What is the center of mass?

The center of mass is a position defined relative to an object or system of objects. It is the average
position of all the parts of the system, weighted according to their masses.

For simple rigid objects with uniform density, the center of mass is located at the centroid. For example,
the center of mass of a uniform disc shape would be at its center. Sometimes the center of mass doesn't
fall anywhere on the object. The center of mass of a ring for example is located at its center, where
there isn't any material.

Figure 1: Center of mass for some simple geometric shapes (red dots).

For more complicated shapes, we need a more general mathematical definition of the center of mass : it
is the unique position at which the weighted position vectors of all the parts of a system sum up to zero.
[Explain]

What is useful about the center of mass?

The interesting thing about the center of mass of an object or system is that it is the point where any
uniform force on the object acts. This is useful because it makes it easy to solve mechanics problems
where we have to describe the motion of oddly-shaped objects and complicated systems.

For the purposes of calculation, we can treat an oddly-shaped object as if all its mass is concentrated in
a tiny object located at the center of mass. We sometimes call this imaginary object a point mass.

If we push on a rigid object at its center of mass, then the object will always move as if it is a point mass.
It will not rotate about any axis, regardless of its actual shape. If the object is subjected to an
unbalanced force at some other point, then it will begin rotating about the center of mass.

How can we find the center of mass of any object or system?

In general the center of mass can be found by vector addition of the weighted position vectors which
point to the center of mass of each object in a system. One quick technique which lets us avoid the use
of vector arithmetic is finding the center of mass separately for components along each axis. I.e:

For object positions along the x axis:

COM x = m1x1 + m2x2 + m3x3 . . . / m1 + m2 + m3 . . .

And similarly for the y axis:

COM y = m1y1 + m2y2 + m3y3 . . . / m1 + m2 + m3

Together, these give the full coordinates (COM x, COM y) of the center of the mass of the system.

For example, consider the system of three flat objects of uniform density shown in Figure 2.
The location of the center of mass in the xxx direction is:

1x4 + 1x6 + 2x12 / 1+1+2 = 8.5

and in the y direction:

1x5 + 1x12 + 2x8.5 / 1 + 1 + 2 = 8.5

Complex objects can often be represented as collections of simple shapes, each with uniform mass. We
can then represent each component shape as a point mass located at the centroid. Voids within objects
can even be accounted for by representing them as shapes with negative mass.

Consider the irregularly-shaped flat, uniform density object shown in Figure 3a.

We can break this object up into four rectangles and one circle as shown in figure 3b. Here we are only
interested in the position of the center of mass in the relative units shown in the figure. The material has
uniform density so the mass is proportional to the area. For simplicity we can represent the mass of
each section in units of 'squares' as shown in the diagram.
In the xxx direction, the center of mass is at:

16x10 + 52x4 + 12x7.5 + 16x10 + (-7.1) x 4.5/ 16 + 52 + 12 + 16 – 7.1 = 6.6

Note that the area of the circular void is pi x 1.5^2 = 7.1. This is accounted for as a negative mass.

In the y direction:

16x13 + 52x7.5 + 12x7.0 + 16x2 + (-7.1) x 7.5 / 16 + 52 + 12 + 16 – 7.1 = 7.4

What is the center of gravity?

The center of gravity is the point through which the force of gravity acts on an object or system. In most
mechanics’ problems the gravitational field is assumed to be uniform. The center of gravity is then in
exactly the same position as the center of mass. The terms center of gravity and center of mass tend to
often be used interchangeably since they are often at the same location.

What about determining the center of mass for a real object?

There are a couple of useful experimental tests that can be done to determine the center of mass of
rigid physical objects.

The table edge method (Figure 4) can be used to find the center of mass of small rigid objects with at
least one flat side. The object is pushed slowly without rotating along the surface of a table towards an
edge. At the point where the object is just about to fall, a line is drawn parallel to the table edge. The
procedure is repeated with the object rotated 90°. The intersection point of the two lines gives the
location of the center of mass in the plane of the table.

