New 1

Journal of Manufacturing Processes 64 (2021) 161–187
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Journal of Manufacturing Processes

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/manpro
Review
Selective laser melting of Ti6Al4V alloy: Process parameters, defects and

post-treatments
Anil Kumar Singla a, Mainak Banerjee a, Aman Sharma a, Jagtar Singh a, Anuj Bansal a,
Munish Kumar Gupta b, *, Navneet Khanna c, A.S. Shahi a, Deepak Kumar Goyal d
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, SLIET, Longowal, 148106, Punjab, India
b
Key Laboratory of High Efficiency and Clean Mechanical Manufacture, Ministry of Education, School of Mechanical Engineering, Shandong University, PR China
c
Advanced Manufacturing Laboratory, Institute of Infrastructure Technology, Research and Management, Ahmedabad, 380026, India
d
Mechanical Engineering Department, IK Gujral Punjab Technical University, Main Campus, Kapurthala, Punjab, India
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Selective laser melting (SLM) has received huge attention recently by the research community due to feasibility
Additive manufacturing of realization of tailored intricate metallic structures having applications in biomedical, aviation and energy
Ti6Al4V industries. SLM of Ti6Al4 V is found to be one of the most demandable and potential area. Present work is aimed
Selective laser melting
for critical review of noteworthy contributions in terms of SLM process parameters, defects and various post
Parameters
Defect
processing techniques considered by various researchers. Proper selection of process parameters can arrest the
Post-processing tendency of defect generation and appropriate post treatment results in improvement in mechanical behavior in
comparison with as-built SLMed Ti6Al4 V components. Efforts have been made to identify correlations between
SLM parameters, specially scan speed, laser power, hatch spacing and layer thickness, with prominent defects.
Different post processing approaches considered by important research studies have been extensively analyzed
and their impact on defects and mechanical behavior especially fatigue performance and biocompatibility of
SLM-fabricated Ti6Al4 V alloy is revealed. Many remedies have been identified in the form of optimization of
process parameters and post processing techniques. The outcomes of work have clearly facilitated in developing
a better scientific understanding of SLMed Ti6Al4V alloy and have also opened many dimensions for future
investigations.
including tissue engineering, cardiac simulator, intraocular lenses and

stents also [3]. To improve human life quality through curing diseases
1. Introduction
and repairing damaged body-parts, it is used either for replacement or
supporting physiological pursuance. Still, the alloy needs some tribo
Titanium alloys, being most prevalent metal alloys, having pro
logical and fatigue property improvement for better suit as load-bearing
longed bio-compatibility and high fracture toughness find its worldwide
bio-implant (total hip and knee replacement) [4].
applications in bio-medical and aviation sectors [1]. Mostly used tita
Nevertheless, low thermal conductivity of this alloy has turned it out
nium alloys include Ti6Al4 V (ASTM grade-5) for its promising
to be designated as a hard-to-machine material. Also, there are intense
strength-to-weight ratio and excellent corrosion resistance. Ti6Al4 V ELI
challenges in refining, casting, forging and rolling of primary material as
(ASTM grade-23), denominated as extra low interstitials, has emerged
the end products become comparatively more expensive than steel or
with improved ductility and fracture toughness containing reduced
aluminum. These conventional manufacturing techniques indulge sub
levels of oxygen, nitrogen, carbon and hydrogen. Since 1950, this
stantial amount of material waste, long lead time and high
light-weight alloy dominates aerospace industry for its suitability in
manufacturing cost [1]. As a solution to this challenging scenario, rapid
designing heavily loaded airframe structures, jet engines, gas turbines
prototyping (RP) system commercialized in the world in 1987 [5]. In
etc. [1]. Other major applications are in prosthetic implants (e.g.,
comparison to subtractive manufacturing techniques, additive
shoulder, elbow replacement), orthopedic [2] and dental implant units
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (A.K. Singla), [email protected] (M. Banerjee), [email protected] (A. Sharma), jagtarsliet@gmail.
com (J. Singh), [email protected] (A. Bansal), [email protected], [email protected] (M.K. Gupta), [email protected]
(N. Khanna), [email protected] (A.S. Shahi), [email protected] (D.K. Goyal).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2021.01.009
Received 8 July 2020; Received in revised form 13 November 2020; Accepted 11 January 2021
Available online 28 January 2021
1526-6125/© 2021 The Society of Manufacturing Engineers. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
A.K. Singla et al. Journal of Manufacturing Processes 64 (2021) 161–187
Nomenclature HCF high cycle fatigue

HIP hot isostatic pressing
3D three-dimensional LCF low cycle fatigue
AM additive manufacturing MRI magnetic resonance imaging
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials LMD laser melting deposition
CAD computer aided design PBF powder bed fusion
CP commercially pure RP rapid prototyping
CT scan computerized tomography SLM selective laser melting, often termed laser beam melting
DED direct energy deposition, often termed laser melting (LBM)
deposition (LMD) SLS selective laser sintering
DMLS direct metal laser sintering Ti titanium
EBM electron beam melting UTS ultimate tensile strength
ELI extra low interstitials VHCF very high cycle fatigue
GA genetic algorithm YS yield strength
manufacturing (AM) is based on layer-by-layer rapid material build-up.

