http://pubs.acs.

org/journal/acsodf Article

Banana Peel Waste: An Emerging Cellulosic Material to Extract

Nanocrystalline Cellulose
Shweta Mishra, Bala Prabhakar,* Prashant S. Kharkar, and Anil M. Pethe

Cite This: ACS Omega 2023, 8, 1140−1145 Read Online

ACCESS Metrics & More Article Recommendations

See https://pubs.acs.org/sharingguidelines for options on how to legitimately share published articles.

ABSTRACT: Nanocrystalline cellulose (NCC) has gained attention due to its

versatile properties such as biocompatibility, sustainability, high aspect ratio, and
abundance of −OH groups that favor modifications of NCC. The objective of this
paper is to develop NCC by extracting and characterizing NCC prepared from
Downloaded via 103.93.33.82 on October 28, 2024 at 21:06:22 (UTC).

banana peel powder (BPP). BPP was subjected to alkali and bleaching treatment to
remove lignin and hemicellulose and then subjected to acid hydrolysis to prepare
NCC. Under optimal conditions (200 mL of sulfuric acid 55% v/v at 50 °C for 60
min), the NCC yield was found to be 29.9%. The particle size and zeta potential of
the NCC were found to be 209 nm and −43 mV, respectively. Attenuated total
reflectance Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy showed successful removal of
lignin and hemicellulose from BPP after the alkali treatment, bleaching, and acid
hydrolysis. Field emission scanning electron microscopy showed needle-shaped
crystals and transmission electron microscopy showed particles in the nano range.
X-ray diffraction analysis showed that the crystallinity index of NCC was 64.12% while keeping the cellulose I crystal structure intact.
Thermogravimetric analysis showed good stability which paves way for NCC to be explored for various applications. All the
parameters evaluated indicated that NCC was successfully prepared from BPP using alkali treatment, bleaching, and acid hydrolysis.

1. INTRODUCTION cellulose, 10−21% pectin, 6.4−9.4% hemicellulose, 6−12%

India has a very diverse agro climate which encourages the lignin, and some low molecular compounds on dry basis.4 BP
cultivation of numerous crops including medicinal herbs, as a waste takes up to 2 years to decompose and biodegrade as
ornamental plants, decorative plants, vegetables, trees, roots it contains carbon-rich organic compounds. This produces
tubers, spices, and plantation crops. India is the second-largest excessive emissions of greenhouse gases that contribute to
producer of fruits and vegetables, in the world. Lignocellulosic climate change. Huge quantity of BP waste is produced by
biomass is produced on large scale every year during various industries and fruit markets which is either considered
harvesting, cultivation processing, and consumption of as agricultural waste and left to rot in farms to provide
agricultural products1,2 nutrients to the soil or just discarded as a waste product.
Banana is the most widely used fruit worldwide for several In some places, agricultural waste burning is practiced and
good reasons, as it is a delicious, rich source of nutrients and considered the most effective and efficient way of clearing
also helps in improving mental health.3 Banana (Musa sp., landfills. This fire is the largest source of carbon black which is
family Musaceae) develops in hanging clusters with an average a threat to environment and humans.9 This waste can be
fruit weight of about 125 g with nearly 25% dry matter and converted into useful materials instead of being dumped in
75% water. Banana is the second largest produced fruit landfills, and reduce environmental and economic prob-
accounting for 16% of the total fruit production worldwide. In lems.10−12 The utilization of agricultural waste would help in
2019, worldwide approximately 119 million tons of bananas improving the environment by reducing toxic emissions and
were produced. Among that, India is the world’s biggest carbon black. Currently, researchers are focusing on the
banana producer with 31.50 million tons of production.2 Lot of utilization of agricultural waste for various biomedical and
production and consumption comes with a lot of waste
production comprising 30−40% of total weight resulting
approximately 3.5 million tons of banana peel (BP) waste per Received: October 12, 2022
year.4,5 Banana is extensively used by various food, juice, Accepted: November 30, 2022
cosmetic, and textile industries.6,7 Published: December 28, 2022
BP comprises about 60−70% (w/w) of carbohydrate,
protein (2−3%), fiber (4−5%), lipid (4−5%), and moisture
(20%).8 However, on dry basis, BP contains 7.6−9.6%
© 2022 The Authors. Published by
American Chemical Society https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.2c06571
1140 ACS Omega 2023, 8, 1140−1145
ACS Omega http://pubs.acs.org/journal/acsodf Article

