UNIT-2

MEASURMENTS AND SCIENTFIC METHODS

2.1. Measurements and Units in Chemistry

Chemistry is a quantitative science. The experiments that you carry out in the laboratory and the
calculations that you perform almost always involve measured quantities with specified
numerical values.
The measurements chemists make are often used in calculations to obtain other related
quantities. Different instruments (devices) enable us to measure a substance’s properties.
Measurement of Macroscopic properties can be determined directly whereas Measurement of
microscopic properties can be determined indirectly.
Measurement is a comparison of an unknown quantity with a known fixed quantity of the same
kind. The value obtained on measuring a quantity is called its magnitude. The magnitude of a
quantity is expressed in numbers and in its unit.
Example: To measure the length of a rod, we use a meter scale. If the length to be measured is 15
times the unit meter, then we write the length of the rod = 15 meters. Here, 15 is the magnitude
(numerical value) and meter is the unit.

Funnel

Erlenmeyer Beaker Burette Measuring Balance

flask Cylinder

Volumetric Bunsen Thermo Tong Test tubes

Flasks Burner -meter
Fig. Some measuring Devices in Chemistry Laboratory.

SI Units (The International System of Unit)

Our current system of measurement began in 1790.

1|Page ANTENEH
In 1960, international committee met in France to establish the International System of Units, a
revised metric system now accepted by scientists throughout the world. The units of this system
are called SI units, from the French Système International d’Unités.
General Features of SI Units
As the following table shows, the SI system is based on a set of seven fundamental units, or
base units, each of which is identified with a physical quantity.
Table: SI base units
Physical Quantity (Dimension) Unit Name Symbol
Mass kilogram kg
Length Meter m
Time second s
Temperature kelvin K
Electric current ampere A
Amount of substance mole mol
Luminous intensity candela cd

Derived Units
All other units, called derived units, are combinations of the seven base units. It is a unit of
measurement obtained by multiplication or division of the base units of a system without the
introduction of numerical factors.
Table: SI derived units
Quantity Unit Unit Derivation
2
Area Square meter (m ) Length x Width
3
Volume cubic meter( m ) Length x Width x Height
Density 𝑘𝑔 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
kilograms per cubic meter ( 3 )
𝑚 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
Speed 𝑚 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Meter per second ( )
𝑠 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
Force 𝑚 Mass x Acceleration
Kilogram Meter per second square (𝑘𝑔. 𝑠2 )
Acceleration 𝑚 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑
Meter per second square ( 2 )
𝑠 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
Pressure 𝐾𝑔 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
Kilogram per meter second square ( )
𝑚.𝑠 2 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
Energy 𝑚2 Force x Distance
Kilogram Meter square per second square (𝑘𝑔. )
𝑠2
𝑚 𝐾𝑔 𝑚2
Note: N (Newton) = (𝑘𝑔. 𝑠2 ), Pa (Pascal) = (𝑚.𝑠2 ) and J (Joule) = (𝑘𝑔. )
𝑠2
Among the derived units; Volume and Density are discussed as follow.
Volume
The volume of a cube is its length cubed, (length)3. Thus, the derived SI unit of volume is the SI
unit of length, m, raised to the third power (m3). The cubic meter, m3, is the volume of a cube
that is 1m on each edge

2|Page ANTENEH
Often it is more convenient in chemistry to quote volumes in cubic centimeters: cm3 (sometimes
written cc), or cubic decimeters: dm3.
Another volume unit used in chemistry is the liter (L), which equals a cubic decimeter, dm 3, and
is slightly larger than a quart.
There are 1000 milliliters (mL) in a liter, and 1mL is the same volume as1cm3; 1mL = 1cm3. In
addition, 1L = 1dm3 = 103m3.
Note: Solid volume is measured in cubic meters. It is derived from the length times width times
height (l x w x h) of a solid. It is measured in cubic meters because it is found
by multiplying three lengths together.
Density
Density is the ratio of mass to volume, or mass per unit volume. Mathematically, the relationship
for density can be written in the following way.
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑚
density = or d =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑣
The SI unit for density is derived from the base units for mass and volume, the kilogram and the
cubic meter, respectively, and can be expressed as kilograms per cubic meter, kg/m3.
You will often see density expressed in grams per cubic centimeter, g/cm3, or grams per
milliliter, g/mL. The densities of gases are generally reported either in kilograms per cubic
meter, kg/m3, or in grams per liter, g/L.
Density is a physical property of any substance and it is unique to that substance. Density can be
used to identify and also determine how pure a substance is.
Example 1. If the length of the room is 5.0 meters, the width is 3.0 meters, and the height is 2.5
meters, then the volume of the room is:
Solution
Volume = l x w x h = 5.0m × 3.0m × 2.5m = 37.5m3
Example 2. A large block of oak has a mass of 185 kg and a volume of 0.25 m3. Find its density
in kg/m3.
Solution
𝑚 185
Density = = = 740kg/m3.
𝑣 0.25
Example 3. What is the volume of a bar of gold that has a mass of 14.83kg. The density of gold
is 19.32g/cm³.
Solution
Step 1: Convert kilograms to grams.
14.83kg × 1000g/1kg = 14,830g
Step 2: Calculate the volume.
𝑚 14,830𝑔
V= = = 767.6cm³.
𝑣 19.32𝑔/𝑐𝑚3
Question-1. A man receives a ring from his fiancée, who tells him that it is made out of platinum.
Before the wedding, he notices that the ring feels a little light for its size and decides to measure
its density. He places the ring on a balance and finds that it has a mass of 3.15g. He then finds

