Scribd
Upload
25 views9 pages

Module 4 - Scientific Reasoning

Uploaded by

lucy
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
25 views9 pages

Module 4 - Scientific Reasoning

Uploaded by

lucy
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 9

Module 4 - Scientific Reasoning, Strategic Reasoning and Creativity

Module Outline

• Standard methods of scientific reasoning

• Some principles of confirmation and disconfirmation

• Techniques for problem solving

• Representing complex problems visually making decisions in risky and uncertain


scenarios

• Creative thinking in general

Overview of Scientific Research

• Main Components:

 Theories: Hypotheses, laws, facts.


 The World: Objects, processes, properties.
 Explanations and Predictions: Theory- driven insights.
 Data (Evidence): Observational and experimental information.

Common Misconceptions about Science

1. Science Proves Nothing: Evidence, not absolute certainty.

 Example: Jumping from an airplane

2. Understanding Theories: "Just a theory" misconception.

Scientific theories are well- supported not mere guesses.


The Hypothetical-Deductive Method (HD Method)

Stages:

 Identify the hypothesis to be tested.


 Generate predictions from the hypothesis.
 Use experiments to check predictions.
 Confirm or disconfirm the hypothesis.

Example of HD Method

Scenario: Music player not turning on

 Hypothesis: Batteries are dead.


 Prediction: Player will work with new batteries.
 Experiment: Replace batteries.
 Outcome: Confirm or disconfirm the hypothesis.

Criteria for Evaluating Theories

1. Consistency with Observations

2. Predictive Power

3. Mechanism

4. Fruitfulness

5. Simplicity

6. Coherence
Criteria for Evaluating Theories

1. Consistency with Observations:

• Definition: Theories should align with established facts and observations.

• Key Consideration: Reject theories incompatible with reliable observations.

2. Predictive Power

• Importance: Theories must generate testable predictions.

• Evaluation Factors:

 Quantity of predictions.
 Accuracy and precision.
 Range of phenomena covered.

3. Mechanism:

• Definition: Theories should explain causal connections between events.

• Key Consideration: Reveals underlying mechanisms to generate additional


predictions.

4. Fruitfulness:

• Concept: A theory should lead to surprising, correct predictions.

• Outcome: Helps identify connections that may have been overlooked

5. Simplicity:

• Definition: Preference for theories with fewer assumptions and entities.

• Principle: Simplicity often leads to a clearer understanding of phenomena.

6. Coherence:

• Internal Coherence: Theories must be logically consistent.


• External Coherence: Theories should align with well-confirmed scientific
knowledge.

• Consideration: Extraordinary claims need strong evidence if incompatible with


existing theories.

Strategic Reasoning and Creativity

 Strategic Reasoning and Creativity Strategic reasoning, problem-solving,


and creative thinking all rely on an ineffable component of novelty supplied
by the thinker
 Despite their seemingly mystical nature, these processes are best
approached by following tried and tested procedures.
 Such procedures prompt our cognitive faculties to produce new ideas and
solutions by extending our existing knowledge.

Classifying Problems

 DEFINING THE PROBLEM


 PROBLEM CLASSIFICATION
 MIXED QUESTIONS

Defining the Problem

• Formulation influences solution direction.

• Aim for specificity in goal setting.

• Validate whether the problem is real with data.

• Example Scenario:
 Relationship issue: "Why is she leaving me?" vs. "What have I been doing
wrong?"
 Business context: "Why is my competitor thriving?" vs. "How can my
company adapt?"

Problem Classification

1. Empirical Questions:

• Definition: Concern factual events or causal processes.

• Examples:

 Who is the current president?


 What percentage of the population is left-handed?

• Answering: Requires observations, experiments, or expert insights.

2. Conceptual Questions:

• Definition: Focus on logic and meanings of concepts.

1. Examples:

 Is rule of law sufficient for democracy?


 Are there married bachelors?

• Answering: Relies on reasoning and conceptual analysis

3. Evaluative Questions:

• Definition: Invoke values and norms; related to moral or aesthetic judgments.

• Examples:
 Should unemployment benefits be raised?
 Should the voting age be lowered to 16?

Understanding Values: Distinguish between intrinsic and instrumental values

Mixed Questions

• Conceptual Questions as Foundation:

• Empirical and evaluative questions depend on understanding concepts.

• Example:

 How do social media platforms influence mental health among teenagers?


 Is it ethical to use surveillance cameras for public safety?

Solving Problems

• According to George Pólya, most problem-solving strategies can be classified


under four general principles:

1. Understand the nature of the problem.

2. Draw up a plan to solve the problem.

3. Try out the plan.

4. Monitor the outcome of the plan.

Step 1: Understand the Nature of the Problem

 Is the problem well-defined?


 Can it be broken down into smaller sub- problems?
 What type of problem is it?
 Gather relevant information
 Review past experiences and lessons learned
 Identify constraints (time, money, resources)

Step 2: Draw Up a Plan

 Determine time and resources needed


 Conduct necessary preparations (research, coordination)
 Write down the plan systematically for complex problems

Step 3: Try Out the Plan

 Monitor progress to ensure adherence to the plan


 Record errors and special considerations for future reference

Step 4: Monitor the Outcome of the Plan

 Importance of reviewing past experiences


 Analyze successes and failures
 Learn from the process to improve future problem-solving

Creativity

 Creativity is essential for problem-solving in everyday life.


 Common misconception: Creativity is only for artists and scientists.
 Creativity involves both spectacular and modest acts of reasoning.

Three Basic Principles of Creative Thinking

Principle One: New Ideas are Composed of Old Elements

 Creativity involves rearranging old ideas to form new ones.


 Encourages deviation from the ordinary and traditional.
 Importance of intellectual curiosity and a wide knowledge base.
 Example: Mobile phone combines telephone and wireless technology.

Principle Two: Not All New Ideas are on a Par

 Creativity includes both cognitive and artistic aspects.


 Cognitive creativity: Solving practical/theoretical problems.
 Evaluation of new ideas is crucial; good critical thinking enhances creativity.
 Balance between generating ideas and critical evaluation is necessary.

Principle Three: Detecting Connections among Ideas

 Creativity thrives on seeing connections across different domains.


 Example: Speedo’s Fastskin swimsuits inspired by sharkskin design.
 Creative thinkers have a wide knowledge base and explore various subjects.
 Deep understanding of connections enhances innovative thinking.

The Creativity Cycle

Step 1 – Research

 Start with thorough research to gather relevant information.


 Key activities:
 Obtain literature and expert opinions.
 Study the history of the problem.
 Conduct case studies.
 Think about analogous situations.
 Engage with involved individuals.
 Emphasize collecting information without worrying about immediate
relevance.
Step 2 - Explore the Connections among Ideas

 Reflect on gathered data to identify important pieces.


 Look for connections between different ideas.
 Use insights from one field to solve problems in another.
 The importance of ranking and organizing information.

Step 3 - Relax and Wait

 Creativity often arises during periods of relaxation.


 Allow ideas to percolate in the subconscious.
 Engage in relaxing activities to stimulate the mind.
 Importance of stepping back to let relevant ideas surface.

Step 4 - Apply, Review, and Follow Up

 Examine and implement the best ideas.


 Consider ways to improve these ideas.
 Review the entire process for future enhancements.

You might also like