Fig. 1 provides a fundamental outline of the four basic steps to this novel
technique for effective understanding of basic process work flow.
Commercial and conventional intricate customized shapes can be
modeled on-site in a single step from a digital system (3D CAD, MRI and
CT scans), widely optimizing spare inventory of critical components
based on demand.
To make RP more commercialized and industrialized worldwide at
the beginning of 21st century, remarkable evolution has taken place
with divergent technologies. Based on that approach, it can be broadly
classified according to working principle, feedstock material, layer
building mechanism and in-operation energy sources. This technology
uses liquid, wire/paste, powder or sometimes solid sheets (in Sheet
Lamination Process) as the feed-stock material. Layer scanning strategy
is mostly based on direction and/or angle of formation of a layer in
comparison to the preceding one. To conduct the metal AM operation,
the mostly used energy sources are laser and electron beam; also, electric
arc is used for wire-based deposition in WAAM (wire and arc AM) pro
cess. The novel idea of metal AM expedites the production of hard-to-
manufacture structural shapes and critical medical implants. Common
AM metals, usually processed in pulverized state, include Ti and Al al Fig. 2. Powder based AM Methods as per ASTM F2792.
loys, steel, Ni-based super-alloys and CoCr [6–9]. ASTM F2792 cate
gories the powder-based AM process into two broad groups, as manipulations [5]. Sometimes electric arc or ultrasonic vibration also
nominated through Fig. 2. acts as the energy source. Powder bed here acts like the natural support
Present matured three-dimensional (3D) printing technology in and heat dissipater; as excess powder encases the build itself, though it
cludes powder bed fusion (PBF), comprising thermal energy for melting faces little difficulty for hollow parts to escape the loose powder through
and fusion of fine powders. During metallic printing operation, Laser or some pre-defined hole(s). Also, maximum unmelted excess metal pow
electron beam creates the metal melt-pool through controlled energy der can be recycled after sieving. In another noted AM process, the
Fig. 1. Basic Process Flow of AM Technique.
162
flowing feedstock material gets melted and deposited in the desired form Table 1
namely direct energy deposition (DED). Feature addition and succes Reflection of published review works.
sively remanufacturing are the notable applications of this technology in Author (s) Topics covered Future directions highlighted
contrast to PBF [10]. Still it lacks from PBF in making complex shapes
Frazier Standardization of AM processes; Success in business may be
due to comparatively more deposition rate. For Laser source, PBF is (2014) technological challenges through speed, versatility, and
categorized as selective laser melting (SLM) and selective laser sintering [16] identification; Process models, adaptability of AM; System
(SLS) based on powder particle binding mechanism of metals, i.e., sensors, and controls; projection approach to capture the true
complete or partial melting condition respectively. A brief overview of positive impact on the benefits and potential
environment by reducing drawbacks of AM fabricated
regarding types of lasers has been provided by Santos et al. [11]. In specific energy consumption and component(s).
relatively newer Electron Beam Melting (EBM) process, an electron-gun carbon footprint.
generated beam acts as heat source for melting the powder bed in vac Herzog Basic overview to LBM, EBM and Limitation of parts regarding
uum atmosphere (<10− 2 Pa) to modelize CAD data [12,13]. In PBF et al. LMD, and commonly used prone to face negligible
(2016) feedstock materials. dynamic loads or certainly not.
category, the premier process developed and commercialized was SLS
[6] Microstructural features and its
[13]. dependency on tensile and
On the other hand, in SLM technique, usually hopper or reservoir-fed fatigue properties of several
powder is distributed and leveled on build platform. Unlike in-direct metals including titanium
method (e.g. SLS), powder particles get completely fused through (Ti6Al4 V) in different material
conditions by different AM
near-infrared wavelength laser radiation in inert environment, and processes.
overlapped melt tracks get solidified to produce desired parts. During its During topological optimization Both post heat and surface
development in 2002, it started its journey through bio-industry as a of porous scaffolds and bio- treatments may improve the
non-recognized method for producing orthopedic and dental implants. implants, feasibility of the elastic mechanical and biological
modulus adjustment through the performance.
Nonetheless at present, it has appeared to be the most globally accepted Wang et al.
porosity. Significant influence of Integration of topology
approach for metal-AM which has some originating relation with direct (2016)
pore size and interconnectivity optimization with AM to
metal laser sintering (DMLS) also [4]. With time advancement, expo [17]
on the mechanical properties, for accomplish multiple constraints
nential growth has been observed through innovation and improvement instance, with increase in simultaneously, e.g., stiffness
of machine systems [4]. AM techniques best suits to manufacture of porosity, the elastic modulus and and permeability, for desirable
compressive strength decreases. performance.
Ti6Al4 V products, according to industrial relevance, to produce
Studies mostly have performed
near-to-fully dense parts [14]. AM of this particular Ti-alloy for PBF under dry conditions; suitable
technology has been standardized through ASTM F2924− 14. According process-parameters combination Interaction between pores and
to commercial applicability, engineering performance improvement improves the SLM parts’ counterparts (or lubricant films)
densification, consequently the under various contact
appears as the focal point through the mutation in metallurgical
wear resistance; and reduced conditions to investigate the
behavior. This alloy, as processed by SLM, exhibits non-equilibrium and densification generated pores influence of pores on reducing
finer grain structures e.g. acicular martensitic microstructure (α′ ) [15]. and cracks lead to elevated wear. friction and wear under dry
Ghu et al.
Despite its progressive demand, it faces challenges due to high (2018)
Near-fully dense SLMed parts (SS conditions and different
in-process thermal stresses and rapid solidification. It inevitably in and Ti alloy) generally have lubrication regimes. Better
[1]
better wear resistance than CP understanding of the
troduces cracks, residual thermal stresses, porosity and poor surface
materials under different mechanisms behind the wear
roughness in build structures, and where warping of the part is avoided (mentioned in discussion) wear behavior of the SLMed
by building on solid substrate. By controlling machine and process pa conditions. Protection from bulk materials for further effective
rameters, these obstacles can be minimized to certain extent. With this plastic deformation due to control of in-process
unique tribo-layer formation parameters.
vision, this article summarizes various review efforts deployed, to
under boundary lubrication
assimilate the comprehensive research contributions and future per regime.
ceptions (Table 1). From the table it can be easily identified that how Fundamental challenges of SLM
gradually the previously highlighted issues are attended, and simulta in Ti6Al4 V alloy in terms of
neously the propositions may also provide some hybrid idea to the process parameters regarding
porosity, micro-structure and
enthusiastic researchers including the authors of present article also. More investigation on in-situ
Shipley residual stress; necessity of high
The morphological behavior of thermo-mechanically processed, i.e., et al. energy input but cooling rate
martensite decomposition in the
SLM field; cooling rate control
cast and wrought Ti6Al4 V alloy has been put forward in the review (2018) control to tailor the
may influence residual stresses
work by Murr et al. [20]. The study has also highlighted a rigorous [18] microstructural evolution and
reduction.
residual stresses reduction.
comparison of EBM and SLM-processed components in terms of me
Effects of the three in-situ
chanical and metallurgical behavior focusing on bio-medical applica martensite decomposition
tions. Similar approach of study was taken into account by Froes and techniques.
Dutta including providing a glimpse of economics of AM as an add-on Quality and cost affecting
[10]. Their endeavor has briefly portrayed the technological compari Comprehensive understanding of scientific and technological
underlying physics of issues addressing to enable
son too; including an overview of ASTM classified AM categories
metallurgical behavior for AMed wider commercial adaptation of
involved in processing of titanium and its alloys. But in every scientific metallic parts; concise AM; standardization and
case, critical realization should be the prior objective before outlining comparison of AM with welding, control to produce consistent
the in-depth comparison. The work by King et al. [21] has brought DebRoy and theory-practice cohesion in part-properties.
forward the requirement of primary physics understanding of laser PBF et al. the printability of various alloys. Considerable ambition and
(2018) Important features of different resources to integrate global
to expedite critical part production. A novel approach has been initiated [19] analytical and numerical models search algorithms, e.g. GA;
to integrate variation of process parameters and bulk alloy composition to sound basic understanding of calibration of reliable but
with the observed hierarchical microstructure [22]. Rapid growth of AM heat transfer and molten metal simpler real-time models for
coupled with porous bio-implants has been precisely unraveled and flow; summarizes the selecting optimized process
significance of several important variables and reducing
fascinating dimensions have been obtained to improve the surface
non-dimensional numbers also. traditional defects for tailored
roughness and to adjust the stress concentration of porous structures part production.
[23].
To provide consolidated understanding of mechanical behavior,
163
Lewandowski and Seifi (2016) summarised available tensile properties crystallographic defects, different possible phases and build direction on
of PBF and DED processed metallic materials till date in different ma mechanical properties has been profoundly discussed by Agius et al.
chines and scan strategies. They suggested that through microstructural [33]. Effect on LCF, HCF and torsional fatigue behavior due to micro
features observation; process-induced defects can be ascertained for structures and residual stress generation can open up a future research
detection and elimination [24]. These microstructural features can be trace for as-built SLMed components. Key challenge regarding optimi
greatly influenced by the printing parameters itself. Through an zation of grain structure, porosity and residual stress simultaneously
approach to establish the relationship between input parameters and have been indicated by Shipley et al. (2018) and suggested that
in-process underlying physics, Sames et al. (2016) has investigated powder-bed pre-heating may appear as a technique to address the same
mechanical and metallurgical behavior, defects, thermal pattern and [18]. Effect of these parameters has been individually studied, like re
post processing effects [25]. A new direction regarding further wear and sidual stress by Bratlett and Li [34]. The fatigue behavior of
fracture toughness study has been provided by Tong et al. [26]. Also, an SLM-processed Ti6Al4 V in context of recent days findings has been
indication has provided that the tensile and fatigue property improve studied by Fatemi et al. (2019) and the study focused on the stress
ment through post-processing can offer consistency of AM parts. concentration issues due to complex shape of components [35].
With time, different major AM techniques came into focus as Zhang In addition to fatigue behavior of Ti6Al4 V alloy, one of the most
et al. (2018) also elaborated four techniques, in common use, like PBF, important properties for longevity in bio-implant is wear resistivity. A
DED, metal binder jetting (MBJ) and sheet lamination technique (SLT) very interesting direction is enlightened through the study of Zhu et al.
along with in-process AM materials in terms of mechanical and micro (2018) pertaining to wear behavior, and parallel trace has provided to
structural behavior [27]. Targeted mechanical properties optimization accumulate and expedite the research work regarding friction behavior
of AM materials through prediction and design strategies development [1]. In this case, wear has been broadly classified into three categories,
has been recommended as a potential future research direction namely dry wear, sliding wear (under lubricated conditions) and erosive
including production efficiency balance [27]. In a separate study it was wear. As compared to casting, SLM samples showed improved dry wear
stated about high level porosity development in AM process that affects characteristics owing to fine grain size and martensitic microstructure
the mechanical response of AMed materials [28]. Less exploration on under different loading conditions. Similar positive findings have also
influence of feedstock powder particle distribution characteristics for been observed in sliding wear, but more studies are suggested for getting
AM parts production was indicated in the same also. a detailed idea regarding effect of pores (size and morphology) and
Production of predicted porous unit cells through AM process grab in-process tribo-layer formation on wear mechanism under numerous
bed popularity in the biomedical-field due to its suitable osseo- lubrication regimes.
integration and cell proliferation features. The compressive strength Process-structure-properties-performance congruence is of utmost
and elastic modulus of precisely designed porous bio-implants repro importance to optimize heterogeneities and structural variation in
duce the characteristics of tailored applications [29]. Regarding effect of cellular structure processing [4] in order to address the concerns of
non-stochastic scaffolds, it has revealed that along with size of the manufacturing industries. Evidently, selection of input parameters and
porosity, its shape, volume-fraction, and permeability also influence the boundary conditions for key factor identification may be of great chal
mechanical and cell-differentiation property. Though surface roughness lenge as suggested by Zhang et al. [36]. Also approach towards the
is an essential parameter for integration with living tissues, still con in-process heat propagation and microstructure evolution modeling may
tradictory conclusion has been observed regarding subsequent treat be greatly useful [37,38]. From work by Gong et al. [39] it has been
ment. In mechanical properties, mostly dominated by meta-stable interestingly identified that all the fabrications done for investigations
micro-structure, variations are observed due to rapid thermal cycle typically with the same processing parameter values. Also fatigue
generated by energy source during layer building; which in-contrast properties (under similar loading conditions) and surface defects
undergoes through different heat transfer mechanism, based on pro (through SEM image) have been studied. The approach of collectively
cesses itself and post-treatments, also contributes to influence representing these observations necessitates the formation of this review
morphology [29]. It can be also observed from the review of Wang et al. article.
(2016) that with increase in percentage of porosity, both elastic modulus Manufacture of a defect-less reliable part requires a fundamental
and compressive strength decreases [17]. understanding of the process physics, control methods and an in-depth
The recommendation of post-processing (surface finishing) is pro perception of the root of various defects and their possible remedies.
vided for critical components as there is an intense relation between Several authors have exclusively provided overviews on AM of metals
fatigue life and surface quality, where the later one is greatly influenced including bio-materials [6,16,19,40,41]. In view of acquiring the inde
by in-process metal deposition rate also. Beam overlapping has been pendency on post-treatments for as-built condition, a critical under
suggested as an expected method for advancement in SLM technique standing in this field should be intermittently elucidated focusing on
[4]. From in-vitro study it has been concluded that SLM made func process parameter optimization. To study the influences of effective
tionally graded Ti6Al4 V structure should combine small and larger energy function parameters for Ti6Al4 V and ELI alloy part production
pores for specific mechanical and metallurgical properties, which gets through SLM technique in different AM machines till date (years
support from in-vivo studies for tissue growth. In their other study, 2002–2019) is the primary attention of this article due to its advanta
different advantages of porous structures have been highlighted in light geous performance. In this regard, the review begins with the unique
of premier AM processes [30]. To address the flourishing challenge of framework underpinning the remarkable studies followed by the dis
complex porous scaffolds manufacturing in significantly less time and cussion on in-process parameters in light of SLM process. Various defects
customized manner, SLM has appeared as most effective [30]. Fatigue that may originate in SLM technique as identified by different research
and fracture characteristics of the alloy, mostly focusing on powder studies have been systematically deliberated in the next section. Sub
metallurgy and AM, have been explored by Romero et al. [31]. They sequently, this comprehensive review includes the effect of different
highlighted the oxygen sensitivity resisting property improvement and post processing treatments on mechanical and metallurgical behavior of
concluded that fatigue can be uplifted to desired level by hot isostatic the as-fabricated specimens through possible defect minimization. It was
pressing (HIP). A comparative study of the AM methods for Ti-alloy in followed by recommendations and future openings where many di
view of orthopedic implants has been conducted by Mujumdar et al. mensions for further investigations have been highlighted.
[32]. Application specific SLM process parameter optimization or sur
face coating may increase the effectiveness of system also. SLM parts 2. Selective laser melting (SLM) process parameters
consists of more α’ phases due to higher possibility in scan rates which
in-turn indicates greater cooling rates than EBM. The effect of During development tenure of SLM technique, irrespective of
164
material properties (e.g. surface tension, thermal conductivity etc.) and a typical range of 200–500 ◦ C for in-process build-platform temperature
environmental conditions; printing process parameters (few depicted [6] has emerged. Regarding machines, maintaining the printing envi
through Fig. 3) appear as the most influencing one. Targeting towards a ronment is also an important factor. Keeping in view the highly reac
sound quality in terms of microstructural behavior and mechanical tiveness nature of the Ti6Al4 V to interstitial elements, SLM processes of
effectiveness, it may be considered as obligatory to optimize processing Ti6Al4 V are carried out in an inert-gas (e.g. argon) flushed closed
variables. Starting from powder preparation to attain final product, the chamber to reduce the oxygen level (<0.1 %) [44] or sometimes coated
journey of SLM method involves the effects of numerous parameters, with slurry (e.g. ceramic) [45].
amongst them important parameters have been considered in this Following the scanning procedure as focal area of discussion, the first
section. prime thing is the laser source properties which include source fiber
From the previous study by Shipley et al. [18], an explicit view can type, wavelength, beam spot-diameter and maximum power rating.
be gathered regarding preferred processing zone of laser energy density During AM, energy absorption depends on the power density distribu
for part density maximization. Further, through this present work, the tion, which is usually considered as an important parameter for quality
authors have expedited the dimension of identifying the same for each fabrication, and often follows Gaussian profiles [19]. Based on process
participating variable underneath the energy function also. For requirement, the source characteristics are decided along with proper
preferred range of each variable, this may be interesting aspect in future printing system selection. With progressive need, the nation demands
that how other variables of the same function as well as others (like for more effective and sophisticated machines. Different AM machine
focal-offset distance (FOD), powder-bed temperature etc.) are affected. manufacturers all over the world (e.g. France, Germany, UK and
This section provides an introduction to SLM printing parameters Belgium), for instance GmbH (Germany) with its SLM-series (SLM 125,
related to density-function; and also, particularly emphasize on the ef 280, 500 and 280 2.0), are continuously developing their machines
fect of processing variables in development of 3D model outcome. At the involving latest research approach in order to overcome constraints
end, a brief description has also been graphically imprinted demon along with economically attractive accomplishment [4]. Also, the
strating the choice of numerical values of the parameters by different in-house developed SLM machines have been appeared to enhance the
successful researches as a constructive solution to overcome the exploration.
consecutive hurdles. Irrespective of manufacturing system, the strait of bulk energy
As a consequence of briefly depicting SLM process parameters, in movement within the under-developing substrates may also note
contrast to Fig. 1, the process flow can be discussed in different relevant worthy. The laser-source supplied energy to the powder-layer is used not
sub-phases. As a pre-process parameter, powder characteristics are only to melt the exposed material, but also helps in conducting heat
classified into three categories; namely, particle morphology, particle adjacent to the melt-pool. Due to this perplexing heat propagation
chemistry and particle microstructure [18]. These features somewhat phenomenon, synthesis of the parameter values is sought for extensive
depend on the powder producing technique. For reactive Ti powder study in order to achieve pre-defined component performance. To relate
production, gas atomization (with inert nitrogen or argon), namely, the most influencing parameters, as already inferred from studies, en
plasma melting inert gas atomization (PIGA) and induction plasma ergy density function has been formed. This volumetric energy density
spheroidization are well recognized [6]. Usually powder grain size (EV) function relates laser power (P), scan speed (v), hatch spacing (h)
varies in between a suitable range of values (in micron) having posi and layer thickness (t) as hereby represented by eqn. (1) with stated
tively skewed distribution [42]. Finer particle size leads to better surface units.
finish [43]. The apparent powder densities are measured as per ASTM /
P (W)
B212− 48. Not only size, the spheroid shape of the powder enhances the EV (J mm3) = (1)
v (mm/sec) . h (μm) . t (μm)
packing fraction and flowability, thus by affecting the processing time
and machine downtime [4]. Another important thing during printing According to the requirement of defect-free production, optimal
operation is the in-process build-platform temperature, which strongly setting of aforesaid function values is necessary. Table 2 indicates
influences the residual stress generation within the component. The overview of different experimental works conducted in last decades,
increment in in-process build-platform temperature helps to reduce the where numerous parameter values of the energy function have been
residual stress produced during fabrication process. For Ti6Al4 V parts, coined for desired fine-tuning based on the foregoing experience and
consequent intuitions.
Besides these studies, some other instances may also be enumerated
to unfold the development pathway of this research domain. An admi
rable effort has been attended in the study of Shipley et al. [18], com
prehending the role of few process parameters namely laser power, scan
speed, energy density, building layer thickness, hatch-spacing, strategy
of printing (zigzag, island, fractal and helix). Their study has reflected
desired level of ductility and tensile strength in the as-fabricated mate
rial with tolerable amount of porosity, residual stresses and micro
structural composition [18]. Furthermore, they have exclusively
discussed the energy density variable, considering as a process window,
for component density enhancement, as it has been identified to be
well-studied aspect on a variety of materials, already. To produce
Ti-6Al-4V components having higher relative density (greater than 99.9
%), apparent contradiction may be appeared with different suggested
windows; but it may be described as an influence of some other factors,
however, these windows were observed to be lie in the near about re
gion. Also, a high level of energy input maintained during the process
leads to constrain the porosity and residual stress. As an approach to
achieve optimal range, instead of 90◦ , sometimes the scan direction
changes to 67◦ in the building plane [45].
Fig. 3. Schematic of SLM in-process parameters as illustrated by Shipley Due to the presence of inter-dependency between printing
et al. [18].
165
Table 2
Scanning parameters used by different researchers for SLM sample preparation of Ti6A4 V.
Ref. Author(s), Yr. of SLM System Dense/Porous Laser Power (W) Scan Speed (mm/sec) Hatch Spacing (μm) Layer Thickness
publication structure (μm)
[46] Vandenbroucke and M3 dense 95 125 130 30