pharmaceutical purposes which are the need of the hour to (DI) water until neutral pH has reached. The solid obtained
protect planet earth from extensive climate change and the was then kept for drying in the oven overnight at 40 °C.
damage caused by it. In the last 2 decades, a lot of work has 2.2.2. Bleaching Treatment. Following alkali treatment, the
been reported about utilizing agricultural waste in the best bleaching process was performed by using 2% (w/v) sodium
possible way. Faradilla et al. prepared nanocellulose from hypochlorite solution for 2 h at 40°C. The solid to liquid ratio
banana pseudo-stem by TEMPO-mediated oxidation. The was 1:10. The solution was filtered and the solid obtained was
results showed that prepared nanocellulose is more crystalline washed several times with DI water until neutral pH has
than pseudo-stem.13 Harini et al. used BP and banana bract for reached. The obtained solid mass was kept for drying in the
the preparation of nanocellulose fibers (CNFs) by the oven overnight at 40°C.
microwave digestion method and ball milling-assisted ultra- 2.2.3. Acid Hydrolysis. The dried bleached BPP obtained
sonication method. The extracted CNFs were used for the from the above process was subjected to acid hydrolysis with
production of cellulose-based biopolymers through acetyl and 200 mL of sulfuric acid (55% v/v) at 50°C for 60 min. After 60
lauroyl modifications.14 Sijabat et al. prepared a flat sheet min, 10 times volume of chilled DI water was added to the
membrane composite using bacterial nanocellulose (derived suspension to quench the hydrolysis reaction. The suspension
from BP waste, cellulose, and silica). The prepared sheet was was kept overnight in the refrigerator. The supernatant was
used for the desalination process and the results showed decanted and the pH of the solution was adjusted to 3 by
optimal performance.15 Din et al. used unripe BP for the repeated water washing followed by centrifugation at 6000g. In
development of cellulose nanofibers which was later used for the next step, the suspension was kept for dialysis for 5−6 days
the development of a bio-based nanocomposite packaging film. in distilled water to achieve pH of 5. Finally, the suspension
The result showed that these films have good tensile strength obtained was spray-dried and the powder was stored in the
and could be used for food packaging due to their properties refrigerator for further use.
such as biocompatibility, biodegradability, and non-toxic-
ity.16,17 3. CHARACTERIZATION
Agricultural waste is commonly used for developing BPP and spray-dried BPNCC were characterized by using
nanocrystalline cellulose (NCC) and then functionalized by different techniques such as differential scanning calorimetry,
various modifications. To date, NCC has been explored for thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), attenuated total reflection
various biomedical applications. It is used for enzyme (ATR)−Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), and X-ray
immobilization, in wound dressing, tissue engineering, bio diffraction (XRD). The morphology of BPNCC was
sensing, bio imaging, and for drug delivery.18 Apart from investigated by using field emission scanning electron
medical uses, it is also used for waste water management, as a microscopy (FESEM) and transmission electron microscopy
packaging material, in supercapacitors and conductive films. (TEM).
