Review

A Review of Plume Research in the Collection Process of

Deep-Sea Polymetallic Nodules
Lixin Xu 1,2,*, Xiu Li 3,*, Yajiao Liu 3, Peilin Dou 3, Zhichao Hong 1 and Chaoshuai Han 1

1 Ocean College, Jiangsu University of Science and Technology, Zhenjiang 212000, China;
[email protected] (Z.H.); [email protected] (C.H.)
2 Jiangsu Marine Technology Innovation Center, Nantong 226000, China

3 School of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering, Jiangsu University of Science and Technology,

Zhenjiang 212000, China; [email protected] (Y.L.); [email protected] (P.D.)

* Correspondence: [email protected] (L.X.); [email protected] (X.L.)

Abstract: The plumes generated during the collection of polymetallic nodules in the deep sea may
have a significant impact on the marine ecosystem. Therefore, this article reviews the progress in
deep-sea mining and monitoring technologies related to plumes. It is suggested that specific areas
of environmental interest (APEIs) and positive altitude characteristic regions (such as seamounts
and hills) in the process of polymetallic nodule collection can serve as refuges for benthic organisms
and provide a biological basis for the recovery of biodiversity in mining areas. Water-supported
vessels, pipeline lifting systems, and hydraulic collection methods are the least disruptive and most
promising methods. By sorting out the deep-sea mining process, plumes can be roughly classified
into seabed disturbance plumes and tailing plumes. The best way to address plume formation is at
the source when developing environmentally friendly mining vehicles. The evaluation of plumes is
crucial for the sustainable development of the environment and seabed resources. However, the
mechanism is not clear at present. Therefore, laboratory simulation and in situ monitoring need to
be coordinated, and attention should be paid to the impact on benthic marine organisms as much
as possible during original operations. Plume research in the deep-sea mining process will also pro-
vide favorable support for the possible future development of seabed resources.

Citation: Xu, L.; Li, X.; Liu, Y.; Dou, Keywords: deep-sea polymetallic nodule collection; plume; environmental impact assessment;
P.; Hong, Z.; Han, C. A Review of plume experimental monitoring
Plume Research in the Collection
Process of Deep-Sea Polymetallic
Nodules. Water 2024, 16, 3379.
https://doi.org/10.3390/w16233379 1. Introduction
Academic Editor: Kristine The requirement for raw metal resources including copper, manganese, cobalt, silver,
Walraevens gold, and zinc is rising due to the growth of contemporary machinery and tools, commu-
Received: 23 October 2024
nication technology, computers, and worldwide energy production [1]. However, the re-
Revised: 13 November 2024 serves and ore types have drastically decreased as a result of the ongoing extraction of
Accepted: 20 November 2024 terrestrial minerals [2]. Therefore, people have turned their attention to the ocean, which
Published: 24 November 2024 accounts for 70% of the Earth’s area [3,4]. There are abundant mineral resources in the
ocean, among which the most important are polymetallic nodules, cobalt-rich crusts, and
polymetallic sulfides [5–7]. They are rich in nickel, cobalt, copper, manganese, gold, silver,
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors. Li-
and other metals, and their total reserves are tens to thousands of times higher than those
censee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. on land [8]. Deep-sea mineral resource exploration and development have entered a
This article is an open access article highly active phase as a result of the United States, Russia, China, Australia, Japan, and
distributed under the terms and con- South Korea’s keen interest in these valuable and abundant mineral resources [9–11].
ditions of the Creative Commons At- The issue of a shortage of land-based resources can be efficiently resolved and the
tribution (CC BY) license (https://cre- demands of social and economic growth can be satisfied through the development and
ativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). usage of deep-sea mineral resources. Though they are extensively dispersed across the
bottom, deep-sea mineral resources will unavoidably result in a significant amount of

Water 2024, 16, 3379. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16233379 www.mdpi.com/journal/water

Water 2024, 16, 3379 2 of 26

damage from intensive commercial extraction, possibly even an irreversible blow to the
marine natural ecosystem [12,13]. At present, developed countries and regions such as
Europe and Japan have mastered key technologies for the development of deep-sea min-
eral resources and the manufacturing capabilities of core equipment [14]. In 2020, the co-
balt-rich crust mining vehicle jointly developed by the Institute of Deep-Sea Science and
Engineering of the Chinese Academy of Sciences and China Merchants Industrial Group
Co., Ltd. completed independent operation tasks such as seabed walking, cutting and
crushing, and sample collection in the seamount area at a water depth of 1300 m and was
jointly operated with the “Deep-Sea Warrior“ manned submersible to achieve in situ mon-
itoring and environmental sampling [15,16]. At the same time, the voice of marine envi-
ronmental protection is increasing. Countries and international organizations around the
world have issued or are preparing relevant laws and regulations on the protection of the
deep-sea mining environment [17]. To govern the development of deep-sea mineral re-
sources, for instance, the International Seabed Authority (ISA) published some rules and
regulations between 2015 and 2018, including “Building a Regulatory Framework for
Mineral Development in the Area” and “Draft Regulations for the exploitation of mineral
resources in the Area” [18]; in 2016, China promulgated and implemented the “Law of the
People ‘s Republic of China on the Exploration and Development of Resources in the Deep
Seabed Area”, which standardized the exploration and development activities of deep-
sea resources in China [19]. Consequently, whoever resolves the issue of marine environ-
mental protection first will have the chance to engage in commercial mining on the path
to the growth of deep-sea mining. The impact of deep-sea mining on the environment
mainly includes the noise, light, and plume of the mining process [20]. Among them, the
deep-sea mining plume includes the plume caused by disturbance of the seabed sediment
by the mining vehicle and the plume caused by the discharge of the tailings of the water
surface support vessel [21]. A plume will spread from several kilometers to dozens of kil-
ometers or even farther away from the mining area (a schematic diagram is shown in Fig-
ure 1), which is the most important environmental impact factor in the deep-sea mining
process [22–24].