Kruth (2007)
[47] Thijs et al. (2010) NR dense 42 50, 100, 200 50, 75, 100 30
[48] Vilaro et al. (2011) TrumpfLF 250 dense 160,200 600,500 200 40,30
[49] Vrancken et al. (2012) LM-Q SLM dense 250 1600 60 30
[50] Song et al. (2012) NR dense 120,110 200,400,1200 40 50
[39] H. Gong et al. (2012) EOSM270 dense 170 1250 100 30
[51] Wycisk et al. (2013) EOSM270xt dense 170 1250 100 30
[52] Rafi et al. (2013) EOSM270 dense 170 1250 100 30
[53] Liu et al. (2014) NR dense 175 710 125 30
[54] Edwards and Ramulu MTT-250 dense 200 200 180 50
(2014)
[55] Simonelli et al. (2014) Reinshaw dense 157 225 100 50
AM250
[56] Xu et al. (2015) SLM250HL dense 175,375 686,710,1029 120,180 30,60,90
[57] Uhlmann et al. (2015) NR dense 275 975 150 50
[58] Kasperovich and Concept Laser dense 110,200 850,1000,1250,1500 NR 40
Hausmann (2015) M2
[59] Wu et al. (2016) NR dense 95 900 77 25
[60] Wits et al. (2016) SLM280HL dense 150,225,300 667,625,571 90,120,150 50
[61] Bartolomeu et al. (2016) 125 HL dense 50, 60. 70, 80, 90, 100 300, 400, 500, 600 NR 30
[62] Günther et al. (2017) SLM 250HL dense 175 710 120 30
[63] Ali et al., (2017 SLM 125 dense 200 NR 80 50
(Renishaw)
[64] Khorasani et al., (2017) SLM125HL dense 100 700 75 30
[65] Fatemi et al. (2017) Reinshaw dense 400 1000 160 50
AM250
[66] Walker et al. (2017) NR dense 175 710 125 30
[67] Liu et al. (2019) ProX DMP 320 dense 70,79,88, 97,106 496,558, 620, 682, 744 82 30
[68] Tan et al. (2019) NR dense 100 600 72 50
[15] Toptan et al. (2019) 125 HL dense 90 600 80 30
[69] Pal et al., (2019) mLab dense 75 150,200,300, 77 25
400,600,800,1000
[70] Haubrich et al. (2019) 280HL dense 80,100,120,155,165,175 365,465,565, 575,600,675 70,85,100,120,140 30
[71] Liu et al. (2020) 3D Systems dense 150, 180, 210, 240, 270 800, 1000, 1200, 1400, 85 30
ProX-200 1600, 1800
[72] Hu et al., (2020) EOS-M280 dense 260, 280, 300 1000, 1200, 1400 140 30
[73] Snehashis Pal et al., Concept Laser dense 55 - 95 150 - 1000 49.5 – 99 25
(2020) LLC
[74] Xiao et al. (2020) HUST-SLM300 dense 240, 300, 360 800, 1000, 1200 80, 100, 120 40
[75] Gorny et al. (2011) SLM250HL porous 100 450 NR 30
[44] Bael VS et al. (2012) NR porous 42 260 NR 30
[76] Sun et al. (2013) DiMetal-280 porous 80 200 60 NR
SLM
[77] Yan et al. (2015) EOSINT-M270 porous 170 1250 60 30
[78] Arabnejad et al. (2016) Renishaw porous 200 NR NR 30
AM250
[79] Hooreweder et al. (2017) ProX DMP 320 porous NR NR NR 30
[80] Chen et al. (2017) EOSINT M 280 porous 190 1200 NR 30
[81] Ran et al. (2018) EOSINT-M280 porous 400 700 NR 20
[82] Dallago et al. (2018) ProX DMP 300 porous 500 NR NR 10 - 50
[83] Zhang et al. (2018) Dimetal-100A porous 200 800 80 30
[84] Yan et al., (2019) EOSM290 porous 240 240 50 30
[85] Bartolomeu et al., (2019) 125HL porous 90 600 NR 30
[86] Dallago et al. (2019) ProX DMP 300 porous 500 NR NR 30
printer
[87] Salem et al. (2019) Concept M2 porous 100− 400 800− 4000 NR 30
[88] Chen et al. (2019) EOSINT-M280 porous 400 700 NR 20
[89] Xiong et al. (2020) M2 Concept porous 100 400 70 50
[90] Bartolomeu et al., (2020) SLM Solutions porous 90 600 90 30
parameters, it should be obvious to collectively analyze the effect of same, study of process parameters’ influence is most essential.
each, at a time. During suitable variable combination finding, few re In view of prosthetic application, Vandenbroucke et al. (2007)
searchers have tried to optimize the inter-layer spend time and focal- optimized SLM parameters to minimize porosity [46]. They kept laser
offset distance (FOD) values to achieve better as-built properties of power (95 W) and layer thickness (30 μm) as constant, and three sets of
AMed materials. Based on specific applications, desirable mechanical each scan speed (90, 140, 190 mm/sec) and hatch spacing (100, 120,
properties, resulted from microstructure, have been identified. For 140 μm) were taken as variable. Compromising part density and process
improved fatigue resistance, such as for biomedical implants, an equi speed, an optimal set of parameters (scan speed of 125 mm/sec and
librium microstructure was observed to be important. Elsewhere a hatch spacing of 130 μm) was obtained for part density greater than 99.8
martensitic grain structure was found to be most effective for high percent. They also faced constrain in building process at 100 μm hatch
strength performance, such as for aerospace components. To achieve the spacing value, presumably because of intense exposed (immediate top)
166
surface roughness. Another research, undergone by Thijs et al. (2010), and porosity volume fraction [92]. Through experimentation, they
shows that the variation in hatch spacing influences the microstructure established scan speed as most dominant factor (Fig. 5(a)), followed by
(as shown in Fig. 4) as a consequence of overlapping area between two laser power (Fig. 5(c)), which mostly influenced the process; whereas
neighboring scan vectors [47]. In harmony to Yadroitsev et al. [91], they the selection of hatch distance was found to be least sensitive (Fig. 5(b)).
also observed that the slope angle of pore alignment, generated parallel The effect of another density-function variable, i.e., layer thickness
to scanning direction (as shown in Fig. 4(c) and (g)), increases with variation was still unexplored. This parameter can be characterized as
increase in the spacing; but Vickers hardness values decreases [47]. expected to be more prominent for metallurgical behavior as the me
Also, a vibrant indication regarding the metallurgical phase trans chanical properties are inherently related with the microstructural
formation has been provided in their article in context of the presence of features.
intermediate phase, i.e., Ti3Al. Cumulatively, it can be narrated that fabrications done at so-called
With time, requirement of not only the process window identifica intermediate energy densities have evidenced minimum voids forma
tion was found enough for the SLM processing variables. Systematic tion which in turn highlights the effect of density function. To study this
study of ascending influence of the same was also initiated in parallel. outcome in-depth, Xu et al. (2015) changed only layer thickness while
Process parameters’ influence on porosity behavior of SLM processed keeping the rest of the parameters intact, and explored substantial
Ti6Al4 V has been studied by Kasperovich et al. (2016) using one factor variations in microstructure and constituent phases of as-built samples
at a time (OFAT) approach to draw a correlation between parameters (Fig. 6) [56]. Minimum layer thickness (30 μm) caused finest columnar
Fig. 4. Micrographs of samples scanned with different hatch spacing: (a) and (e) top view; (b) and (f) side view; (c) and (g) front view; and (d) and (h) the applied
scanning parameters [47].
167
Fig. 5. Influence of (a) scan speed (v), (b) hatch spacing (h) and (c) laser power (P) on 2D and 3D-porosity as a function of volumetric energy density (Ev) [92].
Fig. 6. Typical SEM micro-structures using different layer thicknesses (a) 30 μm, (b) 60 μm and (c) 90 μm [56].
prior-β grains filled with α’ martensite inside (Fig. 6(a)) compared to In this particular study, the authors have aimed to broaden the po
other thickness values, i.e., 60 μm and 90 μm (Fig. 6(b) and (c)), inti tential of the processing window for different quantitative parameters’
mating its fastest cooling condition. In spite of the trending martensitic values, so that it can be explored in future to less commonly use ones.
structure having encouraging strength with comparatively lower elon Accordingly, it can be observed from Fig. 8(a) that maximum studies
gation, the fine tuning of parameters resulted in in-situ martensitic have been carried out in the layer thickness values of 30 μm (~50 %);
decomposition to ultrafine lamellar (α + β) structure by exhibiting both and comparatively less studies were reported at 50 μm (~22 %). It can
higher yield strength and large tensile elongation to failure. These be described based on powder particle size whose mean value lies usu
characteristics are analogous to solution-treated and aged structure, and ally in the range of 30–50 μm. Higher the powder particle size, more will
superior to mill-annealed and SLMed martensitic one. be the generation of pores in the as-built samples, as the gases are
The impact of energy density can also be revealed through me entrapped at the interstitial places. Even, with the lesser layer thickness,
chanical properties. It affects the hardness of the material; not too much usually superior geometrical accuracy and feature resolution was re
for small pores formation, but due to significant amount of voids arises ported. Further, it also influences geometrical qualities of a part through
from incomplete powder melting [93]. The variation of hardness (RC) affecting stair-case formation. Also, its better impact to side surface
with different scan speeds (Fig. 7), as observed by Gong et al. [93], it can finish appears as beneficial to fatigue performance. For manufacturing,
be revealed that the maximum scan speed infers to lowest value. Similar the most considerable range of hatch spacing value was observed to be
trend was also observed by Thijs et al. [47]. Their observations also lie in the range of 60–100 μm (Fig. 8(b)). The reason behind not
highlighted the cooling-rate is one of the most dominating factors for considering too lesser value (≤ 60 μm) may be interpreted as the pores
desired microstructure. development in the boundaries associated to overheating during the
Fig. 7. Hardness of SLMed Samples [93].
168
Fig. 8. Research studies evolved considering different (a) layer thickness and (b) hatch spacing values.
source’s return movement [18]. • 30 μm has been well established as the optimum layer thickness
The effect of SLM parameters has been evaluated extensively for based on review of various research studies.
lattice structure of Ti6Al4 V alloy by Salem et al. [87]. Its lattice • Hatch spacing can be selected anywhere between 61–100 μm for
structures were manufactured by SLM varying the processing parame attaining optimum mechanical properties.
ters, namely laser power and scan speed, to examine their effect on strut • Cost of SLM process is highly dependent on two process parameters,
diameter and internal porosity morphology (refer Table 2). The authors namely scan speed and laser power. In case of scan speed, most of the
concluded that SLM processing condition comprising of 100 W (laser research studies have considered the range between 601–800 mm/s
power) and scan speed of 1600 mm/s was observed to be the best for Ti6Al4 V alloy. However, an equally good number of in
combination amongst the tested samples for fabricating the lattice vestigations have recommended/used scan speed in the range of
structure with strut size closest to the design and with minimum internal 200–600 mm/s. Therefore, there lies challenging scenario for
porosity. exploring further, the effect of variable scan speed (in the range of
At the end of this section, the discussion can be wrapped up focusing 200–800 mm/s) in order to obtain an appropriate blend of micro
on two most influencing parameters namely scan speed and laser power. structure and properties of SLMed Ti6Al4 V alloys consistently at
Based on Fig. 9(a), it can be inferred that the scan speed shows better lower cost.
performance for a moderate speed ranging from 200 to 800 mm/s (~54 • Based on the present review, it can be concluded that the laser power
%). Lower speed causes less stable elongated melt-pool and coarser in the range of 151–200 W is recommended for improved mechanical
microstructure [47]. This instability, which is more significant at lower properties. Further, a reasonably good number of studies have rec
scan speeds, may be caused by the melt pool hydrodynamics. ommended lower laser power in range of 51–100 W. Therefore, there
Conversely, lesser interaction time due to higher scan speeds seems not is need of more rigorous investigations to reach optimum laser power
to be suitable because it may yield improper melting of the powder to ensure minimum cost of SLMed Ti6Al4 V alloy.
granules itself. Another significant parameter for proper melting is the
laser power, which was observed (from Fig. 9(b)) to be mostly consid 3. In-process SLM defects
ered at around 150–200 W (~41 %). Therefore, this range may be
considered as the so-called favorable intermediate energy density range In this section, the occurrences of defects in Ti6Al4 V SLM compo
for generalized applications. Further, it should partially depend on the nents are described with an emphasis on the interconnection between
available machine configuration [16]. defects and properties. An imbalance of SLM parameters causes gener
Summary ation of defects [94]. Conventionally, energy density variables are often
To develop the technological feasibility of SLM-fabricated parts, used as an approach to quantify the existence of defects [18]. To achieve
numerous researchers have been evidenced. Some of the specially a long-lasting implant without revision surgery, a nearly full
coined observations are as follows. part-density should be required, which can be achieved through a group
of balanced parameters during SLM process [94]. As the energy function
Fig. 9. Research studies evolved considering different (a) scan speed and (b) laser power values.
169
consists of four variables only, so not only a particular window selection