3|Page ANTENEH
that the ring displaces 0.233cm3 of water. Is the ring made of platinum? Assume that the
measurements occurred at 20°C
The Density of Some Common Substances at 20 °C
Substance Density (g,cm3)
Charcoal (from oak) 0.57
Platinum 21.4
Gold 19.3
Titanium 4.51
Lead 11.4
Question-2. The density of copper decreases as temperature increases (as does the density of
most substances). Which statement accurately describes the changes in a sample of copper when
it is warmed from room temperature to 95 °C?
A. The sample becomes lighter. B. The sample becomes heavier.
C. The sample expands. D. The sample contracts.
Common SI-English Equivalent Quantities
The following table shows some useful SI quantities for length, volume, and mass, along with
their equivalents in the English system.
Quantity SI SI Equivalents English English to
Equivalents SI Equivalent
Length 1 kilometer (km) 1000 (103) meters 0.6214 mile (mi) 1 mile=1.609 km
1 meter (m) 100 (102) centimeters 1.094 yards (yd) 1 yard =0.9144 m
1000 millimeters (mm) 39.37 inches (in) 1 foot(ft)= 0.3048m
1 centimeter (cm) 0.01 (102) meters 0.3937 inch 1 inch=2.54cm
Volume 1 cubic meter (m3) 1,000,000 (106) 35.31 cubic feet 1 cubic foot =
cubic centimeters (ft3) 0.02832 m3
1 cubic decimeter 1000 cubic centimeters 0.2642 gallon 1 gallon= 3.785 dm3
(dm3) (gal)
1.057 quarts (qt) 1 quart = 0.9464 dm3
1 quart = 946.4 cm3
1 cubic centimeter 0.001 dm3 0.03381 fluid 1 fluid ounce = 29.57
(cm3) ounce cm3
Mass 1 kilogram (kg) 1000 grams 2.205 pounds (lb) 1 pound = 0.4536 kg
1 gram (g) 1000 milligrams (mg) 0.03527 ounce 1 ounce = 28.35 g
(oz)
Heat and Temperature
Heat is a type of energy transfer in which energy flows from a warmer substance or object to a
colder one spontaneously. ·
Temperature (T) is something that measures the intensity of heat, the hotness or coldness of an
object.

4|Page ANTENEH
Three systems for measuring temperature are widely used: the Celsius scale, the Kelvin scale,
and the Fahrenheit scale. The first two temperature systems are used in the physical sciences, and
the third is used in many of the engineering sciences.
The Celsius scale was originally based
on the assignment of 0°C to the
freezing point of water and 100°C to its
boiling point at sea level (Figure)

Because the difference between the

freezing point of water and the boiling
point of water is 100° on both the
Celsius and Kelvin scales, the size of a
degree Celsius (°C) and a kelvin (K)
are precisely the same (the size of the
kelvin "degree" is the same as the size
of the Celsius "degree). Conversion
between these two scales simply require
an adjustment for the different zero points.
Temperature (Kelvin) = temperature (Celsius) + 273.15 or
Temperature (Celsius) = temperature (Kelvin)  273.15
Converting between the Fahrenheit and Celsius scales need to consider two adjustments: one for
degree size and one for the zero point. First, we must account for the difference in degree size.
This can be done by reconsidering Fig above. Notice that since 2120F = 1000C and 320F = 00C,
212  32 = 180 Fahrenheit degrees = 100  0 = 100 Celsius degrees.
Thus 1800 on the Fahrenheit scale is equivalent to 1000 on the Celsius scale, and the unit factor is
1800 𝐹 90 𝐹 1.80 𝐹
or or
1000 𝐶 50 𝐶 10 𝐶
or the reciprocal, depending on the direction in which we need to go.
Now, to convert degrees Celsius to degrees Fahrenheit: we write
90 𝐹 1.80 𝐹
°F = (𝐶 𝑥 ) + 320F = (𝐶 𝑥 ) + 320F
50 𝐶 1.00 𝐶
To convert degrees Fahrenheit to degrees Celsius: we write,
50 𝐶 10 𝐶
°C = (°F 32°F) = (°F 32°𝐹)
90 𝐹 1.80 𝐹
Example 1. A sick child has a temperature of 40.00°C. What is the child’s temperature in (a) K
and (b) °F?
Solution
(a) K = °C + 273.15K = °C + 273.15
∴ K = 40.00 + 273.15 = 313.15K
1.80 𝐹
(b) °F = (𝐶 𝑥 ) + 320F
1.00 𝐶

5|Page ANTENEH
 1.80 𝐹
∴ °F = (40.00°C 𝑥 ) + 320F = 104.00°F
1.00 𝐶
Example 2. Normal body temperature is 98.6°F. Convert this temperature to the Celsius and
Kelvin scales.
Solution
10 𝐶
i. °C = (°F  32°F)
1.80 𝐹
10 𝐶
∴ °C = (98.6°F 32°F) = 37.0°C
1.80 𝐹
ii. Thus 98.6°F corresponds to 37.0°C.
Now we can convert to the Kelvin scale:
K = °C + 273.15K = °C + 273.15
∴ K =37.0°C + 273.15 = 310.2K
Question-1. How is the size of a degree on Celsius scale related to the size of a degree on Kelvin
scale?
A. 1.8 degree on Celsius scale = 1 degree on Kelvin scale.
B. 1 degree on Celsius scale = 1.8 degree on Kelvin scale.
C. 1.8 degree on Celsius scale = 0.5 degree on Kelvin scale.
D. 1 degree on Celsius scale = 1 degree on Kelvin scale.
Common Prefixes Used in SI Units
The SI prefixes or metric prefixes are an indicator that precedes a basic unit of measure to
indicate a multiple or sub-multiple of the unit.
The SI prefixes or metric prefixes are particularly useful and reduce the number of zeros required
to define a given quantity, making it not only easier to read but also to manage and manipulate.
The factor expressed as a factor to the power of ten, SI / metric prefix, the symbol used and the
actual decimal number are tabulated below.
Table- Common Decimal Prefixes Used with SI Units
Prefix Abbreviation Multiplier Factor Example
Peta P 1,000,000,000,000,000 1015 1 petawatt (PW) = 1 x 1015 watts
Tera T 1,000,000,000,000 1012 1 terawatt (TW) = 1 x 1012 watts
Giga G 1,000,000,000 109 1 gigawatt (GW) = 1 x 109 watts
Mega M 1,000,000 106 1 megawatt (MW) = 1 x 106 watts
Kilo k 1000 103 1 kilowatt (kW) = 1 x 103 watts
Hecto h 100 102 1 hectowatt (hW) = 1 x 102 watts
Deca da 10 101 1 decawatt (daW) = 1 x 101 watts
Deci d 0.1 101 1 deciwatt (dW) = 1 x 10-1 watt
Centi c 0.01 102 1 centiwatt (cW) = 1 x10-2 watt
Milli m 0.001 103 1 milliwatt (mW) = 1 x 10-3 watt
Micro μ 0.000001 106 1 microwatt (mW) = 1 x 10-6 watt
Nano n 0.000000001 109 1 nanowatt (nW) = 1 x 10-9 wat