Figure 1. Schematic of plume dispersion environmental impacts.

The plume diffusion distance produced by polymetallic nodule mining will be far-
ther than that of cobalt-rich crusts and polymetallic sulfides [25]. This is due to the two-
dimensional distribution of polymetallic nodules on seafloor sediments, which are pre-
dominantly composed of clay particles that will be suspended as a result of mining activ-
ities. In contrast, mining of the other two resources occurs on hard rock surfaces, which is
Water 2024, 16, 3379 3 of 26

expected to create a plume of densely massed particles that will diffuse more closely to-
gether [26,27]. This paper mainly focuses on the plumes generated during the mining of
polymetallic nodules. The related research on plumes formed in the process of collecting
deep-sea polymetallic nodules is analyzed, providing a reference for plume research and
environmental impact assessment of deep-sea mining. This analysis covers aspects such
as nodule collection, plume generation and its impact on the environment, plume experi-
mental monitoring technology, and other aspects.

2. Nodule Collection
2.1. Mining Environment
Polymetallic nodules are mainly formed under hydrogenesis, diagenesis, and hydro-
thermal fluid deposition. At the same time, they depend on the activities of benthic
macrofauna. These irregularly spherical, potato-like creatures are found on the surface of
seabed sediments in two dimensions. Low-density benthic macrofauna redistribute sedi-
ments through activities such as perturbation and foraging, so as to achieve the effect of
nodule regrowth or nodules no longer being covered by sediments [10] (Figure 2). The
mining process of nodules does not require cutting and crushing and is considered to be
the earliest deep-sea mineral that can be commercialized [28–30]. The nodules are typi-
cally located at sea depths of 4000–6000 m [31], mostly below the carbonate compensation
depth. Most of the biogenic carbonates deposited from the light-rich zone are not pre-
served. Typically lacking in carbonate, deep-sea clays are mostly composed of a blend of
siliceous plankton remnants, including diatoms radiolarians, and clay minerals [32]. Ex-
perimental results have shown that the thickness of the bottom sediment in mining areas
is tens of meters, and the concentration of particulate matter is 15–150 µg/L, while the
concentration of particulate matter in the seawater around the bottom is less than 10 µg/L
[33]. Based on the current exploration of marine mineral resources, the polymetallic nod-
ule mining areas with commercial prospects are mainly the Clarion–Clipperton Fracture
Zone (CCZ) in the north–central Pacific Ocean, the Penglin Basin in the south–central Pa-
cific Ocean, the Peru Basin in the southeast Pacific Ocean, and the Central Indian Ocean
[34]. At present, the International Seabed Authority (ISA) has awarded 19 contracts for the
exploration of polymetallic nodules in areas beyond national jurisdiction (ABNJ), mainly
in the CCZ area (17 authorized), covering a total area of 1.25 million square kilometers, as
shown in Figure 3 [35]. As an illustration, consider the German polymetallic nodule min-
ing area in the CCZ region. There, 28% of the sediment particle size distribution is below
10 µm, 57% is between 10 µm and 63 µm, and 15% is above 63 µm [36]. Meanwhile, deep-
sea sediments are predominantly composed of clay and silt, with small amounts of sand
and other particles [37,38]. Under high-pressure and high-salinity sedimentary condi-
tions, some typical loose structures have been formed with certain characteristics of ce-
mentation structures [39].
Water 2024, 16, 3379 4 of 26

Figure 2. Polymetallic nodule shape and seafloor distribution (Grimpoteuthis bathynectes captured in
the underwater mining area) [40].

Figure 3. Map showing the location and size of the 17 contracts for exploration of polymetallic nod-
ules awarded by the International Seabed Authority to States for the CCZ [35].

To minimize the environmental impact of deep-sea mining activities, the Interna-

tional Seabed Authority (ISA) has developed an underwater environmental database
called DeepData, which aims to guide the deep-sea mining process. However, several
scholars have highlighted the limitations of this database, suggesting that it should not be
the sole resource relied upon in the execution of mining operations [41]. Rich Crane et al.
[42] caution that blindly pursuing deep-sea mining could lead to catastrophic damage to
the seabed environment. They emphasize the need for a more balanced approach, focus-
ing on appropriate regulation, responsible extraction, and the sustainable use of marine
resources rather than proceeding with mining activities before fully understanding the
extent of environmental pollution that might result from such operations. Similarly, James
R. Hein et al. [4] note that the demand for critical metals is driving the extraction of
polymetallic nodules from the seabed. However, they stress that, prior to initiating mining
activities, a more thorough understanding of the impacted ecosystems and their connec-
tivity is essential, along with a clearer assessment of the potential environmental conse-
quences. Natasha Gilbert [43] further argues that deep-sea mining could significantly re-
Water 2024, 16, 3379 5 of 26