may be sufficient for process optimization. Also, each of those variables
is supposed to have its own behavioral effect on the properties of the
product. Although this consideration is valid for all AM processes, still
the operation-specific AM methods yield assorted microstructures [30].
The most probable in-process causes of defect generation may be
insufficient energy, balling effects, evaporation, material removal by
recorder, heat-affected region, thermo-fluid dynamics and environ
mental conditions [23]. Due to existence of above factors, a variety of
defects are usually generated during the SLM process. As a consequence,
the surface roughness and mechanical properties (i.e. tensile, fatigue
and hardness) are invariably affected. This however indicates towards
careful optimization and control of in-process AM variables, especially
volumetric energy density. Only the bulk density measurement may
found to be inadequate as mechanical properties are substantially
influenced by pore geometry and distribution. Thus, it is necessary to
study and then improve the behavior of defects in SLM as-fabricated
materials through possibly identified remedies for quality control.
Table 3 highlights the same as discussed by different authors. Various
SLM defects such as lack-of-fusion (LOF), gas porosity, anisotropy, re Fig. 10. Optical micrographs of the LOF defect in the cross-sections along the
layers boundary with un-melted particles [100].
sidual stress generation, non-equilibrium microstructure (martensitic
formation), balling effect, unfavorable surface finish, hot tears, and fish
scales have been identified and possess different physical appearance etched cross-sections of SLMed Ti6Al4 V part built vertically at higher
[95]; which has been detailed out in following sub-sections. scan speed (710 mm/s). It has been observed, as shown in Fig. 10 that
the two layer-faces remains separated along the interlayer boundary,
aligning LOF defect parallel to them due to inadequate powder layer
3.1. Lack of fusion (LOF) binding. It is also noticeable that incomplete melting of powder particles
also causes the same [53]. Both LOF and un-melted particles exist
LOF is defined as the improper melting and fusion of the newish layer together as shown in Fig. 10 [100]. The existence of un-melted particles
with the preceding one. Based on geometrical morphology, it has been may result into the lower strength of the component [93]. Porosity
classified into three categories which have been precisely discussed in originates from initial powder contaminations, entrapped gas bubble
the study by Liu et al. [53]. The authors concluded that LOF has and LOF [42]. It initiates different surface and sub-surface cracks
maximum influence on the fatigue life than other defects, as found for through stress concentration (notch effect), which in-turn affects the
both built orientations. Fig. 10 shows the optical micrographs of the build-direction specific engineering performance including static and
Table 3
In-process SLM defects observed by different authors.
Type of defect Cause Remedy Remarks Ref
Improper optimization of process

parameters or inhomogeneous powder bed. [31,35,
Lack of fusion Critical to fatigue properties and
Material discontinuity due to insufficient Considerable little reduction in thickness of powder bed. 48,53,
(LOF) delamination of layers.
energy density or weak inter-particle 94]
bonding at the melt layer boundary.
Gas entrapment from atmosphere during
Diminishing the volume of liquid metal through laser power
powder atomization.
or layer thicknesses reduction; Decrease of the gas pressure
Dissolved gas may remain after Results into sponginess, less [14,31,
in building-area; Rising the relative density of the powder
Gas Pores solidification in melt-pool because of the density, lower tensile strength, and 35,48,
bed by increasing the coordination Number, these can be
high cooling rate. lower fatigue strength. 96]
reduced with the hot isostatic pressing (HIP), shot peening
Entrapment of process environment
can also be used for pores located in outer layer.
preserving inert gas in the melted pool.
Regardless of micro-structure and
[18,31,
Anisotropy Function of building direction. In or ex-situ martensitic decomposition. heat treatment
48]
Results into directional failure.
Brittle failure and Crack
Residual stress Higher thermal gradients, energy density Appropriate in-process parameters, layer orientations; or [31,35,
generation from stress
accumulation and fast solidification. post-fabrication annealing and heat treatment. 48]
concentration areas.
Martensite formation.
Non-equilibrium In-situ martensite decomposition through appropriate set of
Rapid thermal cycle. Results to non-uniform physical [31]
microstructure selected parameters.
and metallurgical properties.
Balling Energy densities selection should be slightly higher for which Can be considered as stress
Melt-pool instability. [18,31]
phenomenon porosity volume-fraction is minimum. concentrations points.
Process type, parameters, powder
As-built surface Optimized process and design parameters, and powder Due to inherently repetitive nature
characteristics, and layer thickness and [35]
roughness characteristics of the process.
orientation.
Consequence of materials response to the
By avoiding internal stress and high temperature in SLM More critical at elevated [22,28,
Hot Tears existence of the stresses and high
process. temperatures. 97]
temperature.
Due to solute concentrations during layer
Fish Scales by layer solidification of the powders with Proper selection of in process parameters. May results into delamination. [98,99]
the SLM process.
170
dynamic strength [92]. the help of 3D isometric views are represented in Fig. 12 [100].
3.2. Gas pores 3.4. Residual stress accumulation
During printing process, the complex thermal history consists of Internal residual stresses are invariably generated during simulta
repeated high energy involved melting, rapid solidification and direc neous layered scanning due to process-specific temperature gradient
tional heat extraction. Lower laser energy input will result in occurrence phenomenon, i.e., successive rapid heating and cooling [34]. Fig. 13 (a)
of insufficient melting or balling phenomenon forming irregular-shaped and (b) showed the development of stresses in the AM process due to
voids, whereas, too high energy will lead to originate gas entrapped cooling and heating of the new formed layer [34]. Alternate heating and
pores [93]. In latter condition, as a consequence of material evapora cooling during AM process, results in the formation of compressive/
tion, pores are of somewhat spherical shape, which may be vividly tensile stresses in the neighboring layers, that leads to generation of
characterized further through 3D tomography. But in both cases, the stress concentration pockets [34]. Rapid heat conduction in the SLM
parts are of reduced density. Fig. 11(a) shows the presence of sharp, process makes the components relatively more wear resistive and harder
elongated crack-like pores in the SLM-fabricated components in lower than commercially pure (CP) [1]. Different approaches are used for re
energy domain [18]. However, in contrast, for higher energy range, sidual stress measurement [102]. The residual stresses after production
round pores are generated (Fig. 11(b)), that are also in agreement with of the component can be measured by computer and analytical models
earlier reported work [92]. It has also ascribed as so-called keyhole ef [34]. Moreover, in process measurements with the help of thermocouple
fect by many researchers (Fig. 11(c)). Further, satellite formation and strain gage [102], along with displacement sensors in-place of a
(Fig. 11(a)) predominantly occurs while powder-particles get inade strain gage are used for residual stress measurements [103]. Though
quate time or heat to penetrate the melt pool before its solidification. SLM-processed alloy exhibits ductile nature, still brittle failure can be
After cooling, a sphere-like physique appears covering its surface by augmented from local stress concentration.
“hillocks” of individual particles [92]. The defects, like porosity, affect
the fatigue life and mean stress values, which can be calculated using 3.5. Non-equilibrium microstructure
Murakami (area) 0.5 models [42]. Porosity in the range of 0.35 % and
large defects in the outermost 0.4 mm thick layer were observed by As built Ti alloy through SLM process may results into existence of
authors for as built Ti-6Al-4V ELI additively manufactured surfaces. different microstructural features like equiaxed, lamellar or bi modal;
However, the internal pore density was reported to be reduced to below each of these have different mechanical characteristics [18]. β grain size,
0.05 % with application of HIP, while shot peening changed the shape of α lamellae thickness, α lamellae size and α colony size are some of the
the pores located near to the outermost layer [42]. The un-melted metallurgical features, which directly affects the mechanical properties
powder (Satellite) particles inside the pore defects, may result into in of SLM product. The existence of these features is contributed by the
crease in density, however, it may contribute to lower strength [93]. cooling rate during SLM process, which can be further controlled by the
Also, in SLM samples, the existence of gas pores up to 1 vol.% do not different in-process SLM parameters [104]. With an increase in energy
harm significantly [93]. However, with increase in volume fraction of density, the width of individual α0 and the spacing between them will
pores above 5%, tensile, fatigue, and hardness properties are signifi decrease; however, the width of the columnar grain will increase [105].
cantly degraded [93]. Also, the increment in temperature affects the possible adiabatic shear
band (ASB) formation. As per the application of the part, different uni
3.3. Anisotropy form microstructures are desired for such alloys [18]. Like for aerospace
components, high strength properties owing to martensitic microstruc
One of the most common characteristics appear from layer thickness ture is desirable, however, for applications like biomedical implants,
variation is the stair-case effect which is nothing but the appearance of increased fatigue strength may be required, which should owe to the
waviness along the lateral surfaces and edges in the build direction [19]. existence of an equilibrium structure [18]. These microstructural vari
To minimize the same, the commercialized machine manufacturers ations are attainable by varying the in-process SLM parameters.
sometimes recommend particular values for each material group [18].
Furthermore, the direction and inclination of build-layers affects the 3.6. Balling
structural and behavioral homogeneity (anisotropy) of SLM products
[101]. In case of EBM Ti-6Al-4V fabricated surfaces the anisotropy with Another common phenomenon, i.e., balling takes place when the
Fig. 11. Optical microscope morphology of (a) Sharp crack-like pores [18], (b) spherical pores observed in SLM-processed Ti64 [18] and (c) Keyhole geometry with
pores in SLM Ti-6Al-4V pre-alloyed Powder [94].
171
Fig. 12. 3D isometric views of AM Ti-6Al-4V fabricated models with anisotropy [100].
3.7. As-built surface roughness
With the increase in scanning speed, the melt pool size reduces;
however, the hatch spacing is constant throughout. Therefore, due to
decrease in pool size, the overlap portion got decreased; this may result
into the deterioration of the surface finish [94]. Welded particles exist
on the surface, which are further removed with recorder blade during
SLM process, results into formation of pits and crests on the surface
leading to higher surface roughness [94]. The existence of pits and
welded particles on the surface of SLM fabricated Ti-6Al-4V specimens
along with the mechanism behind their existence is shown in Fig. 15(a)
and (b) [94]. The existence of as-built surface roughness can be altered
with the help of increased overlap area [94].
Fig. 13. Development of stresses during AM process due to (a) cooling (thermal 3.8. Hot tears
compression) and (b) heating (thermal expansion) of new layer [34].
The existence of hot tears in the SLM products is a consequence of the
total melt-pool surface becomes larger than that of a sphere containing existence of the stresses and high temperature [28]. Hot tears can exist
equivalent volume [106]. Too low melt-pool viscosity or excessive in variety of materials produced with SLM [22]. In case of copper and
molten material generation enhances the balling defect [107]. Fortu tool steel powders, during SLM, the copper-rich solid phase at the
nately, it can be distinguished from the un-melted particles by their austenite grain boundaries formed during cooling, which lead to exis
respective grain structure as both are partially connected to solidified tence of hot tears as shown in Fig. 16 [97]. The tears are more critical at
upper layer. The thermal gradients cause thermo-capillary action during elevated temperatures and found to menace during commercial use
molten metal flow within the melt pool from lower surface tension re [97].
gions to the higher one [108]. The sharper crack tips are mostly affected
by this phenomenon, which is the fragmentation of the melt pool into 3.9. Fish scales
small spheres due to high surface tension differences [18]. Fig. 14 rep
resents the balling effect in the SLM produced titanium products [109]. Along with above mentioned defects, a microstructural discontinuity
Many researchers also have related the existence of balling effect with named as fish scale also exists in the SLM product [22]. The same are
the high energy densities in the aluminum and iron powders [110]. represented in Fig. 17. Fish scales exist due to the solute concentrations
Microstructural defects like balling greatly affect the fatigue perfor during layer by layer solidification of the powders with the SLM process
mance of the part [18]. [22]. Variations in precipitate formation and morphology are also the
Fig. 14. Balling effect shown in the SLM pure titanium [109].
172
Fig. 15. (a) SEM image of the surface of SLM specimen with representation and (b) mechanism behind the existence of Pits and welded particles [94].
The various defects of SLMed fabricated Ti6Al4 V alloy as reported in

various studies have been reviewed exhaustively. The key observations
are as follows.
• In case of SLMed Ti6Al4 V product, the more prominent defects are

