7 Covalent Bonding

ENCOUNTER THE PHENOMENON

Write the Encounter the Phenomenon question for this module.
the

Use the “What I Know” column to list the things you know about the Encounter the Phenomenon
question. Then list the questions you have about the Encounter the Phenomenon question in the
“What I Want to Find Out” column. As you read the module, fill in the “What I Learned” column.

K W L
What I Know What I Want to Find Out What I Learned
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Covalent Bonding
1 The Covalent Bond
REVIEW Recall the definition of the Review Vocabulary term.
VOCABULARY
chemical bond
chemical bond

NEW VOCABULARY Define each New Vocabulary term.

covalent bond covalent bond
molecule
molecule
Lewis structure
Lewis structure
sigma bond
pi bond
endothermic reaction sigma bond
exothermic reaction

pi bond

endothermic reaction

exothermic reaction

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Explain the octet rule by completing the following sentences.

The rule states that

.
Although exceptions exist, the rule provides a useful framework for

understanding .

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 1 The Covalent Bond (continued)
Complete the octet rule by completing the following sentences.

The force between two atoms is the result of

repulsion, nucleus-nucleus , and nucleus-electron

. At the point of , the

forces balance the forces. The most

stable arrangement of atoms exists at the point of ,

when the atoms bond covalently and a forms.

Get It? Compare the stability and energy of atoms and compounds,
including the role of valence electrons.

Solve Read Example Problem 1 in your text.

YOU TRY IT
Problem
Draw the Lewis structure for hydrogen chloride, HCl.
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1. Analyze the Problem

Write the electron-dot structures of each of the two
component atoms.

Known: H and CI

Unknown: of HCl

Hydrogen, C08-01A-874637_B
H, has only one valence electron. Chlorine, Cl, has
seven valence electrons. Cl needs one electron to complete
its octet.

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1 The Covalent Bond (continued)
2. Solve for the Unknown
Review each electron dot structure and indicate its name and
whether it is an atom or a molecule.
H. + H CI → H—
H , CI

C08-01A-874637-A C08-01A-874637_B

3. Evaluate the Answer

Each atom in the molecule has achieved a

configuration and thus is .

Get It? List the orbitals that can form sigma bonds in a covalent
compound.

Identify each bond between the component atoms as sigma bonds

(single bonds), one sigma bond and one pi bond (double bonds), or
one sigma bond and two pi bonds (triple bonds).

H —C —
—C—H

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H—C — O
—

C08-04A-874637_1

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 1 The Covalent Bond (continued)
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
7. Describe how the energy of a molecule compares to the same set of atoms separated.

8. Describehow the stability of an atom relates to the octet rule and the formation of covalent
bonds.

9. Illustratethe formation of single, double, and triple covalent bonds using Lewis structures.

10. Compare and contrast ionic bonds and covalent bonds.

11. Contrast sigma bonds and pi bonds.

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12. Apply Create a graph on a separate sheet of paper using the bond-dissociation
energy data and bond-length data in Table 1. Describe the relationship between
bond length and bond-dissociation energy.

13. Predict the relative bond-dissociation energies needed to break the bonds in the
structures below and describe how the flow of energy relates to the energy
needed to form or dissociate the compound.
a. H — C —
— C—H b. H H
— —

— —

C— C
H H
C08-05A-874637_1

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C09-28C-828378-08111
Covalent Bonding
2 Naming Molecules
REVIEW Recall the definition of the Review Vocabulary term.
VOCABULARY
oxyanion
oxyanion

NEW VOCABULARY Define the New Vocabulary term.

oxyacid oxyacid

Identify the prefixes for these two binary molecular compounds.

Ge3N2 -germanium -nitride

C2Cl4 -carbon -chloride

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 2 Naming Molecules (continued)
Solve Read Example Problem 2 in your text.

YOU TRY IT
Problem
Name the compound N2O3.
1. Analyze the Problem
Known:

Unknown:

The formula reveals the elements present and the number of

atoms for each element. Only two elements are present, and
both are nonmetals, so the compound can be named according
to the rules for binary molecular compounds.

2. Solve for the Unknown

The first element present in the compound is , .
The second element is , . The root of this
name is , so the second part of the name is .
From the formula, two atoms and three
atoms make up a molecule of the compound. The prefix for two
is and prefix for three is . The complete name for
the compound is .

3. Evaluate the Answer

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The name shows that a molecule of the

compound contains atoms and
atoms, which agrees with the chemical formula for the
compound, N2O3.

Get It? Apply What are the scientific names for ammonia,
hydrazine, and nitric oxide?

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113
2 Naming Molecules (continued)
Match the chemical formulas listed below with the correct acids.