duce species diversity in affected areas, potentially leading to widespread ecological dam-
age and adverse impacts on marine life across extensive regions. Washburn et al. [44,45]
conducted deep-sea mining and environmental monitoring experiments in the Okinawa
Trough and Takuyo Daigo Seamount in Japan in 2017 and 2020, respectively. The results
revealed that deep-sea mining activities can cause significant disruption to benthic organ-
isms and the surrounding marine ecosystems. Moreover, larger animal populations tend
to exhibit lower resistance and recovery capacity to mining impacts compared to smaller
populations. Notably, even small-scale mining operations can have lasting effects, with
impacts persisting for at least three years. The impact of deep-sea mining activities on the
marine ecological environment is inevitable. The effects of mining operations on the envi-
ronment are unknown because commercial mining has not yet been carried out. To avoid
the devastating impact of deep-sea mining activities on seabed biodiversity, the Interna-
tional Seabed Authority’s governance of future polymetallic nodule mining includes the
development of an environment management plan for the CCZ to designate a protected
seabed mining area—the Special Environmental Interest Area (APEI)—and to represent
the environmental gradient of the entire CCZ to protect the biodiversity and ecosystem
functions throughout the entire area from mining [46–48]. Furthermore, polymetallic nod-
ules are found throughout the abyssal plain; however, positive elevation features (such as
seamounts) are found throughout the plain [20,41,43]. These features share a hard matrix
with polymetallic nodules and could serve as a new home for benthic organisms that de-
pend on nodule habitats. Durden et al. [49] have studied the geological characteristics of
positive elevations such as submarine hills and found that even slight altitude differences
can cause changes in soft sediments, which makes the benthic communities in the mining
area different. According to Morgan, N.B et al. [50,51], there are widely dispersed biological
groups that can shelter organisms during deep-sea mining operations and aid in the eco-
system recovery in disturbed nodule areas. Seamount connectivity is also thought to vary
widely. In summary, the regional structure of the mining area includes a nodule collection
area, a Special Environmental Interest Area (APEI), and a positive elevation feature area
such as seamounts and knolls. The extraction of polymetallic nodules will have a signifi-
cant impact on the seabed environment and ecosystems within the nodule collection area.
However, positive elevation features, such as seamounts and knolls, as well as Special
Environmental Interest Areas (APEIs), can serve as refuges for certain marine species.
These areas not only provide a safe haven for marine life but also offer a biological foun-
dation for the recovery of the affected ecosystems once mining activities have ceased. By
facilitating ecological restoration in the nodule collection area, they play a critical role in
mitigating the environmental impact of deep-sea mining. This approach represents one of
the most effective strategies currently employed to reduce the ecological consequences of
mining on marine ecosystems.

2.2. Acquisition Technology

The seabed mining vehicle, the surface mining vessel, and the ore lifting system,
which moves minerals from the seabed mining vehicle to the surface mining vessel, make
up the currently proposed deep-sea mining system [52]. Of these, the seabed mining ve-
hicle and the lifting system will have a major impact on plume formation, diffusion, and
settlement, which is the main objective of discussion in this paper. Experts and academics
from both domestic and foreign universities have suggested several walking techniques,
such as towing, Archimedes spiral self-propelled [48], tracked self-propelled, floating, and
other methods; acquisition techniques include hydraulic, mechanical, and hydraulic–me-
chanical composite techniques. The lifting methods of nodule ore include the mechanical
type and pipeline type. The mechanical type can be divided into the cable bucket lifting
type and shuttle boat lifting type [49]. The pipeline type can be divided into the pneumatic
lifting type and hydraulic lifting type [5,8,53–55]. The influence of these technologies on
plumes is shown in Figure 4.
Water 2024, 16, 3379 6 of 26

Figure 4. Schematic diagram of the composition of deep-sea-mining-related technologies and their

impact on plumes.

A large number of relevant experiments have been carried out regarding deep-sea
mining at home and abroad. This paper lists the advantages and disadvantages of sea
trials using mining vehicles with different walking and acquisition methods (as shown in
Table 1), analyzes the combination of acquisition methods with the most commercial pro-
spects, and then analyzes its influence on the plumes of deep-sea mining activities. Table
1 illustrates that the towed and Archimedes spiral self-propelled techniques have signifi-
cant slippage and difficult trajectory control, which make it challenging to accomplish
large-scale commercial mining. As a result, both systems are gradually abandoned in fur-
ther studies. The floating walking mode is suggested in response to the growing aware-
ness of the environmental impacts associated with deep-sea mining environments. It of-
fers some scientific value and is more environmentally friendly than other approaches.
However, its shortcomings in load difficulty and low lifting efficiency are fatal weaknesses
on the road to commercialization. It can only have economic potential if the issue of col-
lecting efficiency is resolved in subsequent studies. The crawler’s self-propelled walking
mode has garnered greater attention due to its strong load-carrying capacity, stable oper-
ation control, and reduced disturbance to bottom sediments. This makes it more appro-
priate for large-scale commercial development. There is no definitive conclusion regard-
ing which collection approach is fundamentally superior because there has been insuffi-
cient experimental verification and they are not yet commercially utilized. However, the
sea trial results of OMI in 1978 showed that the hydraulic acquisition method has higher
acquisition efficiency than the mechanical one [8]. Thus, the primary focus of current ac-
quisition method research is on developing high-efficiency and low-disturbance hydraulic
acquisition strategies. In short, the commercial development of deep-sea mining actually
entails exploring a way to balance collection efficiency and environmental friendliness.
Both of them are indispensable. High efficiency, low energy usage, and minimal disturb-
ance are necessary considerations for a good collection technique.
Water 2024, 16, 3379 7 of 26

Table 1. Typical sea trial techniques for mining vehicles and their advantages and disadvantages
(the figures in the table are referenced from the papers [5,56,57]).

Acquisi-
Research and Develop- Structural (Schematic) Dia-
Country Travel Mode tion Advantage Disadvantage
ment Organization gram
Method

United States Ocean Mining Associates Towed min- Mechanical Structural sim- Difficulty with
and Belgium (OMA) ing mean plicity trajectory control

United States Archimedes Suitable for thin

Ocean Minerals Com- Mechanical
and The Nether- spiral self- and soft sub- Slips badly
pany (OMCO) mean
lands propelled strates

Global Sea Mineral Re- Crawler self-

Belgium Hydronic
sources (GSR) propelled

Korea Institute of Ocean

Crawler self-
South Korea Science and Technology Hydronic
propelled
(KIOST)

European Union (Neth-

Crawler self-
The Netherlands erlands IHC Mining Hydronic
propelled
BVcompany-led) Sediment dis-
High load ca-
turbance at
pacity and sta-
greater depths
ble travel
(15–30 cm)
The Metals Company Crawler self-
Canada Hydronic
(TMC) propelled

Changsha Mining and

Metallurgy Research In- Crawler self-
China Hydronic
stitute Co. (Hunan, propelled
China)

Shanghai Jiao Tong Uni- Crawler self-

China Hydronic
versity propelled

Shallow sedi- Difficulty in

Canadian Impossible Mechanical ment disturb- loading and inef-
Canada Flotation
Metals mean ance depth (3–6 ficiency in collec-
cm) tion
Water 2024, 16, 3379 8 of 26