LOF, gas pore formation, anisotropy, residual stress accumulation
and balling phenomenon.
• Out of the different as-reviewed defects, in terms of product perfor
mance during application, the ones caused by insufficient energy
input (e.g. LOF, balling, as-built surface roughness) are found to be
more detrimental than those by excessive energy (e.g. gas pores, hot
tear).
• The SLMed process parameters such as scan speed and laser power
influence the generation of defects the most. Therefore, due care
should be taken while selecting these two process parameters in
order to minimize the defects.
Fig. 16. Existence of hot tears in the SLM product [97]. • Scant work has been reported regarding the remedial action for
minimization of defects. However, proper printing parameters
major reasons behind their existence [22]. Fish scales are always quantification and post-treatments are reported to be some of the
perpendicular to the heat flow direction via conduction [99]. These fish possible ways that can lead to overcome this menace. In view of this
scales and layer bands can also be observed in various AM process like observation of present review, more research is required to investi
wire-feed ALM process, powder bed (SLM) process, and powder-feed gate the efficacy of different methods.
ALM processes [99]. Fig. 17(a) shows the existence of fish scale or • Scarce studies have been reported regarding identification of hot
layer band in Ti-6Al-4V blocks deposited by wire-feed additive layer tears and fish scales in SLMed Ti6Al4 V alloy. Therefore, it needs to
manufacturing (ALM) [99]. The same feature was also reported by Tang be explored further to reveal the reasons of formations of hot tears
et al. (2015), for Ti–45Al–7Nb–0.3 W alloy prepared using selective and fish scales as well as suitable measures to minimize them.
electron beam melting (SEBM) [98]. Moreover, fish scales as reported
for Inconel 718 part manufactured by Direct Laser Metal Sintering 4. Post-processing treatments
(DLMS) are also shown in Fig. 17(b) [111]. These feature may be
responsible for delamination of layers during practical applications SLM process flow is characterized by high temperature gradients,
[22]. which results in the build-up of thermal stresses; and the rapid solidi
Summary fication promotes the occurrence of segregation phenomena and the
presence of non-equilibrium phases. Irrespective of staircase effect, the
Fig. 17. Fish scales observed in (a) Ti-6Al-4V blocks deposited by wire-feed additive layer manufacturing (ALM) [99] and (b) Inconel 718 part manufactured by
Direct Laser Metal Sintering (DLMS) [111].
173
dimensions and behavior of the melt-pool determine porosity and sur Table 4
face roughness to some extent. SLM-printed Ti6Al4 V part shows better Effect of post-treatments observed in SLM prepared samples of Ti6A4 V.
coarsen morphological features (e.g., α-lath widths and prior-β grains) Post-processing Outcomes observed Ref
due to the post-processing treatments. Substantial efforts have been Method
utilized to study the effect of post thermal and mechanical treatments for Heat Treatments Ductility ↑, Residual stresses ↓, Strength ↓ [39,48,104,
attaining improved fatigue properties. Effect of different treatments on 112]
the fatigue strength has been elaborately described by Benedetti et al. in Pores and anisotropy ↓
their work illustrating the fatigue crack development sites, as presented Stress relieving effect and martensite
Hot Isostatic Pressing [14,31,42,43,
decomposition ↑
through Fig. 18, with possible reason of crack initiation [42]. To provide (HIP)
Ductility ↑, Porosity ↓ and fatigue
113]
a generalized overview of each treatment comprehensively, engineering strength ↑.
performance of SLMed components has been discussed based on Surface and sub-surface compressive
Shot Peening [42,43]
experimental observations. Usefulness of these treatments has been residual stress ↑
[77,82,93,
enumerated in Table 4 to highlight the authentication and reliability. In Sand Blasting Surface property ↑
114]
the following sub-sections, multi-dimensional effects of post-treatments Electro-polishing Surface morphology ↑ [42,43]
on the grain orientation, macroscopic texture, and the microstructure of
SLM components are vividly discussed for understanding in comparison
to as-built’s properties.
4.1. Effect of heat treatments
Most preferable heat treatment technique for residual stress removal,

as suggested by several researchers, is annealing. It facilitates to achieve
application-specific high ductility. The effect of different stress-relieving
heat treatments, increase in annealing temperature though reduces the
ultimate tensile strength (UTS); but breaking elongation (%) increases
indicating a significant increase in ductile behavior as shown in Fig. 19
[113]. This behavioral change may be attributed to fractional increase in
β-phase.
For the mechanical performance of lamellar microstructures of
Ti6Al4 V, α-colony or α-lath width are recognized as the most influential
microstructural parameter [18]. Cooling rates associated with different
cooling methods significantly stimulates the decomposition and trap of Fig. 19. Stress-strain curves for as-built and different post-treated condi
nano-sized particles in the α-matrix of SLM processed samples (as shown tions [113].
in Fig. 20(a) to Fig. 20(d)) [83]. As obvious, being the air-cooling rate is
much higher than the furnace cooling, in later case, some particles
dissolved into the α-matrix. They have extended the discussion
Fig. 18. SEM micrographs of the fracture surfaces around the fatigue crack initiation sites. (a) as-built, (b) tribo-finished, (c) electro-polished, (d) HIP, (e) shot-
peened [42].
174
Fig. 20. Microstructures (high magnifications) of SLMed Ti6Al4 V after different heat treatments (a) 800 ◦ C/AC, (b) 800 ◦ C/FC, (c) 900 ◦ C/AC, (d) 900 ◦ C/FC [83].
regarding α lath thickness, representing through α-grain size, showing a observed that by heat-treatment at 800 ◦ C, residual stresses were
measurement for different post-treatments and made comparison be already minimized, and there was hardly any difference between sam
tween finer α-grain of SLM 800 AC and coarser α-grain of SLM 900 AC ples heat treated at 800 ◦ C and 1050 ◦ C with respect to residual stresses
sample (shown in Fig. 21), reflecting high temperature effect account [104].
able for grain growth. Due to the coarsening of grain structure, decre The understanding of thermal cycle effect may be more expedited
ment in hardness also observed as compared to as-fabricated for both 2 h through phase-fraction data. Typical XRD data (Fig. 22), as observed by
heat treatment at 800 ◦ C in argon, and further decrease of the same at Tsai et al., shows the appearance of β phase during the heat-treatment
1050 ◦ C in vacuum [112]. The microstructure of as-fabricated Ti6Al4 V for 24 h. each between 550–750 ◦ C at an interval of 50 ◦ C, but no evi
samples consists of α’ which formed due to the rapid cooling in molten dence of the same has emerged when treated at 800 ◦ C [116]. Fig. 22(a)
pool [115]. Subsequently heat treatment process found to be responsible shows that the amount of β phase increased with increasing temperature
in transformation of α’ to α, and then α to β at high temperature of (fixed time); and also, with increasing time (at 600 ◦ C), as shown in
1050 ◦ C. Ti6Al4 V, produced by SLM process, consist of an original α’ Fig. 22(b). During the heat-treatment process under phase-transition
microstructure [49]. When heated, α phase is precipitated at the α’ temperature, the gradual phase transition α’→α + β occurred, and
boundaries. At maximum temperatures below the β transus, the mixture consequently the dislocation and twin structures disappeared. More
of α and β phase prevents grain growth and the original, columnar prior over, from the α/α’ peak analysis of the XRD pattern, they indicated the
β grains remain visible after cooling. 600–700 ◦ C temperature range as adequate to eliminate the residual
With increase in heat-treatment temperature, SLM parts’ strength stress [116].
decreased while ductility increased especially after α + β annealing, Proceeding similarly, the authors also identified from their extensive
which is sufficient to satisfy medical standards [64]. Further, effect of study of numerous researches that heat-treatment study mostly done in
heat treatment on residual stresses was studied by Leuders et al., who 600–750 ◦ C temperature for 2 h during annealing (Fig. 23). However, it
has been established through different studies [117,118] conducted to
wrought Ti6Al4 V alloy that annealing near to β-transus produce
microstructure transformations having most improved mechanical
properties. Moreover, for the same time-span of 2 h, the favorable range
for temperature elevation found as 800–900 ◦ C for other heat treatments
(Fig. 24).
4.2. Effect of hot isostatic pressing (HIP)
In order to improve the mechanical behavior of SLMed Ti-6Al-4V,

Hot Isostatic Pressing (HIP) has been explored by different re
searchers. It increases the apparent density of the entire part through
transformation of the as-built ductile martensitic microstructure into
lamellar α + β, HIP treatment is conducted. It necessarily demands for
inert atmosphere as a preventive measure of particle oxidization,
consequently inclusion into the bulk. Any research studies have been
devoted to HIP treatment of both dense and porous SLMed Ti-6Al-4V
alloy. The different parameters considered in the experimentation is
detaile in Table 5 temperature that advocates against HIP at excessive
Fig. 21. Measurement of α lath thickness of SLM Ti6Al4 V after different heat temperature, especially above the β-transus (about 980 ◦ C for Ti-6Al-
treatments [83]. 4V), as it can result in undesired overgrowth of the α-lamellae. In
175
Fig. 22. XRD patterns of as-printed and heat-treated specimens at (a) 550-800 ◦ C/24 h. and. (b) 600 ◦ C for various aging times [116].
Table 5
HIP parameters used by different researchers.
[ref] Temperature Pressure Time Cooling
(oC) (MPa) (h) method
[119] 920 100 2 FC

[120] 920 100 2 FC
[121] 920 100 2 NR
[122] 920 103 4 FC
920 100 2 NR
[113]
1050 100 2 NR
[42,43,82,112,
920 100 2 NR
Fig. 23. Annealing at different temperature-range and time-span. 123–125]
Note: FC- Furnace cool, NR- Not reported.

view of these observations, the HIP treatment should be conducted at
920 ◦ C, 1000 bar of pressure for 2 h in protective atmosphere.
HIPed samples not only showed minimized porosity, in addition,
residual stresses were significantly decreased and the amount of β-phase
was increased slightly as compared to the as-built material due to the
temperature-time-profile of the HIP process [113]. Commonly it lowers
the overall strength, but ductility increases [31,122]. Reduction in
strength, after HIP of dense SLMed Ti-6Al-4V, is quite evident from
Fig. 19. Abrupt changes in tensile properties in lieu of grain character
istics during HIP treatment at higher temperatures (HIP920, HIP1050)
have been reported by Leuders et al. [113]. Leuder et al. [113] have
observed % elongation for as built and HIPed samples as 4% and 13.8 %
respectively. HIP1050 seemed to have no impact on % elongation when
compared with outcomes of HIP920. However, in a separate study by
Leuder et al. [104], it was highlighted that reduction in porosity does not
affect % elongation and HIP temperature should be raised to induce
higher % elongation in SLMed Ti-6Al-4V alloy. Reduction in strength
and augmentation in % elongation has also been reported in a separate Fig. 25. Tensile properties of SLMed, HIPed, HT-920 and HT-850-550 Ti-6Al-
study by [120] (refer Fig. 25). Improvement in ductility has also been 4V specimens. [120].
Fig. 24. Miscellaneous heat treatments performed (except annealing) at different temperature-range and time-span.
176
established by Qiu et al. [122] through SEM fractography images (refer