HF sulfurous acid

HIO4 hydrofluoric acid

H2SO3 phosphoric acid

H3PO4 hypochlorous acid

HC2H3O2 periodic acid

H2CO3 permanganic acid

HClO acetic acid

HMnO4 carbonic acid

Write the chemical formula for the molecular compound names given
below. Use the flow chart in Figure 12 to help you determine the
correct formulas.

dicarbon tetrabromide tetrasulfur tetranitride

arsenic pentafluoride arsenic acid

perchloric acid hydrocyanic acid

Get It? Interpret How do you determine the correct subscripts to

use in order to write the chemical formula of a binary molecular
compound when given the compound’s name?

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 2 Naming Molecules (continued)
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
31. Summarize the rules for naming binary molecular compounds.

32. Define a binary molecular compound.

33. Describe the difference between a binary acid and an oxyacid.

34. Apply Using the system of rules for naming binary molecular compounds,
describe how you would name the molecule N2O4.
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35. Apply Write the molecular formula for each of these compounds: iodic acid,
disulfur trioxide, dinitrogen monoxide, and hydrofluoric acid.

36. State the molecular formula for each compound listed below.
a. dinitrogen trioxide b. nitrogen monoxide c. hydrochloric acid
d. chloric acid e. sulfuric acid f. sulfurous acid

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Covalent Bonding
3 Molecular Structures
REVIEW Recall the definition of the Review Vocabulary term.
VOCABULARY
ionic bond
ionic bond

NEW VOCABULARY Define each New Vocabulary term.

structural formula structural formula
resonance
coordinate covalent bond
resonance

coordinate covalent bond

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 3 Molecular Structures (continued)
List the steps that should be used to determine Lewis structures.

1.

2.

3.

4.

Solve Read Example Problem 4 in your text.

YOU TRY IT
Problem
Draw the Lewis structure for FCHO.

1. Analyze the Problem

Known: the compound formula:

Unknown:

Carbon has less attraction for shared electrons, so it is the

central atom.

2. Solve for the Unknown

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Find the total number of valence electrons and the number

of bonding pairs.
valence electrons/C atom + valence electrons/F atom
+ 1 valence electron/H atom + valence electrons/O atom
= valence electrons
available valence electrons/(2 electrons/pair) =
available pairs

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3 Molecular Structures (continued)
Draw single bonds, which each represent , from
the carbon atom to each terminal atom, and place electron pairs
around the and atoms to give them stable
.

available pairs - pairs used = 0; Carbon does

not have an octet, so one of the lone pairs on the atom
must be used to form a bond.

3. Evaluate the Answer

Both carbon and now have an octet, which
satisfies the octet rule.

Solve Read Example Problem 5 in your text.

YOU TRY IT
Problem
Draw the Lewis structure for the permanganate ion (MnO4– ).

1. Analyze the Problem

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Known: the compound formula:

Unknown:

Manganese has less attraction for shared electrons, so it is the

central atom.

2. Solve for the Unknown

Find the total number of valence electrons and the number
of bonding pairs.
1 Mn atom × ( valence electrons/Mn atom) + O atoms
× (6 valence electrons/O atom + electron(s) from the
negative charge = valence electrons

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 3 Molecular Structures (continued)
available valence electrons/(2 electrons/pair) =
available pairs
Draw single bonds, which represent an ,
from the Mn atom to each O atom, and place electron pairs
around the O atoms to give them stable .

available pairs - pairs used = 0

No electron pairs remain available for the Mn atom, so the Lewis
structure for the permanganate ion is:

3. Evaluate the Answer

All atoms now have an octet, and the group of atoms has a net
charge of .
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Explain resonance structures by completing the following sentences.

Each actual molecule or ion that undergoes behaves as
if it has only structure. Experimentally measured bond lengths
show that the bonds are to each other.

Get It? Summarize three exceptions where the attraction and

repulsion between electric charges at the atomic scale do not follow
the octet rule when explaining the structure of a compound.

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3 Molecular Structures (continued)
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
50. Describe how structural formulas are used as models to investigate and describe a
chemical system.

51. State the steps used to draw Lewis structures that are used to describe chemical systems.

52. Summarize exceptions to the octet rule by correctly pairing these molecules and
phrases: odd number of valence electrons, PCl5, ClO2, BH3, expanded octet, less
than an octet.

53. Evaluate A classmate states that a binary compound having only sigma bonds
displays resonance. Could the classmate’s statement be true?

54. Draw the resonance structures for the dinitrogen oxide (N2O) molecule.

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55. Draw the Lewis structures for CN-, SiF4, HCO3-, and, AsF6-.

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 Covalent Bonding
4 Molecular Shapes
REVIEW Recall the definition of the Review Vocabulary term.
VOCABULARY
atomic orbital
atomic orbital

NEW VOCABULARY Define each New Vocabulary term.