Shanghai Jiao Tong Uni-

China Flotation Hydronic
versity

Overseas since the late 1950s, a large amount of research has been carried out on the
ore lifting system. In the 1960s, Japanese researchers proposed a cable bucket hoisting
lifting scheme, as shown in Figure 5. In the early 1970s, a sea trial experiment was carried
out, but it was finally terminated due to the problem of cable winding [58]. French engi-
neers created a shuttle boat lifting system in 1976 to complete the lifting of minerals by
using a series of shuttle mining boats to shuttle between the seabed and the sea surface
support platform (Figure 6). However, the research was terminated due to technical diffi-
culties and poor economy [59]. At a water depth of 5200 m, OMI conducted deep-sea min-
ing tests in the Pacific Ocean in 1978. Pneumatic and hydraulic lifts were utilized to ac-
complish vertical ore transportation. The pneumatic lifting system transported 150 t of
minerals and the hydraulic lifting system transported 650 t of minerals [60]. A total of 800
t of minerals was collected, which verified the feasibility of the commercial application
development of pneumatic lifting and hydraulic lifting. Since then, pipeline lifting (pneu-
matic lifting and hydraulic lifting) has been the primary focus of experts’ and scholars’
studies on ore lifting technology. In summary, the currently recognized combination of
deep-sea mining systems with the most commercial mining prospects is a combination of
a submarine mining vehicle + a pipeline lifting ore lifting system + a water surface support
ship using a crawler self-propelled walking and hydraulic acquisition method. The pri-
mary causes of the plume’s creation are the backflow of tailings following beneficiation
and the disruption of sediment by the seabed mining vehicle. Figure 7 displays a sche-
matic diagram.

Figure 5. Schematic diagram of a cable bucket elevated scheme [55].

Water 2024, 16, 3379 9 of 26

Figure 6. Schematic diagram of the shuttle boat elevated scheme [61].

Figure 7. Schematic diagram of deep-sea mining system and plume formation.

3. Environmental Impact
The plumes generated by deep-sea mining activities will have a huge impact on the
marine ecological environment. The plume formed by the tailing discharge following the
water surface support ship beneficiation has different effects on the environment than the
plume caused by the mining vehicle disturbing the sediment during the deep-sea mining
process, according to the current deep-sea mining scheme. Therefore, this work divides
the plumes caused by deep-sea mining activities into seabed disturbance plumes and tail-
ing plumes according to the formation mode of the plumes, collates the existing research,
and analyzes the impact of these plumes on the environment.

3.1. Submarine Disturbance Plume

The particle size of polymetallic nodules is generally 2–10 cm, the density is about
2100 kg/m3, and the average ratio of submarine nodules to sediments is 1:9 [62]. Therefore,
it is difficult to avoid disturbing a large amount of sediment and causing plumes during
Water 2024, 16, 3379 10 of 26

the collection of polymetallic nodules. According to published research, for every ton of
polymetallic nodules mined from the seafloor using the current collection technology, 2.5
to 5.5 tons of sediment is disturbed and contributes to plume formation [63]. The hydro-
dynamic collection method [64–66], currently the most effective technique, works by di-
recting high-pressure water flow onto the nodules. This generates negative pressure in the
collection area, which helps to lift and collect the nodules. According to the specific struc-
tural form, this technique can be divided into the suction type, jet-flushing type, and wall-
attached jet type [8,67–69]. The schematic diagram of its structural form and a typical sea
trial mining vehicle are shown in Figure 8a–c. As nodules are being collected, a significant
volume of sediment will be aroused by the high-pressure water flow. A minor portion of
the stimulated sediment will immediately diffuse and create a plume. The majority will
enter the mining vehicle alongside the nodules and release into the seabed once the nod-
ules are separated. Studies have shown that 96–98% of the non-tuberculous material en-
tering the mining vehicle will be separated and form a flocculent layer plume of about 50
m on the seabed [70]. Large particles (particle size greater than 15 µm) will settle quickly,
while fine sediments will diffuse for a long time and over a long distance [71]. A study by
Ozturgut, E [72] showed that a sedimentary layer several centimeters thick is expected to
be produced 5–10 cm away from the collection trajectory, while some fine particles will
spread to 100 meters away.

(a)

(b)
Water 2024, 16, 3379 11 of 26

(c)
Figure 8. Schematic diagram of the hydraulic collection head structure and a typical sea trial mining
vehicle (the above figures are referenced from the papers [5,56,57]): (a) suction-lifting collection head;
(b) jet-purge collection head; (c) attached wall jet collection head.

Walking on the seabed differs from walking on land for a seabed mining vehicle. The
sediments in the deep-sea polymetallic nodule collection area are mainly composed of
siliceous residues of clay minerals and plankton (such as diatoms and radiolarians) [32].
The water content is very high. The shear strength of the sediments at 0–20 cm depth is 0–
10 kPa, the penetration resistance is 0–15 kPa, the cohesion is 0–8 kPa, and the internal
friction angle is 0°–7°. Due to the extremely small internal friction angle, the mining vehi-
cle is mainly driven by the shear resistance of the sediments. The literature [5] shows that
a great deal of study has been recently conducted on the force and walking control of
seabed mining vehicles. A mining vehicle will compact the seabed and create plumes
when it walks because of the small size of the seabed sediment itself, the buoyancy of the
seawater, and its unique walking mode. This could have a long-term and challenging im-
pact on the seabed environment [73].
To summarize, the underwater disturbance plume can be classified into three types,
as illustrated in Figure 9: the first type is formed by collecting the disturbed sediment of
the nodules, the second type is formed by the mining vehicle diffusing the sediment dis-
charged from the nodule separation, and the third type is formed by the mining vehicle
diffusing the disturbed sediment. The disturbance of the seabed and the discharge of sed-
iments after the separation of nodules will form a plume with a concentration in the range
of 15–150 µg/L in the tens of meters (generally about fifty) near the seabed of the mining
area [74]. Nonetheless, because of the seabed’s slow flow velocity, the benthic species’
native habitat is easily visible, and the environment’s particle concentration typically does
not go over 10 µg/L. The organisms living in the deep-sea nodule environment adapt to
very low turbidity [12] and have a low metabolic rate due to the low temperature of the
deep-bottom water [75]. Therefore, highly concentrated submarine plumes caused by
mining operations may cause a series of fatal damages to benthic organisms, such as the
outcomes outlined in [10]:
1. Benthic organisms suffocate and lose their ability to feed as a result of sediment bur-
ial. Suspended inorganic particulate matter blocks breathing and filtering organs,
weakening the ability to breathe and feed.
2. Near-bottom creatures starve or grow more slowly when they consume non-nutritive
or low-nutritive particulate materials, which can have cascading effects and interferes
with the taste that sinking food produces, which affects how some creatures, includ-
ing scavengers, forage.
Water 2024, 16, 3379 12 of 26

