RTT
time to
transmit
file
time
file received

time
 Functions of Layers of OSI Model (Ch# 23)
• A remote computer can run several server programs at the same time.
• we must define the local host, local process, remote host, and remote process.
• The local host and the remote host are defined using IP addresses.
 Figure 23.1 Types of data deliveries

23.21
Socket Address (Ch# 23)
• To define the processes, we need second identifiers, called port numbers.
• ICANN has divided the port numbers into three ranges:
• Well-known ports. The ports ranging from 0 to 1023 are assigned and controlled by
ICANN. These are the well-known ports.
• Registered ports. The ports ranging from 1024 to 49,151 are not assigned or controlled by
ICANN. They can only be registered with ICANN to prevent duplication.
• Dynamic ports. The ports ranging from 49,152 to 65,535 are neither controlled nor
registered. They can be used as temporary or private port numbers.
• Socket Addresses. A transport-layer protocol in the TCP suite needs both the IP address
and the port number, at each end, to make a connection. The combination of an IP address
and a port number is called a socket address.
 Figure 23.3 IP addresses versus port numbers

IP is a unique address for

each host on network. An
IPV4 address has four
octets, sperated by “.” each
octet can have a value
between 0 and 255.

Port address as discussed

previously is a 16 bit
address to uniquely identify
a process on a host.

23.23
 Functions of Layers of OSI Model
4. Transport Layer
• Segmentation and Reassembly
• Divides large data from the Application Layer into smaller, manageable
segments for transmission.
• At the receiver end, these segments are reassembled to reconstruct the
original data.
• Multiplexing/Demultiplexing
• Congestion Control
• Flow Control
• Connectionless / Connection oriented services
Multiplexing at Transport Layer At Sender Side
Demultiplexing at Transport Layer At Receiver Side
Multiplexing/demultiplexing at Transport Layer
multiplexing as sender: demultiplexing as receiver:
handle data from multiple use header info to deliver
sockets, add transport header received segments to correct
(later used for demultiplexing) socket

application

application P1 P2 application socket

P3 transport P4
process
transport network transport
network link network
link physical link
physical physical

Transport Layer: 3-27

 Congestion
What is Congestion?
▪ informally: “too many sources sending too much data too fast for
network to handle”
▪ Congestion in a network may occur if the load on the network—the
number of packets sent to the network—is greater than the capacity of
the network—the number of packets a network can handle.

Transport Layer: 3-28

Congestion Control Introduction:
▪ At very high traffic, performance collapses
completely and almost no packets are delivered.
▪ Reasons of Congestion:
• Slow Processors.
• High stream of packets sent from one of the sender.
• Insufficient memory.
• High memory of Routers also add to congestion as
becomes un manageable and un accessible. (Nagle, 1987).
• Low bandwidth lines.
▪ Then what is congestion control?
▪ Congestion control has to do with making sure the
subnet is able to carry the offered traffic.
Approaches for congestion control
End-end congestion control:
▪ no explicit feedback from
network
▪ congestion inferred from data data
ACKs
observed loss, delay ACKs

▪ approach taken by TCP

Transport Layer: 3-30

Approaches towards congestion control
Network-assisted congestion
control: explicit congestion info
▪ routers provide direct feedback
to sending/receiving hosts with data data
ACKs
flows passing through congested ACKs

router
▪ may indicate congestion level or
explicitly set sending rate
▪ TCP ECN, ATM, DECbit protocols
Transport Layer: 3-31
Flow Control
▪ Flow Control ensures that receiver is not overwhelmed by sender.
▪ People often are confused between congestion and flow control,
▪ Congestion means many host sending too much data
▪ Flow control means one sender sending too fast data to one receiver.
▪ Transport layer uses sliding window mechanism to for flow control
flow control: one sender too fast for one receiver

Transport Layer: 3-32

Transport Layer Protocols: TCP and UDP
▪ Two protocols of Transport layer are:
• TCP (Transport Control Protocol)
• UDP (User Datagram Protocol)
• TCP is Connection Oriented, Reliable data transfer Protocol
• UDP is Connectionless, unreliable data transfer Protocol