VSEPR model VSEPR model
hybridization

hybridization
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4 Molecular Shapes (continued)
Match the molecular shapes listed below with their corresponding
bond angles.
trigonal planar 180°
trigonal pyramidal 120°
bent 109.5°
linear 107.3°
octahedral 104.5°
tetrahedral 90° (out of plane); 120° (in plane)
trigonal bipyramidal 90°

Label the hybrid orbitals in the figures below as sp, sp2, sp3 sp3d, or
sp3d2.

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Get It? Summarize how the electrical charges between atoms
in a CH4 molecule explain its structure, including its hybrid orbitals.
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 4 Molecular Shapes (continued)
Solve Read Example Problem 7 in your text.

YOU TRY IT
Problem
 hat is the shape of a SbI5 molecule? Determine the bond angles,
W
and identify the type of hybrid orbitals that form the molecule’s bonds.
1. Analyze the Problem
Known: the compound formula:

Unknown:

The molecule contains one central antimony atom bonded to

iodine atoms.

2. Solve for the Unknown

Find the number of valence electrons and the number of
electron pairs.
1 Sb atom × ( valence electrons/Sb atom) + I atoms ×
( valence electrons/I atom) = valence electrons
Three electron pairs exist on each iodine atom. This leaves
available valence electrons for bonding. available valence
electrons/(2 electrons/pair) = available pairs
Draw the molecule’s Lewis structure. From this Lewis structure,
determine the molecular shape.
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Lewis structure Molecular shape

The molecule’s shape is , with a bond
angle of in the horizontal plane, and a bond angle of
between the vertical and horizontal bonds. The bonds are made
up of hybrid orbitals.

3. Evaluate the Answer

Each iodine atom has an octet. The antimony atom has
electrons, which is allowed when a d orbital is hybridized.

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4 Molecular Shapes (continued)
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
61. Summarize how the VSEPR model helps explain how electrical charges affect
bonding and molecular shape in covalent compounds.

62. Define the term bond angle.

63. Describe how the presence of a lone electron pair affects the spacing of shared
bonding orbitals.

64. Compare the size of an orbital that has a shared electron pair with one that has
a lone pair.

65. Identify the type of hybrid orbitals present and bond angles for a molecule with
a tetrahedral shape.

66. Compare the molecular shapes and hybrid orbitals of PF3 and PF5 molecules.

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Explain why their shapes differ.

67. List in a table, the Lewis structure, molecular shape, bond angle, and hybrid
orbitals for molecules of CS2, CH2O, H2Se, CCl2F2, and NCl3.

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 Covalent Bonding
5 Electronegativity and Polarity
REVIEW Recall the definition of the Review Vocabulary term.
VOCABULARY
electronegativity
electronegativity

NEW VOCABULARY Define the following New Vocabulary term.

polar covalent bond polar covalent bond

Sequence the following elements from the least electronegative to

the most electronegative. Use Figure 20 for reference.

Au
Y
Ba
P
H
Te
O
I
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Co

Get It? Explain how electrical charges at the atomic scale relate to
the electronegativity of an atom.

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5 Electronegativity and Polarity (continued)
Get It? Describe how the electrical properties of atoms and
electrons relate to polar covalent bonding.

Get It? Compare how the electrical forces differ in the formation of
covalent bonds and van der Waals forces.

Get It? Compare the differences between electrical forces in

covalent bonds with dispersion forces, dipole-dipole forces, and
hydrogen bonds.

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 5 Electronegativity and Polarity (continued)
Draw the Lewis structure for each of the molecular compounds listed
below. Analyze the symmetry of the structure to determine whether or
not the compound is polar covalent or nonpolar covalent.

N2

CO2

CH3Cl

Determine whether each of the properties listed below is

characteristic of ionic compounds, covalent compounds, nonpolar
covalent compounds, or polar covalent compounds.
low melting point
very soft solid
high boiling point

weak interaction between

formula units
solubility in oil
very hard solid
high melting point
solubility in water
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easily vaporized

strong interaction between

formula units

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5 Electronegativity and Polarity (continued)
Describe what the network solid for quartz (SiO2) molecules is like
and how it has a tetrahedral structure similar to diamond structure.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

68. Summarize how electronegativity relates to bonding and how electronegativity changes

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as you move from left to right on the periodic table.

69. Describe a polar covalent bond.

70. Describe a polar molecule.

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 5 Electronegativity and Polarity (continued)
71. List three properties of a covalent compound in the solid phase.

72. Categorize bond types using electronegativity difference.

73. Generalize Describe the general characteristics of covalent network solids.

74. Predict the type of bond that will form between the following pair of atoms:
a. H and S b. C and H c. Na and S

75. Identify each molecule as polar or nonpolar: SCl2, CS2, and CF4.

76. D
 etermine whether a compound made of hydrogen and sulfur atoms is polar or
nonpolar.
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77. D
 raw the Lewis structures for the molecules SF4 and SF6. Analyze each structure
to determine whether the molecule is polar or nonpolar.

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