3. Increasing turbidity reduces the propagation distance of bioluminescence, reduces

the success rate of bioluminescence courtship, and thus reduces reproductivity by
covering up the chemical traces of organisms and affecting biological courtship.

Figure 9. Schematic diagram of the disturbed plume form on the seafloor (revised according to ref-
erence [35]).

3.2. Tailing Plumes

Tailings (including wastewater, sediment, and gravel particles) are discharged back
into the ocean after mineral processing separates the polymetallic nodules. A tailing
plume is caused by the lifting of ore, water, and sediment to the surface support ship
through pipeline lifting technology (hydraulic lifting and pneumatic lifting). The main
influencing factors of the mine tail plume on the marine environment include emissions,
emission time, the particle size composition of emissions, and the emission depth. The
overall effectiveness of the mining system, the length of the working day, and the compo-
sition of the sediment in the mining region are all related to the tailing discharge, dis-
charge time, and particle size composition. As collecting technology and treatment pro-
cesses are upgraded, these negative effects will be lessened. This study of plume formation
by tailing discharge focuses on the depth of discharge since it is the most practical element
to control and has a significant impact on the spread of plumes.
A mine tail discharge is classified into four primary areas based on depth: the photo-
synthetic zone (0–200 m), the medium and deep twilight zone (200–1000 m), the deep-sea
region discharge (more than 1000 m), and the near-bottom discharge [10]. The plume
formed by the discharge of tailings in the photosynthesis zone will reduce the utilization
rate of light, affect the growth of plankton, and endanger the upper ecosystem of the min-
ing area. The mid-deep twilight zone hosts marine organisms that migrate vertically day
and night. The formation of plumes will affect the success rate of predation of biolumi-
nescent predators and directly affect the mid-ocean ecology. Except for bioluminescence,
the deep-sea region beyond 1000 m is essentially dark, but there is very little natural tur-
bidity in this region. The formation of a plume will increase the turbidity of this layer and
threaten the respiration and feeding of organisms in this layer. The sedimentation distance
of sediments discharged near the bottom is short, and the influence area is small. It is the
most cost-effective and environmentally beneficial discharge option; however, it does re-
quire a long draft tube. According to the different influencing factors, the discharge of
mine tailings will affect the suspended particle concentration, light transmittance, nutrient
salt, and water temperature of the environment [76]. A tailing discharge plume can
Water 2024, 16, 3379 13 of 26

quickly raise the concentration of surrounding suspended particles because the concen-
tration of tailing particles is significantly higher than the concentration of particles in the
surrounding water. At the same time, as the concentration of suspended particles in-
creases, the light attenuation will also increase significantly. In addition, the wastewater
in the tailings comes from the seabed. The temperature of the bottom seawater is 1–2 °C,
and the content of nitrate and silicate is more than ten to hundreds of times that of the
surface seawater. Even if the friction temperature rises through the pipeline to reach the
water temperature of the mining ship, it is generally 4–9 °C, while the surface seawater is
generally above 16 °C. Accordingly, the release of mine tailings will unavoidably result in
a rise in the concentration of nutrients in the area and a drop in temperature [77].
In conclusion, deep-sea mining will have a variable impact on the marine ecological
ecosystem and present a threat to it based on the plume it has created. In different pro-
cesses of the entire mining operation, plumes will be generated at different positions in
the vertical section of the mining area, as shown in Figure 10. It can be seen from the dia-
gram that the source of the plume is from the collection of the sediment disturbed by the
nodule and the sediment disturbed by the mining vehicle. Therefore, to minimize the im-
pact of deep-sea mining activities on the environment, while taking into account the col-
lection efficiency, the development of environmentally friendly mining vehicles (walking
technology and collection technology) is an important means to fundamentally alleviate
the plumes generated by deep-sea mining.

Figure 10. Schematic diagram of plumes triggered by various segments of deep-sea mining.

4. Plume Flow Experimental Monitoring

The plume is the most important factor in the impact of deep-sea mining activities on
the marine ecological environment. In the previous section, the background of deep-sea
mining, the plume’s formation and its effects on the environment are briefly discussed.
Nevertheless, there is still a lack of adequate plume research, and it is challenging to pro-
vide a solid theoretical foundation for deep-sea mining that is profitable. Therefore, to
reliably assess the impact of plumes on the marine ecological environment and develop a
reasonable environmental management strategy, to achieve equipment upgrades to meet
Water 2024, 16, 3379 14 of 26

the environmental permits of the International Seabed Authority (ISA), and to achieve
commercial mining as soon as possible, experts and scholars at home and abroad have
carried out a large number of plume monitoring experiments, the most important of
which are laboratory monitoring and in situ test monitoring.