6|Page ANTENEH
Pico p 0.000000000001 1012 1 picowatt (pW) = 1 x 10-12 watt
Femto f 0.000000000000001 1015 1 femtowatt (fW) = 1 x 10-15 watt
Atto a 0.000000000000000001 1018 1 attowatt (aW) = 1 x 10-18 watt
Example-1; What is the name of the unit that equals (a) 109 gram, (b) 106 second, (c) 103
meter?
Solution
We can find the prefix related to each power of ten in the Table above: (a) nanogram, ng, (b)
microsecond, ms (c) millimeter, mm.
Example-2; What prefix multiplier is appropriate for reporting a measurement of 5.57 x 10-5m?
Solution
The prefix multiplier micro (106) is appropriate. The measurement using this multiplier is
55.7μm.
Uncertainty in Measurement
If you have ever measured something several times, you know that the results can vary. In
science, for a reported measurement to be useful, there must be some indication of its reliability
or uncertainty.
There are two categories of uncertainty: systematic and random.
(1) Systematic uncertainties are those which consistently cause the value to be too large or too
small. Systematic uncertainties include such things as reaction time, inaccurate meter sticks,
optical parallax and miscalibrated balances. In principle, systematic uncertainties can be
eliminated if you know they exist.
(2) Random uncertainties are variations in the measurements that occur without a predictable
pattern. If you make precise measurements, these uncertainties arise from the estimated part of
the measurement. Random uncertainty can be reduced, but never eliminated. We need a
technique to report the contribution of this uncertainty to the measured value.
Calculating Uncertainties
The uncertainty in the last number (the estimated number) is usually assumed to be 1 unless
otherwise indicated. For example, the measurement 1.86 kilograms can be taken to mean 1.86 
0.01 kilograms.
 The uncertainty in the mean value can be calculated as follows:
a. Using the half range (uncertainty can be calculated by finding half the range of the measured
values).
𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒
Uncertainty = 
2
Example-1; Some values for diameter of a wire
Readings 1 2 3 4
Diameter in mm 0.35 0.37 0.36 0.34
Solution
𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 1.42
Mean (𝑥̅ ) = = = 0.355 = 0.36
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 4

7|Page ANTENEH
Range = Highest value – Lowest Value = 0.37  0.34 = 0.03
0.03
Now half range = = 0.015 = 0.02
2
∴ Mean distance: (0.36 ± 0.02) mm
Note: range is difference between the highest and the lowest of a set of values
b. Using the reading furthest from the mean
Example-2; suppose that the time for a marble to fall a distance of 1.00m is measured 6 times
with a digital stopwatch that reads to the nearest 0.01s, and the results are 0.44s, 0.51s, 0.45s,
0.52s, 0.46s, and 0.49s.
Solution
To obtain the best estimate for the time we take the average or mean of the six measurements and
get 0.48s.
𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠
Mean (𝑥̅ ) = = 0.48s
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠
Fortunately both the values, 0.52s (the highest) and 0.44s (the lowest) have equal distance from
the average value 0.48s, therefore we can use either of the two value to calculate the uncertainty
in the mean.
0.52  0.48 = 0.04 or 0.48  0.44 = 0.04
∴ t = 0.48s ± 0.04s.
c. Resolution of the Measurement
The degree of fineness to which an instrument can be read is known as the resolution. In this
case, the ruler has a resolution of 1cm.

Using this ruler, we would record any object that is closer to the 5cm mark than to any other as
measuring 5cm. This means an object could be as short as 4.5cm, or anywhere up to 5.5cm, and
we would record its length as 5cm. We call this the uncertainty in the measurement. There are
many sources of uncertainty, but here it is the uncertainty due to the resolution of the ruler.
The uncertainty on that measurement is equal to half of the range of likely values. In this case,
the range is 5.5cm − 4.5cm=1cm, and half of the range is 0.5cm × 1= 0.5cm.We write this
uncertainty as ± 0.5cm to indicate that the true value may be as low as 5cm − 0.5cm= 4.5cm or
as high as 5cm + 0.5cm= 5.5cm.
When calculating uncertainty due to the resolution of an instrument, the range of likely values is
equal to the resolution. We can therefore say that the uncertainty is equal to half of the
resolution.
The uncertainty in a measurement can be expressed in two useful ways:
i. The absolute uncertainty in a quantity is the actual amount by which the quantity is uncertain,
e.g. if L = 6.0 ± 0.1cm, the absolute uncertainty in L is 0.1cm. Note that the absolute uncertainty
of a quantity has the same units as the quantity itself.