Transport Layer: 3-33

Connection Oriented Communication (TCP)
▪ Connection-oriented communication requires a session or connection to be established between the sender
and receiver before data is transmitted.
▪ This connection ensures that data is delivered reliably and in the correct order.
• Reliable Data Transfer: The connection ensures that all data packets are delivered in the correct
sequence and without errors. If a packet is lost or corrupted, it is retransmitted.
• Acknowledgments: The receiver acknowledges receipt of the data, confirming successful delivery.
• Flow Control: Mechanisms like flow control ensure that the sender does not overwhelm the receiver
with data.
• Connection Setup and Termination: The communication starts with a connection setup (e.g., a
handshake) and ends with connection termination.
▪ Example Protocols:
• TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): TCP is the best-known example of a connection-oriented
protocol.
• It ensures reliable data transfer, sequencing, and error correction through acknowledgments and
retransmissions if necessary.

Transport Layer: 3-34

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
▪ Example Use Case:
• Web Browsing (HTTPS): When you open a secure webpage, your browser establishes a TCP
connection with the web server.
• This ensures that all parts of the webpage (text, images, etc.) are received correctly and in order.
▪ Advantages:
• Reliability: Guarantees data delivery without loss, duplication, or errors.
• Order: Ensures data is received in the same order it was sent.
• Error Handling: Detects and corrects errors automatically by retransmitting lost or corrupted data.
▪ Disadvantages:
• Overhead: Setting up and maintaining a connection adds extra overhead (e.g., handshakes,
acknowledgments).
• Slower: More latency due to the overhead and need for error checking.

Transport Layer: 3-35

Connectionless Communication (UDP)
▪ Connectionless communication does not require a dedicated connection between the sender and receiver.
▪ Data is sent in the form of independent packets, and each packet is treated separately.
▪ There is no guarantee of delivery, order, or error correction.
▪ User Datagram Protocol is a connectionless communication protocol used at transport layer
▪ Key Features:
• Unreliable Data Transfer: There is no guarantee that packets will arrive at their destination, nor is there a guarantee
that they will arrive in the correct order.
• No Acknowledgment: The sender sends packets without waiting for an acknowledgment from the receiver.
• Faster Transmission: Since there’s no need to establish or maintain a connection, connectionless communication is
faster and involves less overhead.
• Stateless: Each packet is treated independently, with no record of previous packets or state of the connection.

Transport Layer: 3-36

Connectionless Communication UDP
▪ Example Use Case:
• Streaming Media (e.g., video, audio): Used while streaming a video or live broadcast.
• It’s more important for the data to arrive quickly than for every packet to be received perfectly.
• Small losses in data are tolerable, and the communication doesn't require confirmation of every packet.
▪ Advantages:
• Speed: Faster transmission due to minimal overhead and no need for acknowledgments.
• Low Overhead: No need for handshakes, acknowledgments, or maintaining a connection.
• Simple: Easier to implement compared to connection-oriented protocols.
▪ Disadvantages:
• Unreliable: Data can be lost or arrive out of order without any correction.
• No Flow Control: The sender can overwhelm the receiver with too much data.
• No Error Checking: Errors in transmission are not detected or corrected.

Transport Layer: 3-37

 Connection Oriented vs Connectionless Service
Feature Connection-Oriented Connectionless
Requires connection setup (e.g.,
Setup No setup required
TCP handshake)
Reliable (ensures data delivery Unreliable (no guarantee of
Reliability
and order) delivery or order)
Yes (sender receives
Acknowledgments No acknowledgments
acknowledgments)
Yes (retransmission if errors
Error Handling No error handling
occur)
Yes (controls data flow to
Flow Control No flow control
prevent overload)
Speed Slower due to overhead Faster with less overhead
Typical Protocols TCP, SCTP UDP, ICMP
File transfers, web browsing,
Typical Use Cases Streaming, VoIP, DNS queries
email
Transport Layer: 3-38
Network Layer
1. Packet Forwarding
• Transmits data packets from one network segment to another based on routing tables.
• Uses routers to forward packets to the next hop.
2. Routing
• Determines the best path for data to travel from source to destination.
• Uses routing algorithms (e.g., Dijkstra, RIP, OSPF) to make routing decisions.
3. Logical Addressing
• Provides IP addresses (IPv4 or IPv6) to uniquely identify devices.
• Ensures each device on the network has a unique logical address.
4. Fragmentation and Reassembly
• Splits large data packets into smaller fragments to fit the Maximum Transmission Unit
(MTU) of a network.
• Reassembles fragments at the destination to reconstruct the original data.
5. Error Handling
• Ensures packets are delivered correctly by reporting delivery issues through protocols
like ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol).
Network Layer
6. Congestion Control
• Manages traffic to prevent network congestion by controlling the flow of
packets.
• Uses policies such as traffic shaping and Quality of Service (QoS).
7. Inter-networking
• Connects different types of networks (LAN, WAN) and allows seamless
communication between them.
• Facilitates communication between networks with varying topologies and
architectures.
8. Security
• Implements basic network security measures, such as firewalls and packet
filtering, to prevent unauthorized access.
9. Address Resolution
• Works with the Data Link Layer using protocols like ARP (Address Resolution
Protocol) to map logical IP addresses to physical MAC addresses.
Transport Layer: 3-40
Network-layer services and protocols
▪ transport segment from sending mobile network