4.1. Laboratory Monitoring

To study the formation, diffusion, and deposition mechanism of plumes, laboratory
monitoring refers to the process of building experimental facilities and simulating all or
part of the environmental conditions and disturbances associated with deep-sea mining.
Relevant instruments are then used to measure and analyze the experimental results. The
composition of the sediment, particle size, gradation, flow velocity, seabed topography
(typically simulated by the pool’s bottom shape), form of disturbance corresponding to
various plume generation methods, form of disturbance regarding the depth of the jet
source from the bottom of the pool, the nozzle’s shape, the jet’s incident angle, etc., and
power of the disturbance device (the sediment’s jet velocity, the mining vehicle’s running
speed, the acquisition head’s working power, etc.) are among the experimental variables
controlled during the experiments. The monitoring strategy is primarily focused on intel-
ligent monitoring using automation, computer, vision, statistics, and other technologies
in conjunction with high-speed cameras, turbidity meters, flow meters, and other equip-
ment. In summary, the experimental variables monitored by deep-sea mining plume la-
boratories are complex and diverse, while the construction of the experimental pools and
the data monitoring systems are mostly the same. A more detailed simulation of the plume
conditions that may result from the deep-sea mining process can be achieved by replacing
the disturbance source and controlling the experimental variables in a plume laboratory.
This way, the experimental pool and data monitoring system resources can be used for a
wider range of laboratory monitoring experiments. This composition may include all or
part of the diagram shown in Figure 11.
Currently, experimental monitoring mainly focuses on the diffusion of sediment par-
ticles caused by disturbance and the subsequent flocculation and sedimentation after
plume formation. Many experts and scholars have conducted extensive research on the
plume diffusion caused by sediment particle disturbance. In Byishimo P’s [78] master’s
thesis, the formation, diffusion, and deposition of mine tailing plumes were studied
through indoor pool experiments. A 5 × 2.25 × 2 m modular water tank was established to
simulate the plume formed by a 250 m long underwater site through a 1:50 scale experi-
ment. The experimental equipment schematic diagram and physical diagram are shown
in Figure 12. The experimental equipment was used to measure the formation, diffusion,
and deposition process of the plume under three different concentrations (5 g/L, 10 g/L,
and 20 g/L), three different jet heights (0.25 m, 0.5 m, and 1 m), and two different bottom
angles (0 ° and 10 °) by camera components and turbidity meters. The results show that
the lower the jet height of the sediment, the smaller the diffusion range of the plume. The
pool’s sloping bottom will have an impact on the diffusion and deposition of sediments;
the lower the concentration of the material, the less deposition that occurs after the plume
deposits. Zhang et al. [79] designed a rectangular test bench as shown in Figure 13. The
depth and volume of sediment disturbance were studied by collecting heads (hydraulic
type) with different jet velocities, different bottom heights, and different travel speeds.
The results show that the sediment will migrate and diffuse in the form of upper plume
and bottom gravity flow after scouring. The disturbance depth of the sediment is posi-
tively correlated with the jet velocity and negatively correlated with the height of the noz-
zle from the bottom and the speed of the collection head. Liu, X et al. [80] utilized the
experimental setup shown in Figure 14, based on a jetting-type collection head, to inves-
tigate the flow field characteristics of different dual-jet parameters (jet outlet pressure,
nozzle-to-seabed height, target distance, and nozzle quantity). The research findings indi-
cated that the jet flow field exhibits a strong central flow with gradual attenuation towards
both sides. The erosion orifice on the sediment surface presents a “bowl” shape with a flat
Water 2024, 16, 3379 15 of 26

bottom and concave sides, demonstrating self-similarity. Additionally, formulas for cal-
culating the decay distribution of the flow field in the upper jet region and the maximum
axial pressure were proposed. Raphael Ouillon et al. [81] conducted laboratory experi-
ments (Figure 15) with deep-sea mining as the background to investigate the influence of
ore car movement on plume dispersion, revealing the formation of wedge-shaped gravity
flow fronts. As the ratio of collector movement speed to buoyancy speed increases, the
gravity flow front narrows.

Figure 11. Sketch of plume flow laboratory components.

Figure 12. Schematic of the experimental equipment in [78].

Water 2024, 16, 3379 16 of 26

Figure 13. Schematic diagram of the experimental equipment in [79].

Figure 14. Schematic diagram of the experimental equipment in [80].

Zhan [82] analyzed the sedimentation characteristics of sediments in the Western Pa-
cific polymetallic nodule mining area through the hydrostatic sedimentation experimental
device shown in Figure 16. The results showed that the sedimentation rate of coarse-
grained sediments (particle size greater than 32 µm) was in the range of 3.33~8.33 mm/s,
and the sedimentation rate of fine-grained sediments (particle size less than 32 µm) was
between 0.01 and 3.33 mm/s. W. Ali et al. [83] conducted laboratory experiments (Figure
17) to investigate the effects of salt and organic matter as coagulants on plume coagulation
and settling. The results indicate that in the presence of organic matter, coagulation occurs
within a short period (30–60 s), leading to a reduction in plume propagation distance. Both
Water 2024, 16, 3379 17 of 26

the size of the coagulants (ranging from 20 to 1000 µm) and settling velocities (from 1 to
60 mm s−1) undergo significant changes. Table 2 summarizes the experimental studies re-
lated to this research.

Figure 15. Schematic diagram of the experimental equipment in [81].

Figure 16. Schematic diagram of the experiment in [82].

Experts and academics are paying more and more attention to the plume problem
associated with deep-sea mining as operations expand. Laboratory monitoring can be
simple, convenient, and low-cost to study the formation, diffusion, and deposition mech-
anism of plumes, which can provide guidelines for the assessment of the environmental
impact of plume problems in deep-sea mining, the formulation of management strategies,
and the upgrading of mining equipment.
Water 2024, 16, 3379 18 of 26

Figure 17. Schematic diagram of the experiment in [83].((A) Schematic representation of the Lock
exchange setup. The samples are taken at L1, L2, L3 and L4 locations. (B) Schematic representation
of the Malvern master Sizer 2000 for particle size measurement. (C) Schematic representation of the
FLOCCAM setup.).