8|Page ANTENEH
 The table given below lists the absolute uncertainties for some equipment used in the
Chemistry lab. The absolute uncertainty expresses the margin of uncertainty associated with a
reading, a measurement, or a calculation involving several readings.
EQUIPMENT TYPICAL UNCERTAINTY
top loading balance 0.05 g
Analytical balance 0.0002g
1000 ml graduated cylinder 2ml
500 ml graduated cylinder 1ml
100 ml graduated cylinder 0.4ml
10 ml graduated cylinder 0.08ml
50 ml buret 0.10ml
Thermometer with 1°C graduations 0.5°C
Thermometer with 0.2°C graduations 0.1°C
Barometer 0.1torr
The above table shows that a weighing of 23.25g made on a top loading balance should be
reported as 23.25g ±0.05g.
ii. Percent uncertainty is fractional uncertainty expressed as a percent, i.e. fractional uncertainty
multiplied by 100. To calculate the percent uncertainty, we use
𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑦
Percent uncertainty = x 100%
𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
Example-1. Calculate percent uncertainty in the measurement 5.48 ± 0.25m
Solution
The percent uncertainty in the given measurement is as follows:
𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑦
Percent uncertainty = x 100%
𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
0.25𝑚
Percent uncertainty = x 100% = 4.6%.
5.48𝑚
Thus, the percent uncertainty in the given measurement is 5.48 ± 4.6%.
Example-2. Calculate Percentage Uncertainties for the following data
Reading 1 2 3 Average
5.00 5.17 5.09 5.09
Solution
5.17  5.00
Uncertainty = Half the Range = =  0.09
2
𝐻𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 0.09
% Uncertainty = x100 = 5.09 x 100 = 1.8 %
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
Thus, the percent uncertainty in the given measurement is 5.09 ± 1.8 %
Question-1. Analytical balance as uncertainty in measurement equal to ± 1mg then result in
terms of percentage would be if weight of compound is 10 gram
A. 10 ± 0.1% B. 10 ± 0.01% C. 10 ± 1% D. 10 ± 0.001%
Percent Error
The error of an experiment is the difference between the experimental and accepted values.

9|Page ANTENEH
The percent error is the absolute value (accepted value  experimental value) of the error,
divided by the accepted value, and multiplied by 100%.
|𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 − 𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒|
% Error = x 100%
|𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒|
Example-1. A scale measures wrongly a value as 14cm due to some marginal errors. Calculate
the percentage error if the actual measurement of the value is 10cm.
Solution
Experimental value= 14cm True value = 10cm
Then apply the formula,
|𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 − 𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒| |10𝑐𝑚 − 14𝑐𝑚|
% Error = x 100% = x 100%
|𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒| |10𝑐𝑚|
4𝑐𝑚
∴ % Error = x 100% =40 %
10𝑐𝑚
Example-2. A reaction between one mole of sodium and one mole of chloride should yield 42
grams of sodium chloride. In your experiment, the actual yield is 32.73 grams. Calculate the
percent error of your experiment.
A. 15.42% error B. 22.07% error C. 24.07% error D. 25.13% error
Solution
Theoretical yield =42g Actual yield = 32.73g
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 − 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
% Error = x 100%
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
42𝑔 − 32.73𝑔
% Error = x 100% = 22.07%
42𝑔
Question-1. Every measurement is associated with some degree of_____________
A. Direction B. Deviation C. Uncertainty D. Unit
Question-2. Systematic error may occur due to ______________
A. instrument B. methodology C. personal error D. all of these
Precision and Accuracy
Precision and accuracy are two ways that scientists think about error. Accuracy refers to how
close a measurement is to the true or accepted value. Precision refers to how close
measurements of the same item are to each other.
Precision is independent of accuracy. That means it is possible to be very precise but not very
accurate, and it is also possible to be accurate without being precise.
Precision includes two important terms:
 Repeatability: The fluctuation that results from taking multiple measurements under the same
circumstances in a short period of time.
 Reproducibility: The variation appears when employing the same measurement technique with
various instruments, and operators, and over extended time periods.
Difference between Accuracy and Precision
Accuracy Precision
Accuracy defines the closeness of the Precision defines the reproducibility of

10 | P a g e ANTENEH
measurement to the true or accepted value measurements.
Measurement can be accurate but not Measurement can be precise but not
necessarily precise. necessarily accurate.
Indicates how closely the results match the Indicates how closely results agree with one
reference value. another.
Can be calculated using just one Requires a number of measurements to be
measurement. calculated.
May be affected by the determinate error. May be affected by the indeterminate error.
Note
Determinate error (Systematic Error) is one that can be identified at any time and corrected
immediately, whereas indeterminate error (Random Error) is one that is difficult to identify or
indefinite. Systematic Error occurs frequently but may be addressed, whereas indeterminate
errors occur infrequently and cannot be removed.
We can assess the precision of a set of measurements by calculating the average deviation of the
measurements using the following formula
𝟏
Average Deviation = 𝒏 ∑/𝑿𝒊  ̅̅̅̅ 𝑿/
Example-1. Calculate the average deviation for the given data: 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14.
Solution
n=6
First let’s find the mean by using the formula,
4 + 6 + 8 + 10 + 12 + 14
Mean (𝑥̅ ) = =9
6
|4  9| + |6  9| + |8  9| + |10  9| + |12  9| + |14  9|
Average deviation =
6
5+ 3+ 1+ 1+ 3+ 5
∴ Average deviation = =3
6
Example-2. A 1-carat diamond has a mass of 200.0mg. When a jeweler repeatedly weighed a 2-
carat diamond, he obtained measurements of 450.0mg, 459.0mg, and 463.0mg. Were the
jeweler’s measurements accurate? Were they precise?
Solution
The expected mass of a 2-carat diamond is 2 × 200.0mg = 400.0mg.
450.0𝑚𝑔 + 459.0𝑚𝑔 + 463.0𝑚𝑔
Mean (𝑥̅ ) = = 457.3mg
3
∴ The average of the three measurements is 457.3mg, about 13% greater than the true mass.
These measurements are not particularly accurate.
|450.0𝑚𝑔  457.3𝑚𝑔| + |459.0𝑚  457.3𝑚𝑔| + |463.0𝑚𝑔  457.3𝑚𝑔|
Average deviation =
3
7.3𝑚𝑔 + 1.7𝑚𝑔 + 5.7𝑚𝑔
Average deviation = = 4.9mg
3
∴ The deviations of the measurements are 7.3mg, 1.7mg, and 5.7mg, respectively, which give an
average deviation of 4.9mg and a precision of
4.9𝑚𝑔
x 100 = 1.1%
457.3𝑚𝑔