NCC also works as a rheological modifier, Pickering emulsion 3.1. NCC Yield Calculation. The NCC yield % was
stabilizer and in free radical scavenging.19,20 Conversion of calculated using the formula given below
agricultural waste into NCC opens a lot of ways for utilization
of waste in the best possible manner. This study aims to yield(%) = M1/M 2 × 100
prepare NCC from BP powder (BPP) by alkali and bleaching where, M1 = initial total weight of BPP. M2 = dried weight of
treatment, followed by acid hydrolysis. NCC samples.
3.2. ATR−FTIR Spectroscopy. BPP and NCC samples
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS were analyzed using an ATR−FTIR spectrometer (Model:
2.1. Materials. The BP used for the preparation were PerkinElmer 1600) to determine the functional groups of each
collected from the local juice center and fruit sellers from Vile sample in the range of 500−4000 cm−1 with a resolution of 4
Parle West, Mumbai, India. The collected BP were cut into cm−1.
small pieces. Dewaxing of small pieces of BP was carried out by 3.3. Morphological Features and Particle Size
using Soxhlet extraction with acetone as the solvent. After the Analysis. 3.3.1. Particle Size and Zeta Potential Analysis.
treatment, BP were dried at room temperature for 6 h and then The particle size and zeta potential of NCC measurements
kept in the oven at 50 °C for 1 week. Dried peels were were determined using the Malvern Zeta sizer (Nano ZS
collected and pulverized by using a cutter mill and jet mill. The Analyser). The NCC was diluted 100 times with DI water and
powder was termed BPP and stored for future use. The average sonicated for 15 min before measurement. All the measure-
particle size of BPP was approx. 10−15 μ. ments were taken in triplicate.
Sodium hydroxide was used for alkali treatment. Sodium 3.3.2. Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopic
hypochlorite was used as the bleaching agent and sulfuric acid Analysis. FESEM analysis was used to observe the
was used for acid hydrolysis. Analytical grade sodium morphological changes in NCC samples using FESEM
hydroxide, sodium hypochlorite, and sulfuric acid were (JEOL JSM-7000F) operated at an accelerated voltage of
procured from Research-lab Chemical Corporation. The 10−20 kV. Before the FESEM analysis was carried out,
dialysis tube having a molecular cut-off between 12 and 14 aluminum stubs were used to mount the samples with carbon
kD was purchased from HiMedia. tapes and sprayed with platinum coating to avoid overcharging.
2.2. Preparation of NCC from BPP. 2.2.1. Alkali The sample surface was coated with gold under vacuum before
Treatment. The BPP was treated with 5% w/v NaOH at analysis. Energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX) diffraction was used
1:50 solid to liquid ratio for removing lignin and hemicellulose. for estimating the chemical composition of NCCs.21
NaOH solution was taken in a beaker and then BPP was 3.3.3. Transmission Electron Microscopic Analysis. The
added. The solution was kept for stirring at 40 °C for 4 h at morphology of NCC was examined using TEM. For TEM
500 rpm. The solution was filtered and the filter cake observation, a drop of 10 μL diluted NCC suspension was
(remaining solid) was washed several times with deionized deposited on the copper grid and excess liquid was removed by
1141 https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.2c06571
ACS Omega 2023, 8, 1140−1145
ACS Omega http://pubs.acs.org/journal/acsodf Article