Table 2. The experimental studies on plume formation related to deep-sea mining.

Reference Research Direction Conclusion

The lower the jet height of sediment, the smaller the diffusion range of the
plume; the lower the concentration of sediment, the less sediment deposition
[78] Diffusion of mine tailings
after plume settling; a sloping pool bottom will affect the diffusion and depo-
sition of sediment.
After sediment scouring, it migrates and diffuses in the form of upper plumes
The disturbance of sediment and lower gravity flows; the depth of sediment disturbance is positively cor-
[79]
by the ore concentrate head related with jet velocity and negatively correlated with nozzle height above
the bottom and collection head advancement speed.
The jet flow field has a strong central flow field that gradually attenuates to-
wards both sides. The erosion holes on the surface of sediment mainly exhibit
The disturbance of sediment
[80] a “bowl” shape with a flat bottom and concave sides, demonstrating self-simi-
by the ore concentrate head
larity. Formulas for calculating the attenuation distribution of the upper jet
zone flow field and the maximum axial pressure have been proposed.
The impact of ore vehicle
As the ratio of vehicle movement speed to buoyancy speed increases, the
[81] movement on plume diffu-
leading edge of the plume narrows.
sion
The settling velocity of coarse-grained sediment (particle size larger than 32
Sediment settling in still wa-
[82] µm) ranges from 3.33 to 8.33 mm/s, while the settling velocity of fine-grained
ter
sediment (particle size smaller than 32 µm) ranges from 0.01 to 3.33 mm/s.
Aggregation during diffu- In the presence of organic matter, flocculation occurs within a short time
[83]
sion frame of the experiment (30–60 s), leading to a reduced spread distance of
Water 2024, 16, 3379 19 of 26

flocs, significant changes in floc size (from 20 to 1000 µm), and settling veloci-
ties (from 1 to 60 mm s−1).

4.2. In Situ Monitoring

Contrary to the large-scale and long-term disturbance of deep-sea mining, laboratory
monitoring has the advantages of simplicity, convenience, and low cost; however, the la-
boratory space is limited, the simulated disturbance range is small, the intensity is low,
and the plume diffusion is limited. Therefore, it is necessary to carry out in situ experi-
ments in mining areas for supplementary research. In situ monitoring refers to the exper-
imental method of simulating the disturbance related to deep-sea mining activities in
deep-sea mining areas and observing plumes, biological activities, etc., which can more
accurately assess the impact of deep-sea mining activities on the environment. It is a nec-
essary stage in the process of deep-sea mining moving towards commercialization. As
early as July 1970, the Columbia University Lamont-Doherty Geological Institute con-
ducted the first deep-sea mining environmental assessment experiment to study the eco-
logical impact of seabed sediment discharge. With the activity of deep-sea mining activi-
ties, enterprises and institutions in the United States, Japan, Germany, and France have
carried out many large-scale in situ monitoring activities of early deep-sea mining plumes,
as shown in Table 3.

Table 3. In situ monitoring of a typical early deep-sea mining plume.

Commence- Carrying Out Disturbance

Researcher Monitoring Results
ment Date Regional Mode
Photographs of benthic macroinhabiting organisms were
taken before, during, and after excavation using a deep-
Japan, United Continuous ca-
North Pacific sea camera; however, the duration of the experiment was
States, and 1972 ble bucket min-
Mining District short due to entanglement in the cable, and it was not
France ing
possible to evaluate the environmental impacts of the
mining activities [84,85].
The experimental results show that the thickness of the
bottom sediment in the mining area is tens of meters,
National Oce- and the concentration of particulate matter is 15–150
Pacific DOMES
anic and At- Deep-sea min- µg/L, while the concentration of particulate matter in the
1975–1980 A and C min-
mospheric Ad- ing experiment seawater around the bottom is <10 µg/L; the concentra-
ing areas
ministration tion of particulate matter increases about 6–7 days after
mining, and the horizontal diffusion velocity of the bot-
tom plume is about 3–4 cm/s [33,86].
St. Jude’s Lin- Controlling un-
United States of naean Basin, derwater robots Sediment cover 1 cm thick will not have a significant im-
1987
America 1250 m deep for perturba- pact on benthic macrofauna.
sea tion
Information on benthic abundance and biological activity
Disturbance of
DISCOL exper- was obtained by sampling the test area three times after
the “plow and
German 1988–1933 imental area in the disturbance, six months after the end of the disturb-
harrow” sys-
the Pacific ance, and three years after the end of the disturbance
tem
[85].
Sediment Re- Through the study of meiofauna, it was found that 9
Russian Open
United States, suspension Per- months after the disturbance, the number of some spe-
1991–2002 Area, etc.
Russia, etc. turbation Sys- cies (especially nematodes) declined significantly, while
(multi-country,
tem macrofauna was largely unaffected; through multi-coun-
Water 2024, 16, 3379 20 of 26

multi-site, mul- try experiments with different environmental back-

tiple experi- grounds and disturbance scales, it was concluded that
ments) the magnitude of plume impacts depended not only on
the time and distance of the disturbance but also on the
in situ depositional characteristics in the region
[33,85,87].