11 | P a g e ANTENEH
These measurements are rather precise.
Note: When a series of measurements is precise but not accurate, the error is usually systematic.
Systematic errors can be caused by faulty instrumentation or faulty technique.
Question-1. Precision is the ________________ of a result.
A. direction B. reproducibility C. nearness to the truth or false
D. none of these
Question-2. The volume of a liquid is 20.5mL. Which of the following sets of measurement
represents the value with good accuracy?
A. 18.6mL, 17.8mL, 19.6mL, 17.2mL B. 19.2mL, 19.3mL, 18.8mL, 18.6mL
C. 18.9mL, 19.0mL, 19.2mL, 18.8mL D. 20.2mL, 20.5mL, 20.3mL, 20.1mL
Question-3. Which of the following statements is true for his measurements?
A. They are neither precise nor accurate. B. They have poor accuracy.
C. They have good precision. D. They have poor precision.
Question-4. Balcha is a little OCD and repeatedly checks the water level in her water bottle. How
might this practice of repeatedly doing something be most useful to her when doing scientific
experiments?
A. She might get faster and faster at measuring because she does it over and over.
B. Her measurements might be very accurate.
C. Her measurements might be very precise.
D. She might become an expert about anything having to do with water.
Significant Figures
There are two types of numbers in science: exact (counting) numbers and inexact
(measurements and calculated quantities).
Exact numbers are either defined numbers or the result of a count. For example, a dozen is
defined as 12 objects, and a pound is defined as 16 ounces.
An inexact number (measured numbers) results from a measurement or observation and contains
some uncertainty. Examples of measured numbers:
• The diameter of a coin, such as 10.2mm.
• The weight of an object, such as 8.887 grams.
• The length of a pen, such as 12cm.
Measurements and numbers based on calculations will always have some uncertainty. Significant
digits are used to represent that uncertainty or the amount of confidence you have in a
measurement.
Uncertainty occurs because we use equipment to make measurements. You can only measure a
length as exact as the increments on the ruler you are using. Significant digits are the numbers
we know with certainty plus one more that is estimated.
Basic Rules:
 All non-zero digits are significant
Example; 1.234g has 4 significant figures,
1.2g has 2 significant figures.

12 | P a g e ANTENEH
 All zeros between non-zero digits are significant
Example; 1002kg has 4 significant figures,
3.07mL has 3 significant figures.
 Zeros to the right of the decimal and to the right of a non-zero digit are significant
Example; 0.200g has 3 significant figures.
 Zeros to the right of the decimal, but to the left of all non-zero digits are not significant
Example; 0.0010C has only 1 significant figure,
0.012 g has 2 significant figures.
 If there is no decimal, zeros to the right of the last non-zero digit are not necessarily
significant
Example; 190 miles may be 2 or 3 significant figures, 50,600 calories may be 3, 4, or 5
significant figures.
The potential ambiguity in the last rule can be avoided by the use of standard exponential, or
”scientific,” notation. For example, depending on whether 3, 4, or 5 significant figures is correct,
we could write 50,6000 calories as:
5.06 × 104 calories (3 significant figures)
5.060 × 104 calories (4 significant figures), or
5.0600 × 104 calories (5 significant figures).
Rules for Calculations
1. In addition and subtraction, use the least number of Decimals (The limiting term is the number
with the least decimal places).
For example, 100 (assume 3 significant figures) + 23.643 (5 significant figures) = 123.643, which
should be rounded to 124 (3 significant figures). Other examples,
i. 1.0023
+ 4.383 limiting term has 3 decimal places
5.3853 round off to 5.385
ii. 5365.999 limiting term has 3 decimal places
_ 234.66706
5131.33194 round off to 5131.332
2. In multiplication and division, use the least number of Significant digits (The limiting term is
the number with the least number of significant figures. ).
For example, 3.0 (2 significant figures) x 12.60 (4 significant figures) = 37.800 which should be
rounded off to 38 (2 significant figures). Other examples,
i. 503.29 x 6.177 = 3108.82233, round off to 3109 (because the limiting term “6.177” has 4
Significant Figures)
ii. 103.37g
= 5.0424g/mL rounds off to 5.04g/mL.
20.5ml
limiting term has 3 significant figures
Example-1, Which of the following is NOT an example of an exact number?
A. The hexagon has 6 sides. B. There are 3 wheels on a tricycle.