to receiving host national or global ISP

• sender: encapsulates segments into

datagrams, passes to link layer application

• receiver: delivers segments to transport

network

transport layer protocol link

physical
network

▪ network layer protocols in every

network
link link
physical physical

Internet device: hosts, routers

network

▪ routers: link network

physical link
physical network
datacenter
• examines header fields in all IP
link
physical network

datagrams passing through it

application
• moves datagrams from input ports to transport
network
enterprise
output ports to transfer datagrams network
link
physical

along end-end path

Network Layer: 4-41
Two key network-layer functions
network-layer functions: analogy: taking a trip
▪ forwarding: move packets from ▪ forwarding: process of getting
a router’s input link to through single interchange
appropriate router output link ▪ routing: process of planning trip
▪ routing: determine route taken from source to destination
by packets from source to
destination
• routing algorithms
forwarding

routing
Network Layer: 4-42
Network layer: Forwarding and Routing
Forwarding: Routing
▪ local, per-router function ▪ network-wide logic
▪ determines how datagram ▪ determines how datagram is
arriving on router input port routed among routers along end-
is forwarded to router end path from source host to
output port destination host
values in arriving
packet header

0111 1
2
3

Network Layer: 4-43

Network layer: Forwarding and Routing
Forwarding can be defined as the action applied by each router when a packet arrives at one of its interfaces.
The decision-making table a router normally uses for applying this action is sometimes called the forwarding table.
The network layer is responsible for routing the packet from its source to the destination.

Routing
Algorithm
Routing

forwarding

values in arriving
packet header
0111 1
2
3

Network Layer: 4-44

 Network Layer
• Data communication switching techniques are divided into two broad categories,
• Circuit switching
• Packet switching
• Circuit switching is mostly used at the physical layer.
• At the network layer, a message from the upper layer is divided into packets
• Each packet is sent through the network.
• The source of the message sends the packets one by one;
• The destination of the message receives the packets one by one.
• The destination waits for all packets belonging to the same message to arrive before
delivering the message to the upper layer.
• Packet-switched network can use two different approaches to route the packets:
• The datagram approach and the Virtual Circuit approach.
Datagram approach(Connectionless Service)
• Earlier network layer was designed to provide a connectionless service.
• Network-layer protocol treats each packet independently.
• Each packet having no relationship to any other packet.
• Packets in a message may or may not travel the same path to their destination.
Virtual-Circuit Approach: Connection-Oriented Service
• In VC approach there is a relationship between all packets belonging to a message.
• A virtual connection should be set up to define the path for the datagrams before
sending Messages
• After connection setup, the datagrams can all follow the same path.
• Each packet contain the source and destination addresses,
• it must also contain a flow label, a virtual circuit identifier that defines the virtual
path the packet should follow.
IPV4 Address ch 18
• An IPv4 address is a 32-bit address that uniquely and universally
defines the connection of a device (for example, a computer or a
router) to the Internet.
• Consist of four octets each separated by a “.” dot.
• Dotted Decimal and Binary Notation of an IPV4 address
IPV4 Address
Change the following IPv4 addresses from binary
notation to dotted-decimal notation.

Solution
We replace each group of 8 bits with its equivalent
decimal number.
IPV4 Address
Find the error, if any, in the following IPv4 addresses.