Fig. 26) of tensile specimen for as built and HIPed condition.
The anisotropic behavior of AM components can be reduced through
the recovery of LOF type of porosity by post HIPing [126]. Heat treat
ment affects the fracture performance of AMed Ti6Al4 V alloy. HIP after
conventional heat treatments over 1000 ◦ C reduces porosity and heat
treatment appeared to be helpful to lower the residual stress and to in
crease the lifetime of component [125].
Wuthle et al. [121] experimented with Stress relieving post treat
ment (SR) and HIP on porous SLMed Ti-6Al-4V alloy to visualize its
effect on mechanical behavior. The authors have conducted trials for
three build orientations, the vertical (VER), diagonal (DIA) and hori
zontal (HOR) and compared the results of as built (AB), SR (stress
relieved) and HIP conditions. The results of compressive strength are
presented in Fig. 27.
It is evident from Fig. 27 that irrespective of build direction,
compressive strength reduces after HIP treatment. HIP has changed the
microstructure to α + β lamellar that has lead to lowering of mechanical
strength, however it has caused improvement in ductility which is
desirable for strength under dynamic loading conditions. Karami et al.
[119] examined the impact of HIP, HIP followed by sandblasting, HIP
along with sandblasting and chemical etching for porous SLMed
Ti-6Al-4V alloy on mechanical properties. The authors concluded that a Fig. 27. Stress-strain curves of the compression testing for each build orien
combination of hot isostatic pressing, sand blasting, and chemical tation (VER, DIA and HOR) in each condition (AB, SR and HIP) [121].
etching was observed as the most suitable in improving the fatigue
behavior of lattice structures made from Ti6Al4 V. Electro-polishing, which have shown its little effectiveness on Ti6Al4 V
ELI samples in enhancing the fatigue strength, as its benefit is partly
4.3. Effect of shot peening disappeared probably due to appearance of sub-surface critical defects
on the polished surface [43]. Still the electro-polished surface was found
Peening is a cold working procedure which causes transverse (Pois comparatively smoother than as-built (shown in Fig. 28(a) and Fig. 28
son) expansion by plastically compressing, mostly ductile materials, (b)) and characterized by small remnants of unfused particles which
normal to the surface [127]. As a most versatile mechanical working found to be more effective in the high cycle (HC), but less in the very
process, shot peening introduces favorable fatigue life increase to the high cycle (VHC) fatigue regime [42].
components through compressive stress induction. The effect of shot
peening on Ti6Al4 V ELI components is found to be more lucrative for 4.4. Effect of sand blasting
the outer-most layer only [42]. Because of this treatment, the
compressive residual stress and work-hardening prevent crack propa For considerable improvement of surface topography of AM-printed
gation in surface layers; though fails to affect to sub-surface crack parts for better fatigue life, sand blasting has been considered as one of
initiation. Also, the shape of porosity on outermost layer changes rather the routine treatment [114]. Due to the particle bombardment action,
than pore volume. Thus, appear as less effective for very long fatigue plastic deformation occurs on the surface and near vicinity, which often
lifetime. During more homogeneous surface preparation than creates upper-surface pitting. HIPed parts are sometimes pre-treated by
tribo-finishing, it introduces small dimples on the surface (shown in sand blasting to remove the loosely-attached unmelted powder particles
Fig. 28(c)). Similar investigation also showed that only HCF resistance from the surface [82]. It was observed in a separate study that post-heat
founds to be greatly beneficial from compressive residual stresses treatment followed by sand blasting is able to blow away nearly all
introduced as a consequence of shot peening [43]. Through another lightly bonded metal particles from the as-built lattice surfaces as shown
study it was found detrimental to fatigue performance, decreasing the in Fig. 29 [77].
fatigue limit by 15 % in comparison with the polished sample, which is
due to crack initiation from internal pores [51]. 4.5. Effect of post-processing on fatigue performance
Another treatment found effective through few investigations on
SLM-fabricated components for surface quality improvement of is As the internal pores work as the source of fatigue crack initiation,
Fig. 26. SEM images of fracture surfaces of (a) as built and (b) HIPed samples [122].
177
Fig. 28. SEM micrographs showing morphology of (a) as-built, (b) electro-polished and (c) shot peened samples [42].
Fig. 29. SEM images of SLMed Ti6Al4 V surface of the (a) as-built and (b) post-processed cellular structures [77].
the post processing like heat treatment and HIP may boosts to improve regarding dependency of crack growth on residual stresses.
the fatigue life [123]. Fotovvati et al. [128] has compiled several Moreover, Kasperovich and Hausmann [58] maintained that HIP
phenomenological, semi-empirical, and Multi-stage models for ana helps in reducing the porosity even up to a value known for conven
lysing the effect of microstructural features and various types of defects tionally processed TiAl6V, and hence exhibited a marked improvement
on fatigue performance of SLMed Ti-6Al-4V components. In relation to in ductility and fatigue strength. The fatigue test results along with the
subsequent microstructural changes, strength and ductility has observed fitting curves for various SLMed samples opted by Benedetti et al. [42]
to be affected by HIP [14]. Higher ductility governs decrease of fatigue are shown in Fig. 31. Benedetti et al. [42] reported that electropolishing
crack-growth advancement as well as overall fatigue life [33]. Further, has a limited influence on the increment in fatigue resistance. On the
contrarily to HIP, some other post processing treatments were also re other hand, maximum increment in the fatigue resistance was reported
ported to have major influence on the fatigue behavior of additively for HIPed owing to the capability of HIP to vanish the pores over the
manufactures Ti-6Al-4V alloy [129,130]. entire cross-section [42]. However, shot peening and tribofinishing were
In view of above, the research work carried out by various re also reported as good alternatives for increasing fatigue strength. Later
searchers have been reviewed and the parameters used for fatigue on, in one of the similar studies, Benedetti et al. [43] claimed that HIP is
analysis along with the samples and their post processing were sum effective in reducing the porosity throughout to a value of below 0.05 %
marised in Table 6. Günther et al. [62] concluded that the fatigue per as compared to 0.35 % for as-built conditions, this may be the possible
formance of SLMed and HT condition and the EBM processed material reason behind the higher fatigue resistance of HIPed samples.
are quite similar. However, HIP processing was reported to be signifi Yu et al. [120] compared the post processing, microstructure with
cantly benefices the fatigue life. It was also reported that crack initiation the fatigue life of the SLMed Ti-6Al-4V alloys. Fig. 32 shows the different
has less influence on fatigue performance under tension–compression as microstructural SEM images of SLMed and various post treated
compared to tension–tension loading conditions [42,123]. It was also Ti-6Al-4V alloy [120]. In case of SLMed Ti-6Al-4V mostly α′ martensites
reported by Wycisk et al. [123] that the HIP helps in curing the inherent was reported. However, in case of all the post processing namely HIPed
defects and in turn increases the fatigue life significantly. Trans 920 ◦ C, HT-920 ◦ C and HT-850− 550 ◦ C specimens, coarsening of α/α′
formation from finer to coarse microstructure reveals the effect of HIP grains were observed. Further, decomposition of martensites into
temperatures, as most beneficial optimized at 920 ◦ C, on stress-level and extremely fine and dispersive α + β grains was also observed after post
cycle number in the HCF regime by depicting different slopes of processing as shown in Fig. 32(d’).
regression line according to Fig. 30 proposed by Leuders et al. [113]. As Fig. 33 shows the fatigue behavior of SLMed and various post treated
the HIP was claimed to act as an eliminator of process-induced pores Ti-6Al-4V alloys [120]. The SLMed Ti-6Al-4V; HT-920 and
[113]. Still in the aforesaid optimum temperature, hardness value HT-850− 550; and HIPed specimens were observed to have fatigue limits
observed to decrease when HIPed under 1000 bar for 2 h in argon filled in the range of 300 MPa.; 350–400 MPa; and 450–500 MPa, respectively
environment [112]. Moreover, in the earlier work carried out by Leuders [120]. This increment in fatigue life may correlates to the reductions or
et al. [104], it was claimed that the fatigue crack growth was partially eliminations of pores and the modification of microstructure after HIP
influenced by the internal stresses, that can be removed with post pro treatment.
cessing like HIP. Similar features were also observed by Syed et al. [131] Chastand et al. [124] observed that surface topography does affect
178
Table 6
Fatigue test details along with post processes considered by different researchers.
[ref] Author Name HCF machine Stress Frequency Porous/ Mode Post processing Optimum result
ratio Dense
EBM As-built
Günther et al. Servo hydraulic MTS 10 Hz and SLMed SLMed Ti–6Al–4 V HT
[62] − 1 Dense Push–pull
(2017) system 19 kHz SLMed HT 800 ◦ C 920 ◦ C HIPed
SLMed HT 920 ◦ C HIPed
Servo-hydraulic SLMed
0.1 50 Hz Dense Tension-tension
Wycisk et al. MTS test rig
[123] HIPed 920 ◦ C
(2015) Resonance testing Tension- SLMed HIPed 920 ◦ C
− 1 59 Hz Dense
machine compression
SLMed As-built
SLMed HT 800 ◦ C
Leuders et al. Servo-hydraulic Tension-
[113] − 1 10 Hz Dense SLMed HT 1050 ◦ C SLMed HIPed 920 ◦ C
(2014) testing rigs compression
SLMed HIPed 920 ◦ C
SLMed As-built
Leuders et al. Bose Electro-force Tension- SLMed HT 800 ◦ C
[112] − 1 100 Hz Dense SLMed HIPed 920 ◦ C
(2015) 3550 compression SLMed HT 1050 ◦ C
SLMed As-built
Leuders et al. Zwick/Roell Amsler Tension- SLMed HT 800 ◦ C
[104] − 1 40 Hz Dense SLMed HIPed 920 ◦ C
(2013) HB 250 compression SLMed HT 1050 ◦ C
Wrought
SLMed
Kasperovich and Amsler vibrophore
Tension- SLMed, HT 700 ◦ C SLMed HIPed
[58] Hausmann 10 HFP 422 testing − 1 82 Hz Dense
compression SLMed, HT 900 ◦ C 900 ◦ C + machined
(2015) machine
SLMed HIPed
900 ◦ C + machined
SLMed As built
Resonant testing Tension-tension SLMed tribofinished
Benedetti et al. − 1, -3,
[42] machine (Rumul 150 Hz Demse and Tension- SLMed electropolished SLMed HIPed 920 ◦ C
(2017) and 0.1
Mikrotron 20 kN) compression SLMed shot peened
SLMed
Shimadzu EHF-
Tension- SLMed HT-920 ◦ C
[120] Yu et al. (2019) UV100k2-040-1A − 1 20 Hz Dense SLMed HIPed 920 ◦ C
compression SLMed HT-850− 550 ◦ C
fatigue tester
Z axis 650 ◦ C/4 h As-built
Z axis 650 ◦ C/4 h polished
Chastand et al. Tension- X–Y axis 650 ◦ C/4 h Z axis 650 ◦ C/4 h + HIP
[124] Amsler vibrophore − 1 90 Hz Dense
(2016) compression polished 920 ◦ C polished
Z axis 650 ◦ C/4 h + HIP
920 ◦ C polished
X-Machined
Y-Machined
Edwards and Tension- Z-Machined
[54] MTS load frame − 0.2 20 Hz Dense X-Machined
Ramulu (2014) compression X-Net
Y-Net
Z-Net
100 kN, digitally
Vertically built Horizontally
[53] Liu et al. (2014) controlled MTS 0.1 10 Hz Dense Tension-tension horizontally built.
built.
testing machine
Instron ElectroPuls Without defect
Gong et al.
[39] E10000 All-Electric 0.1 50 Hz Dense Tension-tension With D-conical defect Without defect
(2012)
Test Instrument With cylindrical defect
100 KN servo- As built
Wycisk et al.
[51] hydraulic system 0.1 50 Hz Dense Tension-tension Polished Polished
(2013)
MTS 318 Shot peened
Control DMLSed Ultrasonic Nanocrystal
Zhang et al. Tension-
[132] RBF-200 system − 1 60 Hz Dense UNSM-Slow Surface Modification
(2017) compression
UNSM-Fast (UNSM)-Slow
As-fabricated SLMed
Resonant test HIPed 900 ◦ C SLMed Ultrasonic surface
Tension-
[133] Yan et al. (2019) machine (QBG-100, − 1 130 Hz Dense Ultrasonic surface mechanical attrition
compression
China) mechanical attrition treated treated (SMAT)
(SMAT)
As-built (AB-1)
As-built (AB-2)
Instron Electropuls Stress relieved (SR) Hot Isostatically Pressed
Hooreweder Compression-
[79] E10.000 with 10 kN 0.1 15 Hz Porous Hot Isostatically Pressed and Chemically Etched
et al. (2017) compression
force cell (HIP) (HIP-CE)
Hot Isostatically Pressed and
Chemically Etched (HIP-CE)
[82] − 1 120 Hz Porous As-built (CUB 2S)
(continued on next page)
179
Table 6 (continued )
[ref] Author Name HCF machine Stress Frequency Porous/ Mode Post processing Optimum result
ratio Dense
As-built (CUB NS, CUB S,