Figure 1. (A)�SEM Image of BPP, (B) SEM image of NCC, and (C) TEM image of NCC.

blotting it with filter paper after a minute and allowed to dry in NCC due to the reorientation of the crystal lattice.31 An
for 15 min. 1% wt phosphotungstic acid in water was used for intense peak observed at 1453 cm−1 in NCC is known as the
the negative staining of the sample. Various particles (n = 25) crystallinity band which showed increased crystallinity degree.
were observed for the determination of average length and These results showed that the structure of NCC was intact
diameter of the NCCs. after the hydrolysis process.32
3.4. Thermal Analysis. About 7 mg of spray-dried NCC 4.3. Particle Size Analysis and Morphological Inves-
and BPP were weighed for TGA. A differential scanning tigation. 4.3.1. Particle Size Analysis of NCC. The particle
calorimeter was used for recording the thermal behavior of size of NCC was measured in triplicate by diluting the NCC
BPP and NCC. Thermogravimetric and derivative TGA were suspension with water. The particle size of NCC was found to
performed from the temperature range 30−900 °C at 20 °C be 209 nm and the zeta potential was −43 mV which showed
min−1 heating rate under a nitrogen gas flowing condition. good stability of the NCC suspension.
3.5. XRD Analysis. The characterization of the degree of 4.3.2. Morphological Investigation. The visual evaluation
crystallinity of the spray-dried NCC sample was calculated by of different stages of manufacturing process was compared
using a Shimadzu XRD-6000 X-ray diffractometer. It was based on changes in the color. BPP was a brown color powder
operated at a voltage of 30 kV and current of 30 mA with a during alkaline treatment solution which initially changed to
scanning range from 5 to 60° at a scanning speed of 2 °C/min. dark brown color and then into light yellow color during
The crystallinity index was calculated using bleaching. After bleaching it is converted into pure white color
crystallinity index, CrI(%) = (I200 Iam)/I200 which is due to the removal of wax, hemicellulose, lignin, and
pectin.25
where I200 = crystalline peak corresponding to the intensity at Microscopic evaluation, FESEM, and TEM images (Figure
approximately 22.8°. Iam = amorphous peak corresponding to 1) of NCC showed needle-shaped crystals with a smooth
the intensity at approximately 19.0°. surface compared to BPP images. The diameter and length of
NCCs were found to be 16.35 ± 4.8 and 181.65 ± 24.4 nm,
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION respectively. Similar kinds of NCC shapes reported literature
4.1. NCC % Yield. The isolated NCC yield was found to be are listed in Table 1.
29.9%. The results were compared with previously published
literature. The study was carried out by Wickramasinghe et al. Table 1. Dimensions of Extracted NCC Particle
by extracting NCC from Sri Lankan agricultural waste by acid extraction
hydrolysis technique and the reported yield was 29%.22 Ojumu materials method length & diameter references
et al. prepared NCC from cocoa pod husk (CPH) biomass NCC from acid 250 nm and 12 nm diameter 26
waste by acid hydrolysis which showed a yield of 25%.23 Khan calotropis hydrolysis
et al. prepared NCC from conocarpus fiber by using the acid procera
biomass
hydrolysis technique with maximum yield which is 19%.24
NCC from rice acid 200 nm and 15−20 nm 27
4.2. ATR−FTIR Spectroscopy. Infrared spectroscopy in husk hydrolysis
attenuated total reflectance mode (ATR FT-IR) of BPP and NCC from CPH acid 41−155 nm and 10−60 nm 23
NCC (Figure 3) showed a broad peak located in the range of hydrolysis
3450−3300 cm−1 which was observed in both the spectra is
representative of O−H bond stretching. Compared to BPP, at Elemental analysis was conducted by using energy-dispersive
3347 cm−1 intense peak was observed in NCC due to XRD attached with FE-SEM. As shown in Figure 2, the EDX
hydrolysis which reflects hydrophilic properties. The peaks spectrum showed peaks for carbon and oxygen corresponding
observed at 2919 and 2850 cm−1 in NCC were due to the to their binding energies, respectively. The main components
stretching of H groups and aliphatic saturated C−H, of NCCs are shown in Table 2 such as carbon (C K�41.67%)
respectively. In BPP, the peaks observed in the range of and oxygen (O K −58.33%). The other peaks are
1700−1450 cm−1 are assigned to the C�O stretching, C�C corresponding to the impurities which are basically due to
vibration of aromatic skeleton that shows the presence of the sulfate groups present on the surface remaining after the
aldehyde, carboxylic acid, and ketone in hemicellulose and dialysis of NCCs.
lignin.28−30 This peak is absent in NCC due to the total 4.4. Thermal Properties. Thermal analysis of BPP and
removal of lignin and hemicellulose. In both, the spectra of NCC was performed to check the thermal stability of the
sharp and narrow bonds at 1058 cm−1 showed higher cellulose compound. Substantial weight losses for both the materials are
content due to C−O−C pyranose ring vibration. Slight observed in Figure 4. DTG of the BPP sample showed three
changes in intensities were observed at 1452 and 1333 cm−1 main regions of weight loss. The first degradation showed an
1142 https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.2c06571
ACS Omega 2023, 8, 1140−1145
ACS Omega http://pubs.acs.org/journal/acsodf Article