Solution
a. There must be no leading zero (045).
b. There can be no more than four numbers.
c. Each number needs to be less than or equal to 255.
d. A mixture of binary notation and dotted-decimal
notation is not allowed.
 IPV4 Address
• A 32-bit IPv4 address is also hierarchical, but divided only into two parts.
• The first part of the address, called the prefix, defines the network;
• Second part of the address, called the suffix, defines the node (connection of a
device to the Internet).
Classful Addressing
• When the Internet started, an IPv4 address was designed with a fixed-length
prefix.
• But to accommodate both small and large networks,
• Later on address space was divided into five classes (class A, B, C, D, and E).
• This scheme is referred to as classful addressing.
Classful Addressing
Find the class of each address.
a. 00000001 00001011 00001011 11101111
b. 11000001 10000011 00011011 11111111
c. 14.23.120.8
d. 252.5.15.111

Solution
a. The first bit is 0. This is a class A address.
b. The first 2 bits are 1; the third bit is 0. This is a class C
address.
c. The first byte is 14; the class is A.
d. The first byte is 252; the class is E.
19.53
 Classful IP Addressing is Obsolete
• The reason that classful addressing has become obsolete is address depletion.
• Addresses were not distributed properly.
• Addresses being rapidly used up.
• resulting in no more addresses available for organizations and individuals using
internet.
• To understand the problem, let us think about class A.
• This class can be assigned to only 128 organizations in the world as (net id 0-127),
• But each organization needs to have a single network.
• 16,777,216 nodes can be connected to each of these networks.
• You rarely find such large organizations
• Most of the addresses in this class were wasted (unused).
 Classful IP Addressing is Obsolete
• In Some cases there are addresses for the hosts in the network are too small to accommodate
all hosts for example
• Class C addresses have a completely different flaw in design.
• The number of addresses that can be used in each network (256) was so small that most
companies were not comfortable using a block in this address class.
 Subnetting and Supernetting (Solution?)
• To alleviate address depletion, two strategies were proposed,
• Subnetting
• Supernetting.
• Subnetting is the procedure to divide the network into sub-networks or small networks,
• These smaller networks are known as subnets.
• In a subnet, a few bits from the host portion are used to design small-sized subnetworks from the
original network.
• In subnetting, network bits are converted into host bits.
• Supernetting is the procedure to combine small networks into larger spaces.
• In subnetting, Network addresses’ bits are increased. on the other hand, in supernetting, Host
addresses’ bits are increased.
 Classless addressing
• Hosts in the internet were increasing day by day, address space was depleting.
• During the 1990s, Internet Service Providers (ISPs) came into prominence.
• An ISP is an organization that provides Internet access for individuals, small businesses,
and midsize organizations.
• 1996, the Internet authorities announced a new architecture called classless addressing.
• In classless addressing, variable-length blocks are used that belong to no classes.
• The prefix in an address defines the block (network); the suffix defines the node(device).
• Theoretically, we can have a block of 20, 21, 22,     232 addresses.(Power of 2)
• Slash notation is used for CIDR addressing
Extracting Information from CIDR Address
1. The number of addresses in the block is found as N = 232−n.
2. To find the first address, we keep the n leftmost bits and set the (32 − n)
rightmost bits all to 0s.
3. To find the last address, we keep the n leftmost bits and set the (32 − n)
rightmost bits all to 1s.
IPV4 Special Addresses
• Five special type of addresses are used in IPV4
• This-host Address
• Block 0.0.0.0/32 is called the this-host address.
• It is used whenever a host needs to send an IP datagram but it does not know its
own address to use as the source address.
• Limited-broadcast Address
• Block 255.255.255.255/32 is called the limited-broadcast address.
• It is used whenever a router or a host needs to send a datagram to all devices.
• Loopback Address
• 127.0.0.0/8 is called the loopback address.
• Private Addresses
• Four blocks are assigned as private addresses: 10.0.0.0/8, 172.16.0.0/12,
192.168.0.0/16, and 169.254.0.0/16.
• Multicast Addresses
• The block 224.0.0.0/4 is reserved for multicast addresses.
IPV6 ch 22
• Despite short term solutions to address depletion migration from
IPV4 to IPV6 is necessary due to large number of hosts connecting to
internet.
• An IPv6 address is 128 bits or 16 bytes (octets) long.
• Binary notation is used when the addresses are stored in a computer.
• Humans use colon hexadecimal notation (or colon hex for short.
• It divides the address into eight sections, each made of four
hexadecimal digits separated by colons.
 Abbreviated IPv6 addresses