CUB 2S, CYL NS, CYL S, and
RUMUL Mikrotron
Dallago et al. Tension- CYL 2S)
20 kN resonant
(2018) compression HIPed (CUB NS, CUB S, CUB
testing machine
2S, CYL NS, CYL S, and CYL
2S)
Nanocrystal Surface Modification (UNSM) treatment can also signifi

cantly improve the surface finish, decrease porosity, increase surface
hardness, and coverts residual stresses from tensile to compressive.
These enhancement in properties were reported to be more prominent
for slower rotation of UNSM-treatment and claimed that this treatment
can efficiently improve the fatigue life of the 3D-printed Ti-6AL-4V alloy
[132]. Yan et al. [133] claimed that ultrasonic surface mechanical
attrition treatment (SMAT) helps in generation of a nanostructured layer
(comprises of nanocrystalline grain layer, sub grain layer, and a coex
istence layer of fine and coarse grains) on the surface of SLMed Ti6Al4 V
alloy, which further provides improved fatigue resistance of 580 MPa as
compared to 290 MPa for as-fabricated SLMed Ti-6Al-4V alloy. More
over, this SMAT process had shown even better performance with fa
tigue behavior as compared to HIP processed alloy [133].
Recently, researchers have explored the possibility of induced
porosity to increase biocompatibility of Ti-6Al-4V alloy [119]. However,
Fig. 30. S-N curves for as-built and different post-treated conditions [113].
the fatigue strength still has to play a major role in increasing the
life-span of an implant [119]. Hooreweder et al. [79] studied four
different conditioned porous biomaterials as represented in Table 6 for
fatigue performance. Fig. 34 shows the influence of post treatment on
the fatigue behavior of SLMed porous TI-6Al-4V alloy.
It was reported that SR and HIP treatments have a slight influence in
increasing the fatigue life, while HIP + CE has significantly improved
the fatigue strength. This may owe to the more ductile microstructure
and reduced stress concentration factor near the nodes of the unit cells,
with the processing to HIP + CE. Wauthle et al. [121] observed a sig
nificant variation in the microstructure of SLMed Ti6Al4 V alloy build
with AB condition, stress relieved (SR) condition, and HIP treatment.
However, in all three cases, prior β grains were reported to be oriented in
the build direction [121]. After HIP treatment, laminar α + β phase was
observed, which results in improved ductility. Further, Wauthle et al.
[121] claimed that HIP treatment should be opted for specimens with
cyclically loaded applications to enhance its fatigue strength, owing to
its high ductility [121]. For porous SLMed Ti-6Al-4V, Dallago et al. [82]
Fig. 31. Stress vs number of cycles to failure (S-N) curves of the investigated had claimed that HIP does not have significant influence on the fatigue
sample conditions [42]. behavior of SLMed porous Ti-6Al-4V alloy. However, the staggering
(built design) has a positive effect on fatigue resistance mainly in case of
the fatigue behavior. HIP along with surface polishing was reported to cubic samples as compared to the cylindrical samples [82].
be decreasing the amount and number of surface defects, which in turn
increase the fatigue resistance. For lower number of cycles, the effect of 4.6. Effect of post-processing on biocompatibility
HIP is found to be to some extent; but it appeared as around 90 %
improved life for higher cycles (~107 cycles) with respect to all During the breakthrough in manufacturing paradigm through 3D
remaining stress-relieved categories [124]. Further, no major influence printing, for transplant and real-time injury tackling, it aids biological
of built direction on fatigue performance was reported for SLMed materials like titanium to attain the requirements in customized manner.
Ti6AL4 V alloy [124]. However, effect of build direction was reported to In order to diminish the difference between human bone and implant
be significant on fatigue performance by Edwards and Ramulu [54] and stiffness, cellular solids (scaffolds) are considered as the prominent op
Liu et al. [53]. Gong et al. [39] claimed an obvious fact that defects act as tion which in-turn improves the Osseo-integration behavior. Conse
a detrimental for fatigue performance, however, importantly no signif quently, it favors the bone in-growth and cell-adhesion through
icant differences between cylindrical and double-conical defects were controlled pore characteristics. Again, several times, thermal treatments
observed by the researchers [39]. Moreover, Wycisk et al. [51] claimed and/or coatings of biomedical materials are often used on the surfaces of
that shot-peening increases the chances of crack initiation from internal the substrate material to increase the suitability of implants. For critical
pores and becomes detrimental to fatigue performance. On the other applications, patient’s medical imaging itself is used to derive patient-
side, polishing was reported to help in increasing the fatigue limit accorded devices compatible to patient’s morphology through mini
SLMed Ti-6Al-4V alloy up to range of wrought material [51]. mizing surgery time and possible rejection risk.
Contrarily, Zhang et al. [132] has reported that even Ultrasonic Following the utilizations of AM in making orthopedic implants,
scaffolds, artificial organs, bio-chips and devices, the study and
180
Fig. 32. SEM micrographs of the microstructures of (a) SLMed, (b) HIPed, (c) HT-920, (d) and (d′ ) HT-850-550 Ti-6Al-4V specimens [120].
(As − A0 )
Cell growth (%) = x100 (2)
(Ac − A0 )
where As and Ac are the absorbance of the sample and cells grown on the
titanium disks (control) respectively, and A0 is the blank value (no cells).
Corrosion resistance in the in-vitro condition is studied usually using the
phosphate buffer saline (PBS) fluid. In the present section, the discussion
has been done encompassing the biological compatibility of Ti-6Al-4V
alloys based on comprehensive review works and latest findings.
For biocompatible metal, long-term consistency of functional im
plants or prosthesis is ensured through its corrosion behavior, and
naturally grabbed the high interest. For dental implants, similar
approach has been considered by Vandenbroucke and Kruth (2007) for
SLMed Ti-6Al-4V alloy to ensure the biocompatibility and favorable
corrosion behavior was observed [46]. Indicating surface treatment as a
possible approach, corrosion rate in the blasted one found greater than
Fig. 33. Fatigue performances of SLMed, HIPed, HT-920 and HT-850-550 Ti- the ground specimens, and also higher compared to milled and cast
6Al-4V specimens [120]. variants as a consequence of higher ion emission in the former case.
For better tissue regeneration, 3D printing of scaffolds found as
enhancement of biocompatibility of the titanium Ti-6Al-4V alloys in the reasonable one and corresponding bone-like biocompatibility and me
human body appeared as one of the most interesting field of investiga chanical properties are need to be overviewed to meet the balancing
tion. To attain the target, in-vitro and then in-vivo (on animal) experi situation between high porosity, strength and energy absorption capa
mentations are carried out for both wrought and AMed medical grades bility too [136]. For the in-vivo material/biological performance lasting
before arriving to a firm conclusion for clinical trial. Also, uncertainties of porous metallic implants, the AMed produced implants is also
of biocompatibility test are essential to consider [134]. Most of the required to design using topology optimization techniques [17]. In
important aspects of bio-fabrication using AM has been highlighted in parallel, for metallic cellular scaffold manufacturing, SLM found to be
[135] to give benefit for health-care related application purpose. For potential for customized orthopedic implants. Tan et al. (2017) pre
longevity of the load-bearing implants, it must be corrosion resistive in sented comprehensive study of SLM-build Ti-6Al-4V scaffolds for the
the synovial body fluid. Also, the cell growth on the bio-implant needs to same implant, and proposed the functionally graded cellular structure as
be thoroughly studied. It is calculated as follows [42,82] considering the a specification having higher porosity with large pores at the outer to
normalized absorbance values w.r.t the total sample surface area: denser at the core region [134]. To identify the effect of specimen
structure on cell growth (%), Dallago et al. (2018) considered the
181
Fig. 34. Influence of post treatment on the fatigue behavior of SLMed porous TI-6Al-4V alloy [79].
SLM-built ELI grade devising symmetrical (cylindrical or cubic) and the Chen et al. (2019) studied the cell adhesion and proliferation behavior of
structural characteristics (non-staggered or staggered) for cell prolifer SLM-fabricated Grade 23 samples after MAO treatment at different po
ation testing on MG-63 cell line. The results indicate the cubic structures larization voltage ranging from 200 to 400 V at an interval of 50 V
to be more suitable for in-growth, enlightening a weaker performance of [141]. Besides affecting the coating morphology, the sample modified at
the staggered structure compared to the regular one (as shown in 300 V found optimum in terms of optimal surface topography, high
Fig. 35) [82]. Again the uniform and graded porous structures of dental bonding strength, better bioactivity and no cytotoxicity effect.
implants having different pore sizes, strut thickness and core density Another approach of bio-compatibility enhancement was observed
have been found to be strongly supportive for cell growth of SLMed by Kao et al. (2018) through application of combinations of gas
Grade 23 parts [137]. Also, the porosity and pore sizes variation also nitriding, polishing and carbon nitride (CN) coating deposition on cy
studied for the same ELI alloy using both in-vitro and in-vivo charac lindrical Ti6Al4V samples [142]. Compared to the original one, the
terization, and Chen et al. (2020) concluded from the investigation that deposition of CN coating on both the original and the gas nitrided
the SLMed porous scaffold with a pore size of 500 μm and porosity of 60 samples improves the biocompatibility and corrosion resistance by
% is a promising parameter for the fabrication of porous load-bearing around 1.4 and 1.7 times respectively. They also extended their work for
implants [138]. the SLMed specimens of identical geometry and used surface nitriding
Without limiting the approach only within surface texture modifi followed by CN or Diamond-like-carbon (DLC) -doped Ti coating
cation, investigating the suitable coating on the substrate metal (Ti-6Al- deposition [143]. After 5 days’ culture, the increase in cell number of the
4V alloy) found to be of highly interesting for the application purpose. duplex treated, i.e., nitrided and then DLC-coated sample shows excel
For example, Wang et al. (2015) have briefed their overview regarding lent biocompatibility, along with no evidence of cytotoxicity. Also, their
micro-arc oxidation (MAO) coating process and also highlighted the mechanical as well as metallurgical study identified the aforesaid
strategies for coating property improvement [139]. This coating process coating condition as an excellent candidate for the load-bearing implant
exhibits comparatively better bio-properties by combining it to thermal fabrication.
treatment, sandblasting, shot-peening, or electrophoretic deposition. On Sarao et al. (2018) considered one more approach of surface modi
EBM-prototyped porous structure, the aforesaid coating process was fication on implantable Ti-6Al-4V comprising hydroxyapatite (HA) and
applied by Xiu et al. (2016) to study the in-vitro and in-vivo (rabbit HA/TiO2 coating using High Velocity Flame Spray technique [144].
model) characteristics for bone in-growth and bone/implanting bonding From in-vitro study on human osteosarcoma cell, continuous favorable
[140]. These MAO-treated scaffolds might expose industrial and ortho cell proliferation was observed for both the coatings enhancing
pedic applications through exhibiting an improved bioactivity in apatite biocompatibility over an incubation period of 14 days, but surface
forming ability, cyto-compatibility, and alkaline phosphatase activity. roughness identified as insignificant for the cell proliferation. Alongwith
that, HA coating showed comparatively better in-vitro corrosion and
bioactive nature compared to HA/TiO2-coated and bare cylindrical
Ti-specimens. From the investigation of Yuan et al. (2018), cytotoxicity
and proliferation assessment on the 3D printed Porous Ti-6Al-4V
structure of the hydroxyapatite (HA) deposited implant scaffolds
revealed no cytotoxicity on human osteoblasts [145]. Furthermore, the
proliferation possibility of hFOB1.19 cells through this coating also
promoted.
Using another variant of coating on Ti–6Al–4 V alloy, Veerachamy
et al. (2018) experimentally found that the nanostructured Al2O3+13 wt
% TiO2 as a top coat and μ-YSZ (yttrium stabilized zirconia) as a bond
coat using atmospheric plasma spraying (APS) process can be considered
as a suitable coatings for high antibacterial activity and superior cell
compatibility [146]. Triple-layered thin-film coating approach has been
considered by Hamdi et al. (2019) with a combination of HAp/A
l2O3/TiO2 coatings sprayed by radio frequency (RF) magnetron sput
tering [147]. They detected that for biocompatibility, the HAp layers
played the substantial role, while the intermediate Al2O3/TiO2 layers
enhance the substrate corrosion behavior. On the other hand, in-vitro
Fig. 35. Cell growth (%) on the porous scaffolds specimen at different incu
bation times [82].
studies including the Cell Counting KIT(CCK)-8 assay, cell attachment,
182
and alizarin red staining tests indicate that calcium modified zeolite are the established way-out for the bio-compatibility enhancement.
coatings can promote the adhesion, proliferation, and diff ;erentiation of Summary
rabit bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (r-BMSCs) compared with The various post processing techniques considered by different re
the bare TC4 scaff ;olds [148]. Kazemi et al. (2020) studied the effect of searchers on SLMed Ti6Al4 V alloy in order to enhance the mechanical
HA/TiN coating on wrought alloy having the similar structure (e.g., and metallurgical properties have been systematically discussed. Some
higher roughness) with bone and was capable of accelerating the cell of significant annotations are given below
growth [149]. So, it may provide a good adhesion to the substrate and
also prevent the release of toxic elements (aluminum and vanadium). • Annealing in the temperature range of 600–750 ◦ C for 2 h has been
From Fig. 36, the highest surviving cell found to belong to HA/TiN considered as a promising post processing technique by majority of
coating and the lowest amount of the same for primary titanium alloy. the researchers working of SLMed Ti6Al4 V alloy. However, it has
The fundamental requirements of metal bio-implants of supporting been established through different studies conducted on commercial
cell activity and providing superior mechanical properties also can be grade Ti6Al4 V alloy that annealing near to β-transus produce
achieved through triply periodic minimal surface (TPMS) structures microstructure transformations having most improved mechanical
exhibiting great bio-mimicry features [150]. During electrochemical properties. Therefore, more investigations are sought for annealing
behavior and in-vitro biocompatibility evaluation, Hadad et al. (2020) in the range of 900–1050 ◦ C for SLMed Ti6Al4 V alloy.
proposed a new class of organic-inorganic (O-I) hybrid nanocomposite • From the analysis of the data reported in various studied, it has been
coatings based on tetramethylorthosilicate (TMOS) and γ- meth noted that the solution treatment, as post processing technique for
acryloxypropyltrimethoxysilane (MAPTMS) as organofunctional alkox SLMed Ti6Al4 V alloy, was found to be most effective in the tem
ysilanes precursors and dimethyltrimethylsilylphosphite (DMTMSP) as a perature range of 800–1080 ◦ C. However, solution treatment near
phosphorus precursor [151]. The extent of intermolecular condensation and below β-transus was observed to be most suitable temperature
is increased due to addition of DMTMSP to TMOS-MAPTMS hybrids and range for producing duplex microstructure having excellent combi
cross-linking was observed. Both normal human osteoblast in-vitro nation of strength and ductility. Therefore, it is recommended that
biocompatibility and corrosion resistance were enhanced in coatings solution treatment in this temperature range should be considered
containing DMTMSP. These prepared films by dip coating onto circular for more rigorous investigations on SLMed Ti6Al4 V alloy.
Ti6Al4 V disks also appear as a promising alternative to simpler coatings • HIP has been established as a powerful alternative to minimize
and wholly metallic prostheses. Liao et al. (2020) studied the effect of porosity related in-process defects. Several researches have high
high-power impulse magnetron sputtering (HiPIMS) -deposited TiN on lighted its fruitfulness in fatigue life improvement. Still further
the medical grade of Ti6Al4 V with various surface modifications (O2 investigation is required regarding the selection of HIP parameters i.
plasma treatment/ graft polymerization/ BMP2 immobilization) were e. temperature and pressure and subsequently its impact on metal
investigated for the in-vitro and in-vivo biocompatibility [152]. The TiN lurgical behavior and pore collapsing phenomenon in as-fabricated
modified with Bone Morphogenetic Protein-2 (BMP2) through O2 SLMed Ti6Al4 V product.
plasma treatment and acrylamide (AAm) grafting identified as beneficial • Shot peening of SLMed Ti6Al4 V alloy generate compressive stresses
for the in vitro and in vivo biocompatibility. Another surface texturing largely on the surface, which is responsible for enhancing the fatigue
can be achieved through micro/femtosecond lasing action as high life of the component. However, there is ample chance of surface
lighted by Li et al. (2020) [153]. They observed the good bioactivity of damage leading to early crack initiation under cyclic loading, which
Grade 5 alloy in simulated body fluids and excellent biocompatibility in is detrimental for fatigue performance. Therefore, due care should be
cell proliferation. Without chemically altering the alloy, the creation of taken while using shot peening as post processing technique. Shot
controlled, reproducible, bio-inspired micro/nano-topographies may peening followed by electro polishing may be one of the alternative
improve the adhesion, alignment and proliferation of osteoblastic cells. approaches to arrest the tendency of early crack initiation. On the
From the extensive study, it has been observed that as-discussed other hand, sand blasting is largely useful for improving the surface
post-processing techniques are not suitable for the durability and long- topography.
term success of metallic implants biocompatibility enhancement. For • It is established that fatigue performance of SLMed Ti-6Al-4V can
instance, through MG-63 cell growth study at different times on ELI surely be improved by HIP treatment (920 ◦ C/ 2 h, 100 MPa) as
alloy, Benedetti et al. (2017) observed no significant differences due to compared to conventional heat treatment. HIP followed by chemical
shot-peening and electropolishing alike mechanical properties [42]. etching further improves its fatigue behavior.
Evidently, after discussions, the note for future investigators can be kept • Apart from HIP, Ultrasonic Nanocrystal Surface Modification at slow
that surface treatments and molecular-scale coatings (bio-friendly, speed and Ultrasonic Surface Mechanical Attrition Treated (SMAT)
corrosion resistant and good adherence with the Ti-6Al-4V alloy) design
Fig. 36. Cell viability of Ti-6Al-4V at different combinations of HA/TiN nanostructured coating [149].
183
have also also exhibited promising results in improving the fatigue • Scant work has been reported regarding the remedial action for
resistance. minimization of defects. However, proper printing parameters
• Molecular-scale coating of bio-friendly materials (e.g., HAp, TiO2, quantification and post-treatments are reported to be some of the
CN etc.) with good corrosion resistivity and adherence to substrate is possible ways that can lead to overcome this menace. In view of this
highly considered for bio-implants. For coating, MAO technology has observation of present review, more research is required to investi
found to be one of the most useful processes. Hence, coating domain gate the efficacy of different methods.
may be an extensive investigation area for future also. • Scarce studies have been reported regarding identification of hot
• Surface treatments, e.g., surface nitriding, lasing action assist to tears and fish scales in SLMed Ti6Al4 V alloy. Therefore, it needs to
make parts biocompatible. be explored further to reveal the reasons of formations of hot tears
• From structural point of implants, cellular structures (scaffolds) have and fish scales as well as suitable measures to minimize them.
been identified as very much useful; and its topology optimization • Annealing in the temperature range of 600–750 ◦ C for 2 h has been
also enhances the same. So, it also demands more topological study considered as a promising post processing technique by majority of
as per the authors’ opinion. the researchers working of SLMed Ti6Al4 V alloy. However, it has
• Conventional mechanical post-processing approaches hardly in been established through different studies conducted to wrought
crease the biocompatibility. Ti6Al4 V alloy that annealing near to β-transus produce micro
• Understanding of the underlying mechanisms involved during structure transformations having most improved mechanical prop
various post-treatments over the as-built condition for improvement erties. Therefore, more investigations are sought for annealing in the
of mechanical properties is the potential area for future explorations. range of 900–1050 ◦ C for SLMed Ti6Al4 V alloy.
• A combination of post processing methods is also worth exploring for • Solution treatment, as post processing technique for SLMed Ti6Al4 V
reducing the defects and improving the performance of alloy in alloy, was found to be most effective in the temperature range of
different engineering applications. Cryogenic treatment has estab 800–1080 ◦ C. However, solution treatment near and below β-transus
lished its efficacy in improving the engineering performance of many was observed to be most suitable temperature range for producing
commercial ferrous as well as non-ferrous alloys including titanium duplex microstructure having excellent combination of strength and
alloys [154] investigating the effect of cryogenic treatment on the ductility. Therefore, it is recommended that solution treatment in
mechanical behavior of SLMed Ti6Al4 V alloy will be another this temperature range should be considered for more rigorous in
important dimension for future research. vestigations on SLMed Ti6Al4 V alloy.
• HIP has been established as a powerful alternative to minimize
5. Recommendations and future openings porosity related in-process defects. Several researches have high
lighted its fruitfulness in fatigue life improvement. Still further
Adoption of SLM process for fabrication of Ti6Al4 V parts appears as investigation is required regarding the selection of HIP parameters i.
the integrating influence of functionality (e.g. mechanical properties, e. temperature and pressure and subsequently its impact on metal
physical properties) and intrinsic geometry generation in-terms of lurgical behavior and pore collapsing phenomenon in as-fabricated
improving manufacturing flexibility. SLMed Ti6Al4 V components yield SLMed Ti6Al4 V product.
a sound microstructure, and consequently mechanical properties. Based • Shot peening of SLMed Ti6Al4 V alloy generate compressive stresses
on exhaustive review of key contributions of many researchers, largely on the surface, which is responsible for enhancing the fatigue
following outcomes are revealed. life of the component. However, there is ample chance of surface
damage leading to early crack initiation under cyclic loading, which
• 30 μm has been well established as the optimum layer thickness for is detrimental for fatigue performance. Therefore, due care should be
SLM Ti6Al4 V alloy. While hatch spacing can be selected anywhere taken while using shot peening as post processing technique. Shot
between 61–100 μm for attaining optimum mechanical properties. peening followed by electro polishing may be one of the alternative
• In case of scan speed, most of the research studies have considered approaches to arrest the tendency of early crack initiation. On the
the range between 601–800 mm/s for Ti6Al4 V alloy. However, an other hand, sand blasting is largely useful for improving the surface
equally good number of investigations have recommended/used topography.
scan speed in the range of 200–600 mm/s. Therefore, there lies • Understanding of the underlying mechanisms involved during
challenging scenario for exploring further, the effect of variable scan various post-treatments over the as-built condition for improvement
speed (in the range of 200–800 mm/s) in order to obtain an appro of mechanical properties is the potential area for future explorations.
priate blend of microstructure and properties of SLMed Ti6Al4 V • A combination of post processing methods is also worth exploring for
alloys consistently at lower cost. reducing the defects and improving the performance of alloy in
• Laser power in the range of 151–200 W is recommended for different engineering applications. Cryogenic treatment has estab
augmented mechanical properties. Further, a reasonably good lished its efficacy in improving the engineering performance of many
number of studies have recommended lower laser power in range of commercial ferrous as well as non-ferrous alloys including titanium
51–100 W. Therefore, there is need of more rigorous investigations alloys. Investigating the effect of cryogenic treatment on the me
to reach optimum laser power to ensure minimum cost of SLMed chanical behavior of SLMed Ti6Al4 V alloy will be another important
Ti6Al4 V alloy. dimension for future research.
• In case of SLMed Ti6Al4 V product, the more prominent defects are
LOF, gas pore formation, anisotropy, residual stress accumulation Till date SLMed Ti6Al4 V is found to be one of the most demandable
and balling. Out of the different as-reviewed defects, in terms of and promising area, so it is still desirable to perform in-depth research
product performance during application, the ones caused by insuf studies for its fruitful industrial applications. This review shows the
ficient energy input (e.g. LOF, balling, as-built surface roughness) are noteworthy progress by the authors for achieving better scientific un
found to be more detrimental than those by excessive energy (e.g. gas derstanding of the structure, properties and fitness of SLM process for
pores, hot tear). manufacture of Ti6Al4 V parts.
• The SLMed process parameters such as scan speed and laser power
influence the generation of defects the most. Therefore, due care Declaration of Competing Interest
should be taken while selecting these two process parameters in
order to minimize the defects. The work presented in this paper is, to the best of my knowledge and
belief, original, except as acknowledged in the text, and the material has
184
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other university. There is no conflict of interest to declare.
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https://doi.org/10.1080/14686996.2017.1361305.
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Journal of Manufacturing Processes 64 (2021) 161–187