13 | P a g e ANTENEH
C. The desk is 84cm long. D. The table has 4 legs.
Solution
Here, in the given options, six sides is an actual number, because six sides can be counted. There
are three wheels, that are given, which also can be counted.
The 84cm is the measurement value, which is not an actual number. The table has four legs. So
the legs can also be counted.
Thus, the correct option is C. The desk is 84cm long.
Question-1. Round off to the number of significant figures indicated: 0.27765 (four)
A. 0.2776 B. 0.2777 C. 0.2778 D. 0.2775
Question-2. Indicate the number of significant figures: 4.5 x 4.05 x 4.50
A. one B. two C. three D. four
–30 3
Question-3. The volume of a carbon atom is 1.9 x 10 m . What is the radius of the atom in
picometers? The volume of a sphere is (4/3)(π)r3
Question-4. Calculate the volume of a rectangular solid that has a length of 4.16cm, a width of
2.2cm, and a height of 2.00cm.
Question-5. Which weighs more, a pound of bricks or a pound of feathers?
Scientific Notation and Decimal places
Scientific notation is a method of expressing large or small numbers as factors of the powers of
10.
To express numbers in scientific notation, one should use the form: a x 10b where a is a real
number between 1 and 10 (but not equal to 10), and b is a positive or negative integer.
Example-1. Express each of the following values in scientific notation:
(a) There are 26,800,000,000,000,000,000,000 helium atoms in a one liter balloon filled with
helium gas.
(b) The mass of one helium atom is 0.000 000 000 000 000 000 000 006 65g.
Solution
We can write each value in scientific notation as follows:
(a) Place the decimal after the 2, followed by the other significant digits (2.68). Next, count the
number of places the decimal has moved. The decimal is moved to the left 22 places, so the
exponent is +22.
Finally, we have the number of helium atoms in 1.00 L of gas: 2.68 × 1022 atoms.
(b) Place the decimal after the 6, followed by the other significant digits (6.65). Next, count the
number of places the decimal has shifted. The decimal has shifted 24 places to the right, so the
exponent is –24.
Finally, we have the mass of a helium atom: 6.65 × 10–24g.
Example-2. Express each of the following values as ordinary numbers:
(a) The mass of one mercury atom is 3.33 × 10–22g.
(b) The number of atoms in 1mL of liquid mercury is 4.08 × 1022.
Solution
(a) 0.000 000 000 000 000 000 000 333g
(b) 40,800,000,000,000,000,000,000 atoms
14 | P a g e ANTENEH
Question-1. Convert this number to proper scientific notation: 0.000780 x 108
A. 7.80 x 1012 B. 7.80 x 1011 C. 7.80 x 104 D. 7.80 x 105
Question-2. If the atom is assumed to be sphere what is the volume in cm3 of a single Au atom?
Express your answer using three sig figs (The radius of a gold atom is 144pm)
Unit Conversion
Unit conversion is the process of converting units in one system of measurement into those of
another system (both measuring the same quantity) or different units of the same system of
measurement using a conversion factor.
Example, Converting seconds into hours, meters into kilometers, and grams into kilograms are
examples of unit conversions. Or converting centimeters into inches, grams in to ounces.
Steps in Unit conversion:
Step 1: What unit is asked for in the answer?
Step 2: What given value is related to the answer?
Step 3: What conversion factor should we apply?
Example 1. A marathon covers a distance of 26.2 miles (mi). If 1 mile is exactly equal to 1760
yards, what is the distance of the race in yards?
Solution
Step 1: yd ?
Step 2: 26.2mi
1760𝑦𝑑
Step 3: 1mi = 1760yd, thus conversion factor;
1𝑚𝑖
1760𝑦𝑑
26.2mi x = 46,112yd
1𝑚𝑖
Example 2. Convert 5.25 x 104 centigrams to kilograms.
Solution
We have to follow: cg g kg
Covert 5.25 x 104cg to g
1cg = 0.01g
0.01g
Conversion factor;
1cg
0.01𝑔
5.25 x 104cg x = 5.25 x 102g
1cg
Covert 5.25 x 102g to kg
1kg = 1000g
1kg
Conversion factor;
1000g
1kg
5.25 x 102g x = 5.25 x 101kg
1000g
Question-1. Convert 50nm to Angstroms
Question-2. Convert 50mph (50mi/h) into m/s
Chemistry as Experimental Science

15 | P a g e ANTENEH
Chemistry is an experimental science based on the scientific method. The essence of the
scientific method is the use of carefully controlled experiments to answer scientific questions
Chemistry is sometimes called the central science because it provides a foundation for
understanding both basic and applied scientific disciplines at a fundamental level.
Chemistry and the language of chemists play vital roles in biology, medicine, materials science,
forensics, environmental science, and many other fields. Chemical engineering, materials
science, and nanotechnology combine chemical principles and empirical findings to produce
useful substances, ranging from gasoline to fabrics to electronics. Agriculture, food science,
veterinary science, and brewing and wine making help provide sustenance in the form of food
and drink to the world’s population. Medicine, pharmacology, biotechnology, and botany
identify and produce substances that help keep us healthy. Environmental science, geology,
oceanography, and atmospheric science incorporate many chemical ideas to help us better
understand and protect our physical world. Chemical ideas are used to help understand the
universe in astronomy and cosmology.
The Scientific Method
The Scientific method is a process with the help of which scientists try to investigate, verify, or
construct an accurate and reliable version of any natural phenomena. They are done by creating
an objective framework for the purpose of scientific inquiry and analyzing the results
scientifically to come to a conclusion that either supports or contradicts the observation made at
the beginning.
Scientific Method Steps
The aim of all scientific methods is the same, that is, to analyses the observation made at the
beginning. Still, various steps are adopted per the requirement of any given observation.
However, there is a generally accepted sequence of steps in scientific methods.

i. Observation and formulation of a question: This is the first step of a scientific method. To start
one, an observation has to be made into any observable aspect or phenomena of the universe, and
a question needs to be asked about that aspect.
ii. Data Collection and Hypothesis: The next step involved in the scientific method is to collect
all related data and formulate a hypothesis based on the observation. The hypothesis could be the
cause of the phenomena, its effect, or its relation to any other phenomena.
iii. Testing the hypothesis: After the hypothesis is made, it needs to be tested scientifically.
Scientists do this by conducting experiments. The aim of these experiments is to determine
whether the hypothesis agrees with or contradicts the observations made in the real world.
iv. Analysis and Conclusion: This step involves the use of proper mathematical and other
scientific procedures to determine the results of the experiment. Based on the analysis, the future