19.61
IPV6 Address Space
• An IPV6 address is 128 bit long which means there are 2128 are available which
equals 340, 282, 366, 920, 938, 463, 374, 607, 431, 768, 211, 456.
• An IPV6 address can be one of the following types:
• Unicast Address
• A unicast address defines a single interface (computer or router). The packet
sent to a unicast address will be routed to the intended recipient.
• Anycast Address
• A group of computer shares a single anycast address. A packet with an anycast
address is delivered to only one member of the group, the most reachable
one. Eg many servers installed request received by most reachable.
• Multicast Address:
• In multicasting a group of computer also shares the address, key difference is that In
anycasting, only one copy of the packet is sent to one of the members of the group;
in multicasting each member of the group receives a copy.
TRANSITION FROM IPv4 TO IPv6
• Dual Stack
• All hosts, have a dual stack of protocols during the transition.
• A station must run IPv4 and IPv6 simultaneously until all the Internet
uses IPv6.
TRANSITION FROM IPv4 TO IPv6
• Tunneling
• Tunneling is a strategy used when two computers using IPV6
• Packet must pass through a region that uses IPv4.
• To pass through this region, the packet must have an IPv4 address.
• So the IPv6 packet is encapsulated in an IPv4 packet when it enters
the region, and it leaves its capsule when it exits the region.
TRANSITION FROM IPv4 TO IPv6
• Header Translation
• Header translation is necessary when the majority of the Internet has
moved to IPv6 but some systems still use IPv4.
• The sender wants to use IPv6, but the receiver does not understand
IPv6. Header Translation can be used
 Data Link Layer ch 9
• Nodes and links
• Two end hosts and the routers in networks are considered as nodes and the
networks in between as links.
• There can be two types of links
• Point to point link (Directly connects two nodes, hence complete bandwidth is
available)
• Multipoint link (the link is shared between several pairs of device)
• A packet at the data-link layer is normally called a frame.
Link layer: introduction
terminology: mobile network
▪ hosts, routers: nodes national or global ISP

▪ communication channels that

connect adjacent nodes along
communication path: links
• wired , wireless
• LANs
▪ layer-2 packet: frame,
encapsulates datagram datacenter
network

link layer has responsibility of

transferring datagram from one node enterprise
to physically adjacent node over a link network

Link Layer 67
Link layer: context
▪ datagram transferred by
different link protocols over
different links:
• e.g., WiFi on first link,
Ethernet on next link
▪ each link protocol provides
different services
• e.g., may or may not provide
reliable data transfer over link

Link Layer 68
 Transportation analogy
transportation analogy:
▪ trip from Princeton to Lausanne
Princeton • limo: Princeton to JFK
JFK • plane: JFK to Geneva
• train: Geneva to Lausanne
▪ tourist = datagram
▪ transport segment =
communication link
▪ transportation mode = link-
layer protocol
▪ travel agent = routing algorithm
Geneva Lausanne
Link Layer 69
Link layer: services
▪ framing, link access: …
• encapsulate datagram into frame, adding …
header, trailer Cable access
• channel access if shared medium
• “MAC” addresses in frame headers identify
source, destination (different from IP
address!)
▪ reliable delivery between adjacent nodes
cellular
• we already know how to do this!
• seldom used on low bit-error links Ethernet LANs
• wireless links: high error rates
• Q: why both link-level and end-end
WiFi
reliability?
Link Layer 70
Link layer: services (more)
…
▪ flow control:
• pacing between adjacent sending and …
receiving nodes Cable access
▪ error detection:
• errors caused by signal attenuation, noise.
• receiver detects errors, signals
retransmission, or drops frame
▪ error correction: cellular
• receiver identifies and corrects bit error(s)
without retransmission Ethernet LANs
▪ half-duplex and full-duplex:
• with half duplex, nodes at both ends of link WiFi
can transmit, but not at same time
Link Layer 71
 Link layer: Types of Errors
• In a single-bit error, only 1 bit in the data unit has
changed.
Types of
• A burst error means that 2 or more bits in the data
Errors
unit have changed