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Manufacturing Processes

Selective laser melting of Ti6Al4V alloy: Process parameters, defects and

including tissue engineering, cardiac simulator, intraocular lenses and

Nomenclature HCF high cycle fatigue

manufacturing (AM) is based on layer-by-layer rapid material build-up.

Fig. 1. Basic Process Flow of AM Technique.

[46] Vandenbroucke and M3 dense 95 125 130 30

Fig. 7. Hardness of SLMed Samples [93].

consists of four variables only, so not only a particular window selection

Improper optimization of process

3.2. Gas pores 3.4. Residual stress accumulation

3.7. As-built surface roughness

The various defects of SLMed fabricated Ti6Al4 V alloy as reported in

• In case of SLMed Ti6Al4 V product, the more prominent defects are

4.1. Effect of heat treatments

Most preferable heat treatment technique for residual stress removal,

4.2. Effect of hot isostatic pressing (HIP)

In order to improve the mechanical behavior of SLMed Ti-6Al-4V,

[119] 920 100 2 FC

Note: FC- Furnace cool, NR- Not reported.

established by Qiu et al. [122] through SEM fractography images (refer

As-built (CUB NS, CUB S,

Nanocrystal Surface Modification (UNSM) treatment can also signifi­

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Nanocrystal Surface Modification (UNSM) treatment can also signifi