16 | P a g e ANTENEH
course of action can be determined. If the data found in the analysis is consistent with the
hypothesis, it is accepted. If not, then it is rejected or modified and analyzed again.
Note: It must be remembered that a hypothesis cannot be proved or disproved by doing one
experiment. It needs to be done repeatedly until there are no discrepancies in the data and the
result. When there are no discrepancies and the hypothesis is proved, it is accepted as a ‘theory’.
Example 1. Although there are different ways to approach a scientific investigation, all scientific
investigations begin with some sort of
A. experiment. B. theory C. Observation D. conclusion
Solution
All scientific investigations begin with some sort of observation.
Why do all scientific investigations begin with some sort of observation?
 A scientific investigation typically begins with observations.
 An observation is anything that is detected through human senses or with instruments and
measuring devices that enhance human senses.
 We usually think of observations as things we see with our eyes, but we can also
make observations with our sense of touch, smell, taste, or hearing.
 In addition, we can extend and improve our own senses with instruments such as thermometers
and microscopes.
 Other instruments can be used to sense things that human senses cannot detect at all, such as
ultraviolet light or radio waves.
Example 2. Which order is correct for the Scientific Method?
A. Observation, Hypothesis, Testing, Analysis, Conclusion
B. Hypothesis, Observation, Conclusion, Testing, Analysis
C. Hypothesis, Testing, Analysis, Conclusion, Observation
D. Observation, Hypothesis, Testing, Analysis, Conclusion
Solution
The correct order for the Scientific Method is Observation, Hypothesis, Testing, Analysis, and
Conclusion. This is because the scientific method begins with making observations and gathering
data. Based on these observations, a hypothesis is formulated to explain the observed
phenomena. The next step involves testing the hypothesis through experiments or further
observations. The data collected during testing is then analyzed to draw conclusions and
determine if the hypothesis is supported or not. Finally, a conclusion is reached based on the
analysis of the data, which may lead to further observations and the formulation of new
hypotheses.
Question-1. Scientists learn and study the world around them by using:
A. The Big Bang Theory B. Characteristics of Life C. Scientific Method
D. none
Question-2. The scientific method is a process that involves following certain steps. Which of
these steps would come first?
A. Ask a question B. Make a hypothesis C. conduct an experiment

17 | P a g e ANTENEH
D. doing background research
Some Experimental Sills in Chemistry
General lab safety rules
The following are rules that relate to almost every laboratory and should be included in most
safety policies. They cover what you should know in the event of an emergency, proper signage,
safety equipment, safely using laboratory equipment, and basic common-sense rules.
 Do not wear sandals, open-toed shoes, open backed shoes, or high-heeled shoes in the
laboratory.
 Make sure you know where your lab's safety equipment—including first aid kit(s), fire
extinguishers, eye wash stations, and safety showers—is located and how to properly use it.
 Always tie back hair that is chin-length or longer.
 Make sure you are wearing the appropriate personal protective equipment (i.e., chemical
splash goggles, laboratory aprons or coats, and gloves).
 Do not remove any equipment or chemicals from the laboratory.
 Water should not be poured into concentrated acid. Instead, pour acid slowly into water while
stirring constantly. In many cases, mixing acid with water is exothermic.
 Do not put unused chemicals back into their original container.
 Do not chew gum, drink, or eat while working in the lab.
 Laboratory glassware should never be utilized as food or beverage containers.
 Never use lab equipment that you are not approved or trained by your supervisor to operate.
 Do not work alone in the lab.
 Never smell or taste chemicals.
 Do not pipette by mouth.
 Make sure you always follow the proper procedures for disposing lab waste.
 Report all injuries, accidents, and broken equipment or glass right away, even if the incident
seems small or unimportant.
 In the event of a chemical splashing into your eye(s) or on your skin, immediately flush the
affected area(s) with running water for at least 20 minutes.
 A beaker is a common container in most labs. It is used for mixing, stirring, and heating
chemicals. Most beakers have a spout (beak) on the rim to aid in pouring. There is a lip that runs
around the rim. They also commonly have markings to measure the volume they contain.
However, a beaker is not precise when measuring liquids. Beakers come in a wide range of sizes.
 Goggles should be worn whenever chemicals, heat, or glassware is used in the laboratory.
Goggles protect your eyes from chemicals and sharp objects.
Question-1.Disrupting other student in the laboratory with horseplay in the lab is:
A. helpful B. allowed C. dangerous D. the quickest way to do a job
Questio-2. Which of the following are examples of dressing appropriately in the lab?
A. Pulling long hair back B. Short skirts C. Wearing sandals
D. loose clothing
Writing a Laboratory Report

18 | P a g e ANTENEH
A. Pre-Laboratory Report
For each experiment, you will be writing a brief pre-lab write-up. The Pre-Lab will allow for a
safer, less hectic lab day. This might include:
 A step-by-step outline (procedures) of how you will carry out the experiment. This information
is obtained by studying the description of the experiment in the lab manual or handout.
 Answers to all of the questions (calculations) in the lab manual or handout (unless otherwise
notified)
B. The Laboratory Report
The laboratory report is a formal report of the experiment performed. The report conveys what
you have done in a concise, organized and easy to read fashion.
Each section of the laboratory report must be labeled, in order to make the reading of the report
smoother.
The report must be written in ink (no pencil).
Show all calculations that you used to get your results. Be sure to use correct significant figures
and labels.
Remember to include units following all numbers in your calculations.
Report should be neat, organized, and free of grammatical and spelling errors.
Use complete sentences (no abbreviation).
Staple all your lab papers before coming to lab to ensure that no pages are lost.
Reports should be dated.
Graphs
Graphs are used to display data because it is easier to see trends in the data when it is displayed
visually compared to when it is displayed numerically in a table. A graph is that shows numerical
information (representation of data) by using pictures.
Every graph should have a title and the axes should be properly labeled and numbered.
Even if the underlying relationship is linear, the data points do not lie exactly on a straight line
because of measurement uncertainty. In such a case, a line of best fit may be found that passes as
close as possible to the points.
The axes must be labeled describing the variable, (e.g., Time, Temperature, Distance, etc.).
The axes must be labeled with the units used to make the observations, (e.g., (seconds),
(oCelsius), (meters), etc.). The units should be in parentheses next to the label for the axis.
Data points must always be (x)’s or asterisk rather than dots.
Measurement and Density
The density of an object can be determined by a variety of methods. In our case we will practice
using a balance to measure mass. In addition, we will learn how to measure volume using a
graduated cylinder and a pipet and learn how to calibrate the pipet. A comparison of the results
allows for the calculation of the relative average deviation, which is the measure of the precision
of the measurement.