temperature around 400−700 °C in BPP. This high residue

showed a char fraction of BPP due to the presence of lignin
and ash. A similar kind of thermogram has also been reported
about the NCC prepared from rice husk which indicates high
residue.27 The two-step degradation in NCC was observed due
to a higher degree of sulfonation during hydrolysis which was
also indicated by the negative zeta potential of these materials.
This thermal degradation is assigned to the removal of the
sulfate group and further decomposition of cellulose. It can be
seen in the thermogram of NCC that acid hydrolysis increases
the char fraction, which is due to the introduction of the
sulfated group after hydrolysis.36
4.5. X-ray Diffraction. XRD analysis was performed to
Figure 2. Energy-dispersive XRD spectrum of NCC. evaluate the crystallinity of BPP and NCC, as shown in Figure
5. The XRD showed a typical cellulose Iβ structure exhibiting
Table 2. Elemental Compositions of NCC Obtained by EDX peaks around 16.1° (Plane 110), 22.8° (Plane 200), and 34.9°
Element Weight (%) Atomic (%) (Plane 004).37,38 The crystallinity index obtained for NCC was
62.18% which also displayed the strongest and highest peak at
element weight (%) atomic (%) 2θ = 19 and 22.2°. The increased crystallinity is due to the
CK 41.67 48.76 removal of lignin and hemicellulose after hydrolysis which
OK 58.33 51.24 caused the realignment of cellulose. During hydrolysis, the
hydronium ion penetrates and promotes hydrolytic cleavage of
β-1, 4-glucopyranose bonds which make it more crystalline. It
initial weight loss below 100 °C indicated vaporization of was expected that an increase in crystallinity will also increase
absorbed moisture contributing to the hydrophilic character of stiffness, rigidity, and therefore the strength of NCC.27,28,39
the lignocellulose fibers. The second degradation at 278 °C,
showed a sharp weight drop due to the decomposition of the
glycosyl unit present in cellulose fiber, indicating the presence 5. CONCLUSIONS
of hemicellulose in the chemical composition of the BPP Extraction of NCC from BPP was successfully performed by
powder.33,34 The third degradation is around 440 °C which is classic treatments involving alkali, bleaching, and acid
probably due to higher thermal resistance of lignin content. hydrolysis technique. ATR−FTIR spectra showed that hemi-
Lignin basically used as a filler which is linked to cellulose cellulose and lignin were efficiently removed from BPP.
through covalent bond helping in making cellulose denser and Morphological investigation and XRD also confirmed the
more stable thermally. In the NCC DTG thermogram, no extra removal of non-cellulosic materials. The increased crystallinity
peak was observed after 400 °C which indicated successful index shows the removal of the amorphous part from cellulose
removal of lignin content after the hydrolysis. In the case of and confirmed the formation of the crystalline structure. Acid
NCC, where a single and major degradation peak was observed hydrolysis is the most cost effective process for the production
at 270 °C, a similar kind of NCC thermogram was also of NCC and it is easily practicable in industries. The process
observed by Kusmono et al.35 As it can be seen, the amount of mentioned in the paper can be easily integrated into the
residue was high which is in the range of 10−40% at a existing process practiced by industry as the step involved

Figure 3. FTIR spectra of NCC and BPP.

1143 https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.2c06571
ACS Omega 2023, 8, 1140−1145
ACS Omega http://pubs.acs.org/journal/acsodf Article

Figure 4. TGA and DTG curves of BPP (left) and NCC (right).

Notes
The authors declare no competing financial interest.

■ ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Authors would like to thank SAIF, IIT Bombay for sample
analysis.

■ REFERENCES
(1) Kupnik, K.; Primožič, M.; Kokol, V.; Leitgeb, M. Nanocellulose
in Drug Delivery and Antimicrobially Active Materials. Polymers 2020,
12, 2825.
(2) Pathak, P. D.; Mandavgane, S. A.; Kulkarni, B. D. Fruit Peel
Waste: Characterization and Its Potential Uses. Curr. Sci. 2017, 113,
Figure 5. X-ray diffractogram of BPP and NCC. 444−454.
(3) Głąbska, D.; Guzek, D.; Groele, B.; Gutkowska, K. Fruit and
Vegetable Intake and Mental Health in Adults: A Systematic Review.
Nutrients 2020, 12, 115.
requires minimum use of chemicals. Extracted nanocrystalline (4) Acevedo, S. A.; Carrillo, Á . J. D.; Flórez-López, E.; Grande-
cellulose can be used as tablet excipient for oral delivery, as a Tovar, C. D. Recovery of Banana Waste-Loss from Production and
main component for the nanocomposite film due to its good Processing: A Contribution to a Circular Economy. Molecules 2021,
tensile strength, and as a conductive film in biosensors. Hence, 26, 5282.
(5) Voora, V.; Larrea, C.; Bermudez, S.Global Market Report:
the BP waste could be used as a good alternative for Bananas sustainable commodities marketplace series, 2019.
manufacturing NCC in the future. (6) Axelos, M. A. V.; Voorde, M. H.; van de Marcel,