In situ monitoring is one of the indispensable ways to study and evaluate the envi-
ronmental impact of deep-sea mining activities. The early plume in situ monitoring ex-
periments are listed in Table 3. These experiments not only laid the groundwork for the
development of deep-sea mining but also offer an experimental basis for assessing the
environmental impact of plumes in deep-sea mining and leave valuable experimental ex-
perience and data. As deep-sea mining becomes more commercialized and monitoring
technology advances steadily, several specialists and academics have conducted various
in situ deep-sea mining studies. Haalboom Sabine [88] introduced a plume monitoring
experiment of the in situ disturbance of seabed sediments. The experiment was carried
out on 11 April 2019. Through an ROV dragging the 1 m wide chain perturbator shown
in Figure 18, in the CCZ German exploration contract area, the trajectory of 11 treaty 500
m was dragged at an average speed of 0.2 m/s, and a 12.5 h experiment was carried out.
Along with the seabed observation equipment carried on the ROV, the 15 sensor platforms
around the disturbance region that were outfitted with various kinds of turbidimeters and
current meters were observed. The results show that the redeposited sediments can be
intuitively identified within 100 m of the disturbance area, and the accumulation of sus-
pended sediments will cause the attenuation of light. Baeye M. et al. [89] conducted in-
situ plume monitoring in the eastern Pacific Ocean’s DISCOL area by pulling a “seabed
sled” (Figure 19) fitted with a flow velocity and turbidity monitor and collaborating with
the monitors placed around the disturbance area. The results show that the concentration
of suspended particulate matter easily reaches 10 mg/L, which is about 200 times that
without disturbance. The fine suspended particles in the plume will diffuse across hun-
dreds of kilometers, depending on the tide and ocean depth. The coarse particles in the
plume will settle quickly.

Figure 18. Chain perturber used in [88].

Water 2024, 16, 3379 21 of 26

Figure 19. “Undersea sled” used in [89].

The present study suggests that in situ plume monitoring experiments can be classi-
fied into two categories: in situ monitoring of plumes produced by mechanically disturb-
ing sediments and in situ monitoring during deep-sea mining activities (sea trials). Gen-
erally, data collection is carried out by arranging flow meters and turbidity meters, which
can maximize the understanding of the changes in plumes formed by disturbed seabed
sediments over time in the seabed space and can provide reliable data guidance for deep-
sea mining activities. Through the collation of existing research, there are two insights: (1)
the in situ monitoring of plumes and monitoring of the activities of benthic organisms in
Haiti during mining activities required tight nodules. For example, in the study of [89], it
was found that fine suspended particles in a plume may last for more than 100 days and
spread for hundreds of kilometers, but the time and scope of the effective impact on ben-
thic organisms are unknown. Submarine in situ plume monitoring will require significant
human, material, and financial resources, and it will also have an impact on the experi-
mental area’s natural environment to some extent. To provide a more thorough reference
for the environmental assessment of deep-sea mining, we should thus take advantage of
the opportunity for in situ experimentation, design a multidisciplinary experimental
scheme including physics and biology in advance, and consider the monitoring of biolog-
ical activities. (2) A plume induced by deep-sea mining activities is a complex phenome-
non, and its impact on the marine environment is difficult to accurately assess. Therefore,
in situ experiments should be widely considered in various deep-sea mining activities (in
situ sea trials, demonstration projects, and commercial projects) to obtain valuable envi-
ronmental impact assessment data and provide basic support for the development of ef-
ficient and environmentally friendly deep-sea mining technology. At the same time, the
deep-sea polymetallic nodule ore is the mineral category that is likely to be the first to
realize commercialization of all deep-sea mineral resources. Its in situ monitoring data
can provide exemplary guidelines for the future development of deep-sea potential re-
sources, as shown in Figure 20.
Water 2024, 16, 3379 22 of 26

Figure 20. In situ monitoring during deep-sea mining activities and guidance on environmental
aspects of potential seabed resource development.

5. Conclusions
This study examines the deep-sea polymetallic nodule mining environment, collec-
tion technologies, plume creation throughout the procedure, environmental impacts, and
monitoring techniques. The following conclusions are drawn.
Benthic organisms involved in deep-sea mining activities can find refuge in the Spe-
cial Environmental Interest Area (APEI) and positive elevation feature areas, such as sea-
mounts in deep-sea polymetallic nodule mining areas. These areas can also lessen the im-
pact of plumes on the ecological environment and aid in the restoration of seabed ecology.
At present, the combination of tracked self-propelled mining vehicles with hydraulic ac-
quisition heads, pipeline lifting systems, and water surface support ships is the most com-
mercially promising technical solution.
The plumes caused by the collection of deep-sea polymetallic nodules can be divided
into seabed disturbance plumes and tailing plumes, which will have different degrees of
influence on the marine environment from different levels. Nonetheless, the disruption of
sediments by seabed mining vehicles is the cause of the plumes. To lessen the effects of
the deep-sea mining plumes, it is essential to develop environmentally friendly mining
vehicles (walking technology and acquisition technology).
The monitoring of plumes is an important means of environmental impact assess-
ment of plumes in deep-sea mining. Laboratory monitoring and in situ monitoring should
be used in parallel and complementary ways. The monitoring of benthic biological activ-
ities should be taken into account in the process of in situ monitoring to provide a more
comprehensive reference for the assessment of the environmental impact of plumes
caused by deep-sea polymetallic nodule processes. At the same time, in situ environmen-
tal monitoring in the process of deep-sea-mining-related activities should be extensively
examined, which is of great significance to the environmental problems of deep-sea min-
ing and the potential environmental problems that may arise in the future exploitation of
seabed resources.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, L.X. and X.L.; methodology, L.X. and X.L.; software, X.L.
and Y.L.; validation, Y.L., P.D. and Z.H.; formal analysis, C.H.; investigation, X.L., Y.L. and C.H.;
resources, L.X. and Z.H.; data curation, X.L.; writing—original draft preparation, X.L.; writing—
review and editing, X.L.; visualization, Y.L. Z.H. and C.H.; supervision, Lixin Xu and P.D.; project
administration, L.X.; funding acquisition, L.X., Z.H. and X.L. All authors have read and agreed to
the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: The present work is supported by the Key Research and Development Program of China
(Grant No. 2022YFC2806604), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No.
52101359), the Postgraduate Research and Practice Innovation Program of Jiangsu Province
(KYCX24_4069), and the Key Technology Research and Development Project for Deep-Sea
Polymetallic Nodule Seabed Mining Equipment at Jiangsu Marine Technology Innovation Center
(Grant No. MTIC-2023-IRD-0001). The support is gratefully acknowledged.
Data Availability Statement: The authors confirm that the data supporting the findings of this study
are available within the article.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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