19 | P a g e ANTENEH
The mass and volume measurement will be used to determine the density of; (i). a metal bar and
(ii). a salt solution and then the density measurements will be evaluated with respect to their
precision and accuracy.
Example-1. Determining the Density of a 167.45g of regular Object block when its measuring
record: Width= 4.25 cm, Height = 4.35 cm, Length =10.24 cm

width height

length
Calculate the volume using the formula:
Volume = Length x Width x Height = 10.24 cm x 4.25 cm x 4.35 cm
∴ Volume = 189.312cm3.
𝑚 167.45𝑔
The density would then be found by D = = = 0.884519 = 0.885cm3.
𝑉 189.312𝑐𝑚3
Note: The final answer should be rounded to three significant figures as the limiting number of
significant figures comes from the width and height of the object.
Example-2. Calculate the volume of a given cylinder having height 20cm and base radius of
14cm. (Take π = 22/7)
Solution
Height = 20cm Radius = 14cm
2
We know that; V = πr h cubic units
V= (22/7) × 14 × 14 × 20
V= 12320cm3
Therefore, the volume of a cylinder = 12320cm3
Question-1. Calculate the radius of the base of a cylindrical container of volume 440cm3. Height
of the cylindrical container is 35cm. (Take π = 22/7)
Question-2. A sample of lead is found to have a mass of 5mL 5mL
20.34g. A graduated cylinder contains 2.8mL of water. After 4.6mL
the lead sample is added to the cylinder the water level reads
4.6mL. Calculate the density of the lead sample.
2.8mL

Question-3. In a lab, you are given a block of aluminum. You measure the dimensions of the
block and its displacement in a container of a known volume of water. You calculate the density
of the block of aluminum to be 2.68g/cm3. You look up the density of a block of aluminum at
room temperature and find it to be 2.70g/cm3. Calculate the percent error of your measurement.

20 | P a g e ANTENEH
Question-4. The standard gravity acceleration is 9.81m/s2. In the laboratory, conducting some
experiments using a pendulum, we obtain four values for g: 9.76 m/s2, 9.6 m/s2, 9.89m/s2, and
9.9m/s2. The variation in values is the product of errors. The mean value is 9.78m/s2.
Note: When doing measurements, uncertainty needs to be reported. It helps those reading the
results to know the potential variation. To do this, the uncertainty range is added after the symbol
±.
Let’s say we measure a resistance value of 4.5ohms with an uncertainty of 0.1ohms. The
reported value with its uncertainty is 4.5 ± 0.1 ohms.
Making Measurements - Key takeaways
 Scientists use the International System of Units (SI) (commonly known as the metric
system) for all their measurements
 The basic measurement rules are:
o When writing measurements, the number of digits is equal to the number of digits marked +1
Ex: If a ruler goes to the 0.01 place, we would write to the 0.001 place
o When taking the volume of the liquid, measure from the bottom of the meniscus (curve near
the top of the liquid)
o It is good practice to take several measurements, then average them to account for possible
random error
 Precision is a measure of how close a set of data points are to each other.
 Accuracy is a measure of how close a set of data points are to the true value
Let's take a look at a common ruler:

The numbers right above the logo is measurements in centimeters. The "notches" in between
these numbers each represent 0.1 centimeters.
So let's say I was measuring a piece of metal, it lined up exactly in between the 2 and 3 marks.
So, what number should I write down?
A. 2.5 B. 2.50 C. 2.5000
The answer here is B. When making measurements, the last digit is our "estimation digit".
Basically, we write down our number based on the number of markings +1. The ruler has
markings for centimeters (our first digit) and 0.1 centimeters (our second digit), so we are going
to estimate our last digit.
Another "rule" is for reading the volume of a liquid. When we read the volume of a liquid, we
have to measure from the bottom of the meniscus.
 The meniscus is the curve near the surface of a liquid caused by surface tension
When measuring volume, you always want to be at eye-level with the meniscus. Looking at a
different angle may make the meniscus either harder to see or appear in a slightly different

21 | P a g e ANTENEH
position, which could mess with your measurements.
What is the volume of this liquid?

Looking at the meniscus, we see the bottom of the curve is slightly between the 21mL mark and
the 21.1mL mark. Because of this, we can estimate that the volume is 21.05mL.

Question-5. What is the volume of this sample?

A. 19.80mL
B. 19.8mL
C. 20.0mL
D. 20.00mL

Question-6. If you dissolve 52.5g of salt in 3.45L of water, what is the density of that solution of
salty water?
(In this particular example, assume that the total volume doesn’t change when salt is added to
water. You will need the mass of salt and the mass of water to find the mass of the solution of
salty water. Don’t forget to show your working and include SI units.)
Question-7. Calculate the density of solid from the following data:
(a) Mass of solid = 72g
(b) Initial volume of water in measuring cylinder = 24ml.
(c) Final volume of water when solid is completely immersed in water = 42ml

22 | P a g e ANTENEH