■ AUTHOR INFORMATION
Corresponding Author
H.Nanotechnology in Agriculture and Food Science; Wiley-VCH, 2017.
(7) Saravanan, N.; Sampath, P. S.; Sukantha, T. A. Extraction and
Characterization of New Cellulose Fiber from the Agrowaste of
Bala Prabhakar − Shobhaben Pratapbhai Patel School of Lagenaria Siceraria (Bottle Guard) Plant. J. Adv. Chem. 2016, 12,
4382−4388.
Pharmacy & Technology Management, SVKM’s NMIMS,
(8) Ibrahim, M. M.; El-Zawawy, W. K.; Jüttke, Y.; Koschella, A.;
Vile Parle (W), Mumbai 400056, India; orcid.org/0000- Heinze, T. Cellulose and Microcrystalline Cellulose from Rice Straw
0001-7356-4649; Email: [email protected] and Banana Plant Waste: Preparation and Characterization. Cellulose
2013, 20, 2403−2416.
Authors (9) Padam, B. S.; Tin, H. S.; Chye, F. Y.; Abdullah, M. I. Banana By-
Shweta Mishra − Shobhaben Pratapbhai Patel School of Products: An under-Utilized Renewable Food Biomass with Great
Pharmacy & Technology Management, SVKM’s NMIMS, Potential. J. Food Sci. Technol. 2014, 51, 3527−3545.
Vile Parle (W), Mumbai 400056, India (10) Lu, P.; Hsieh, Y. L. Cellulose Isolation and Core-Shell
Prashant S. Kharkar − Department of Pharmaceutical Nanostructures of Cellulose Nanocrystals from Chardonnay Grape
Sciences, Institute of Chemical Technology, Matunga, Skins. Carbohydr. Polym. 2012, 87, 2546−2553.
Mumbai 400019, India; orcid.org/0000-0003-1955- (11) García, A.; Labidi, J.; Belgacem, M. N.; Bras, J. The
7223 Nanocellulose Biorefinery: Woody versus Herbaceous Agricultural
Anil M. Pethe − Datta Meghe Institute of Medical Sciences, Wastes for NCC Production. Cellulose 2017, 24, 693−704.
Wardha, Maharashtra 442004, India (12) Mishra, S.; Kharkar, P. S.; Pethe, A. M. Biomass and Waste
Materials as Potential Sources of Nanocrystalline Cellulose:
Complete contact information is available at: Comparative Review of Preparation Methods (2016 − Till Date).
https://pubs.acs.org/10.1021/acsomega.2c06571 Carbohydr. Polym. 2019, 207, 418−427.

1144 https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.2c06571
ACS Omega 2023, 8, 1140−1145
ACS Omega http://pubs.acs.org/journal/acsodf Article