Burst
Single Bit Multi Bit
Error

10.72
Multiple access links, protocols
two types of “links”:
▪ point-to-point
• point-to-point link between Ethernet switch, host
• PPP for dial-up access
▪ broadcast (shared wire or medium)
• old-school Ethernet
• upstream HFC in cable-based access network
• 802.11 wireless LAN, 4G/4G. satellite

shared wire (e.g., shared radio: 4G/5G shared radio: WiFi shared radio: satellite humans at a cocktail party
cabled Ethernet) (shared air, acoustical)
Link Layer: 6-73
Multiple access protocols
▪ single shared broadcast channel
▪ two or more simultaneous transmissions by nodes: interference
• collision if node receives two or more signals at the same time

multiple access protocol

▪ distributed algorithm that determines how nodes share channel,
i.e., determine when node can transmit
▪ communication about channel sharing must use channel itself!
• no out-of-band channel for coordination

Link Layer: 6-74

Channel partitioning MAC protocols: TDMA
TDMA: time division multiple access
▪ access to channel in “rounds”
▪ each station gets fixed length slot (length = packet transmission
time) in each round
▪ unused slots go idle
▪ example: 6-station LAN, 1,3,4 have packets to send, slots 2,5,6 idle

6-slot 6-slot
frame frame
1 3 4 1 3 4

Link Layer: 6-75

Channel partitioning MAC protocols: FDMA
FDMA: frequency division multiple access
▪ channel spectrum divided into frequency bands
▪ each station assigned fixed frequency band
▪ unused transmission time in frequency bands go idle
▪ example: 6-station LAN, 1,3,4 have packet to send, frequency bands 2,5,6 idle

frequency bands
FDM cable

Link Layer: 6-76

Channel partitioning MAC protocols: TDMA
TDMA: time division multiple access
▪ access to channel in “rounds”
▪ each station gets fixed length slot (length = packet transmission
time) in each round
▪ unused slots go idle
▪ example: 6-station LAN, 1,3,4 have packets to send, slots 2,5,6 idle

6-slot 6-slot
frame frame
1 3 4 1 3 4

Link Layer: 6-77

Host link-layer implementation
▪ in each-and-every host
▪ link layer implemented on-chip or
in network interface card (NIC) application
transport
• implements link, physical layer network
link
cpu memory

▪ attaches into host’s system buses host bus

(e.g., PCI)
controller
▪ combination of hardware, link
physical
physical
software, firmware
network interface

Link Layer 78
Interfaces communicating
application application
transport transport
cpu memory memory CPU
datagram network network
link link

linkh datagram controller controller datagram

link link
physical physical
physical physical

sending side: receiving side:

▪ encapsulates datagram in frame ▪ looks for errors, reliable data
▪ adds error checking bits, reliable data transfer, flow control, etc.
transfer, flow control, etc. ▪ extracts datagram, passes to
upper layer at receiving side
Link Layer 79
 Data Link Layer ch 9
Sub-layers of Data link layer
• Logical Link Control (LLC)
• Establishes and maintains links between the communication devices.
• Function → ensure the reliability of the physical connection.
• Media Access Control (MAC)
• Controls the way in which multiple devices share the same communication medium.
• Specifies how different terminals or workstations share the same communication
media.
 Functions of Layers of OSI Model
7. Physical Layer
• Bottom-most layer of the OSI model.
• Concerned with the transmission media and connectors
• Connectors → physical part of the network that connects network components
• Controls and co-ordinates the transmission of data in the form of bit stream
• Physical medium → coaxial cable, optic fiber cable, etc.
• Defines the rules by which the bits are passed from one node (computer) in
the network to the next.
• Defines the electrical, mechanical, procedural, and functional specifications for
activating, maintaining, and deactivating the physical link between the sender and
receiver.
Baseband v/s Broadband
• In the baseband transmission the whole bandwidth of the
cable is utilized by a single signal.
• Conversely, in the broadband transmission, multiple signals
are sent on multiple frequencies simultaneously using a
single channel.

3.82
3.83
 Figure 3.18 Baseband transmission

3.84
 Figure 3.20 Baseband transmission using a dedicated medium

3.85
OSI MODEL