(13) Faradilla, R. H. F.; Lee, G.; Rawal, A.; Hutomo, T.; Stenzel, M. (31) Kian, L. K.; Jawaid, M.; Ariffin, H.; Karim, Z. Isolation and
H.; Arcot, J. Nanocellulose Characteristics from the Inner and Outer Characterization of Nanocrystalline Cellulose from Roselle-Derived
Layer of Banana Pseudo-Stem Prepared by TEMPO-Mediated Microcrystalline Cellulose. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2018, 114, 54−63.
Oxidation. Cellulose 2016, 23, 3023−3037. (32) Zeni, M.; Favero, D. Preparation of Microcellulose (Mcc) and
(14) Harini, K.; Ramya, K.; Sukumar, M. Extraction of Nano Nanocellulose (Ncc) from Eucalyptus Kraft Ssp Pulp. Polym. Sci.
Cellulose Fibers from the Banana Peel and Bract for Production of 2016, 1, 1−5.
Acetyl and Lauroyl Cellulose. Carbohydr. Polym. 2018, 201, 329−339. (33) Chen, L.; Reddy, N.; Wu, X.; Yang, Y. Thermoplastic Films
(15) Sijabat, E. K.; Nuruddin, A.; Aditiawati, P.; Purwasasmita, B. S. from Wheat Proteins. Ind. Crops Prod. 2012, 35, 70−76.
S. Flat Sheet Membrane Composite for Desalinisation Applications (34) Vinayaka, D. L.; Guna, V.; Reddy, N. Ricinus Communis Plant
Based on Bacterial Nanocellulose (BNC) from Banana Peel Waste, Residues as a Source for Natural Cellulose Fibers Potentially
Cellulose, and Silica. Mater. Res. Express 2020, 7, 105004. Exploitable in Polymer Composites. Ind. Crops Prod. 2017, 100,
(16) Ahmad, K.; Din, Z.; Ullah, H.; Ouyang, Q.; Rani, S.; Jan, I.; 126−131.
Alam, M.; Rahman, Z.; Kamal, T.; Ali, S.; Khan, S. A.; Shahwar, D.; (35) Kusmono, R. F.; Listyanda, M. W.; Wildan, M. N.; Ilman, M. N.
Gul, F.; Ibrahim, M.; Nawaz, T. Preparation and Characterization of Heliyon Preparation and Characterization of Cellulose Nanocrystal
Bio-Based Nanocomposites Packaging Films Reinforced with Extracted from Ramie Fi Bers by Sulfuric Acid Hydrolysis. Heliyon
Cellulose Nanofibers from Unripe Banana Peels. Starch�Stärke 2020, 6, No. e05486.
2022, 74, 2100283. (36) Chen, X. Q.; Pang, G. X.; Shen, W. H.; Tong, X.; Jia, M. Y.
(17) Pelissari, F. M.; Andrade-Mahecha, M. M.; Sobral, P. J.; Preparation and Characterization of the Ribbon-like Cellulose
Menegalli, F. C. Nanocomposites Based on Banana Starch Reinforced Nanocrystals by the Cellulase Enzymolysis of Cotton Pulp Fibers.
Carbohydr. Polym. 2019, 207, 713−719.
with Cellulose Nanofibers Isolated from Banana Peels. J. Colloid
(37) Nam, S.; French, A. D.; Condon, B. D.; Concha, M. Segal
Interface Sci. 2017, 505, 154−167.
Crystallinity Index Revisited by the Simulation of X-Ray Diffraction
(18) Lam, E.; Male, K. B.; Chong, J. H.; Leung, A. C. W.; Luong, J.
Patterns of Cotton Cellulose Iβ and Cellulose II. Carbohydr. Polym.
H. T. Applications of Functionalized and Nanoparticle-Modified
2016, 135, 1−9.
Nanocrystalline Cellulose. Trends Biotechnol. 2012, 30, 283−290. (38) French, A. D.; Cintrón, M. S. Cellulose Polymorphy, Crystallite
(19) Tritt-Goc, J.; Jankowska, I.; Pogorzelec-Glaser, K.; Pankiewicz, Size, and the Segal Crystallinity Index. Cellulose 2013, 20, 583−588.
R.; Ławniczak, P. Imidazole-Doped Nanocrystalline Cellulose Solid (39) Lin, N.; Huang, J.; Chang, P. R.; Feng, L.; Yu, J. Effect of
Proton Conductor: Synthesis, Thermal Properties, and Conductivity. Polysaccharide Nanocrystals on Structure, Properties, and Drug
Cellulose 2018, 25, 281−291. Release Kinetics of Alginate-Based Microspheres. Colloids Surf., B
(20) Zaid, M. H. M.; Abdullah, J.; Yusof, N. A.; Wasoh, H.; 2011, 85, 270−279.
Sulaiman, Y.; Noh, M. F. M.; Issa, R. Reduced Graphene Oxide/
TEMPO-Nanocellulose Nanohybrid-Based Electrochemical Biosensor
for the Determination of Mycobacterium Tuberculosis. J. Sens. 2020,
2020, 4051474.
(21) Lee, S. Y.; Mohan, D. J.; Kang, I. A.; Doh, G. H.; Lee, S.; Han,
S. O. Nanocellulose Reinforced PVA Composite Films: Effects of
Acid Treatment and Filler Loading. Fibers Polym. 2009, 10, 77−82.
(22) Wickaramasinghe, W. A. W. I. C.; Lasitha, D. S.; Samarasekara,
Recommended by ACS
A. M. P.; Amarasinghe, D. A. S.; Karunanayake, L.Extraction and
Characterization of Nano Crystalline Cellulose (NCC) from Sri Evaluating the Impact of Cellulose Extraction via Traditional
Lankan Agricultural Waste. MERCon 2019�Proceedings, 5th Interna- and Ionosolv Pretreatments from Domestic Matchstick
tional Multidisciplinary Moratuwa Engineering Research Conference; Waste on the Properties of Carboxymethyl Cel...
IEEE, 2019; pp 616−620. Maida Akhlaq and Maliha Uroos
(23) Akinjokun, A. I.; Petrik, L. F.; Ogunfowokan, A. O.; Ajao, J.; FEBRUARY 21, 2023
Ojumu, T. V. Isolation and Characterization of Nanocrystalline ACS OMEGA READ
Cellulose from Cocoa Pod Husk (CPH) Biomass Wastes. Heliyon
2021, 7, No. e06680. Pine Needles as a Biomass Resource for Phenolic
(24) Rasheed, M.; Jawaid, M.; Parveez, B.; Zuriyati, A.; Khan, A. Compounds: Trade-Off between Efficiency and
Morphological, Chemical and Thermal Analysis of Cellulose Nano- Sustainability of the Extraction Methods by Life Cycle Ass...
crystals Extracted from Bamboo Fibre. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2020,
160, 183−191. Martina Salzano de Luna, Veronica Ambrogi, et al.
(25) Johar, N.; Ahmad, I.; Dufresne, A. Extraction, Preparation and MARCH 14, 2023
ACS SUSTAINABLE CHEMISTRY & ENGINEERING READ
Characterization of Cellulose Fibres and Nanocrystals from Rice
Husk. Ind. Crops Prod. 2012, 37, 93−99.
(26) Song, K.; Zhu, X.; Zhu, W.; Li, X. Preparation and Lignin Nanoparticles with High Phenolic Content as Efficient
Characterization of Cellulose Nanocrystal Extracted from Calotropis Antioxidant and Sun-Blocker for Food and Cosmetics
Procera Biomass. Bioresour. Bioprocess. 2019, 6, 45. Hainan Yu, Zhiping Mao, et al.
(27) Johar, N.; Ahmad, I.; Dufresne, A. Extraction, Preparation and FEBRUARY 28, 2023
Characterization of Cellulose Fibres and Nanocrystals from Rice ACS SUSTAINABLE CHEMISTRY & ENGINEERING READ
Husk. Ind. Crops Prod. 2012, 37, 93−99.
(28) Alemdar, A.; Sain, M. Isolation and Characterization of
Sourcing Shikimic Acid from Waste Streams of Ginkgo
Nanofibers from Agricultural Residues - Wheat Straw and Soy Hulls.
biloba Leaf Extract Production
Bioresour. Technol. 2008, 99, 1664−1671.
(29) Sun, X. F.; Xu, F.; Sun, R. C.; Fowler, P.; Baird, M. S. Žarko Kulić, Andreas Butterer, et al.
Characteristics of Degraded Cellulose Obtained from Steam-Exploded MARCH 22, 2023

Wheat Straw. Carbohydr. Res. 2005, 340, 97−106. ACS SUSTAINABLE CHEMISTRY & ENGINEERING READ
(30) Sain, M.; Panthapulakkal, S. Bioprocess Preparation of Wheat
Get More Suggestions >
Straw Fibers and Their Characterization. Ind. Crops Prod. 2006, 23,
1−8.

1145 https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.2c06571
ACS Omega 2023, 8, 1140−1145