The plumb line method (Figure 5) is also useful for objects which can be suspended freely about a point
of rotation. An irregularly shaped piece of cardboard suspended on a pin-board is a good example of
this. The cardboard pivots freely around the pin under gravity and reaches a stable point. A plumb line is
hung from the pin and used to mark a line on the object. The pin is moved to another location and the
procedure repeated. The center of mass then lies beneath the intersection point of the two lines.
Center of mass and toppling stability

One useful application of the center of mass is determining the maximum angle that an object can be
tilted before it will topple over.

Figure 6a shows a cross section of a truck. The truck has been poorly loaded with many heavy items
loaded on the left-hand side. The center of mass is shown as a red dot. A red line extends down from the
center of mass, representing the force of gravity. Gravity acts on all the weight of the truck through this
line.

If the truck is tipped at an angle theta (as shown in figure 6b) then all the weight of the truck will be
supported by the left-most edge of the left wheel. Should the angle be further increased then the point
of support will move outside of any point of contact with the road and the truck is guaranteed to topple
over. The angle theta is the topples limit.

Exercise 1: Determine the topple limit for the uniform density object shown in figure 7 as it is tipped to
the right.
We first find the center of mass of the shape by dividing it into three rectangles:

In the x direction:

24x7 + 24x6 + 12x5.5 / 24 + 24 + 12 = 6.3

In the y direction :

24x11 + 24x7 + 12.2 / 24 + 24 + 12 = 7.6

Newton’s law of gravitation

Newton’s law of gravitation, statement that any particle of matter in the universe attracts any other
with a force varying directly as the product of the masses and inversely as the square of the distance
between them. In symbols, the magnitude of the attractive force F is equal to G (the gravitational
constant, a number the size of which depends on the system of units used and which is a universal
constant) multiplied by the product of the masses (m1 and m2) and divided by the square of the
distance R: F = G(m1m2)/R2. Isaac Newton put forward the law in 1687 and used it to explain the
observed motions of the planets and their moons, which had been reduced to mathematical form by
Johannes Kepler early in the 17th century.

Kepler’s laws of planetary motion, in astronomy and classical physics, laws describing the motions of the
planets in the solar system. They were derived by the German astronomer Johannes Kepler, whose
analysis of the observations of the 16th-century Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe enabled him to
announce his first two laws in the year 1609 and a third law nearly a decade later, in 1618. Kepler
himself never numbered these laws or specially distinguished them from his other discoveries.

Kepler’s three laws of planetary motion can be stated as follows: (1) All planets move about the Sun in
elliptical orbits, having the Sun as one of the foci. (2) A radius vector joining any planet to the Sun
sweeps out equal areas in equal lengths of time. (3) The squares of the sidereal periods (of revolution) of
the planets are directly proportional to the cubes of their mean distances from the Sun. Knowledge of
these laws, especially the second (the law of areas), proved crucial to Sir Isaac Newton in 1684–85, when
he formulated his famous law of gravitation between Earth and the Moon and between the Sun and the
planets, postulated by him to have validity for all objects anywhere in the universe. Newton showed that
the motion of bodies subject to central gravitational force need not always follow the elliptical orbits
specified by the first law of Kepler but can take paths defined by other, open conic curves; the motion
can be in parabolic or hyperbolic orbits, depending on the total energy of the body. Thus, an object of
sufficient energy—e.g., a comet—can enter the solar system and leave again without returning. From
Kepler’s second law, it may be observed further that the angular momentum of any planet about an axis
through the Sun and perpendicular to the orbital plane is also unchanging.
What is the value of capital G?

In physics, the value of capital G (gravitational constant) was initially proposed by Newton.

G = 6.67408 × 10-11 N m2 kg-2What is the gravitational constant?

The gravitational constant is the proportionality constant that is used in Newton’s Law of Gravitation.
The force of attraction between any two unit masses separated by a unit distance is called the universal
gravitational constant denoted by G measured in Nm2/kg2.

What is Newton’s universal law of gravitation?

Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation states that every particle attracts every other particle in the
universe with force directly proportional to the product of the masses and inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between them.

Is the value of g the same everywhere on earth?

No, the value of g is different at different places on the surface of the earth. The acceleration due to
gravity is smaller at the equator than at the poles. This is because g is inversely proportional to the
radius and the radius of the earth is smaller at the poles and larger at the equator.

What is the value of the gravitational constant G on the moon?

The value of the gravitational constant at any part of the universe remains constant which is 6.67408 ×
10-11 N m2 kg-2.

Is there gravity in space?

Gravity is everywhere. It gives shape to the orbits of the planets, the solar system, and even galaxies.
Gravity from the Sun reaches throughout the solar system and beyond, keeping the planets in their
orbits. Gravity from Earth keeps the Moon and human-made satellites in orbit.

Earth gravitational constant

From the law of universal gravitation, the force on a body acted upon by Earth’s gravitational force is
given by

F = G m1 m2/ r2 = G M m1/ r2

Where r is the distance between the centre of the Earth and the body (see below), and here we take M
to be the mass of the Earth and m to be the mass of the body. Additionally, Newton’s second law, F =
ma, where m is mass and a is acceleration, here tells us that

F = mg

Comparing the two formulas it is seen that:

g = G M/ r2

So, at sea level to find the acceleration due to gravity, put the values of the gravitational constant, G, the
Earth’s mass m (in kilograms), and the Earth’s radius (in metres), r, to obtain the value of g:

g = G M/ r2

g = 6.67 x 10-11m3kg-1s-2 x 6 x 10 24 kg / (6.4 x10 6 m) 2

g = 9.77m.s -2

g= 9.81 m s -2

Difference between ‘g’ and ‘G’

The main difference between ‘g’ and ‘G’ is that g stands for gravitational acceleration and ‘G’ stands for
gravitational constant. The gravitational acceleration ‘g’ varies with altitude, whereas the gravity
constant value of ‘G’ remains constant. Gravitational acceleration is a vector quantity, whereas the
gravitational constant is a scalar number.

In astronomy, Kepler's laws of planetary motion, published by Johannes Kepler between 1609 and 1619,
describe the orbits of planets around the Sun. The laws modified the heliocentric theory of Nicolaus
Copernicus, replacing its circular orbits and epicycles with elliptical trajectories, and explaining how
planetary velocities vary. The three laws state that:[1][2]

1. The orbit of a planet is an ellipse with the Sun at one of the two foci.
2. A line segment joining a planet and the Sun sweeps out equal areas during equal intervals of
time.
 3. The square of a planet's orbital period is proportional to the cube of the length of the semi-
major axis of its orbit.

The elliptical orbits of planets were indicated by calculations of the orbit of Mars. From this, Kepler
inferred that other bodies in the Solar System, including those farther away from the Sun, also have
elliptical orbits. The second law helps to establish that when a planet is closer to the Sun, it travels
faster. The third law expresses that the farther a planet is from the Sun, the slower its orbital speed, and
vice versa.

Isaac Newton showed in 1687 that relationships like Kepler's would apply in the Solar System as a
consequence of his own laws of motion and law of universal gravitation

Kepler’s Laws

Kepler’s laws of planetary motion are a set of three laws describing the motion of planets around the
Sun. German mathematician and astronomer Johannes Kepler published these laws between 1609 and
1619 based on observations made by his mentor, Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe. Although Kepler
applied the three laws to planets in the solar system, they can be extended to planets outside the solar
system, asteroids, and artificial satellites. These laws are collectively known as First Law, Second Law,
and Third Law.

Explanation of the Three Laws

1. First Law

Statement: “All planets orbit around the Sun in a path described by an ellipse with the Sun at one of its
two foci“.

Also known as the Law of Ellipses, Kepler concluded that all solar system planets have elliptical orbits.
The Sun’s center is at one of the foci. When a planet revolves around the Sun, its distance from the Sun
constantly changes. The point of the closest approach to the Sun is the perihelion, and the furthest point
is the aphelion. Kepler’s first law is used to study the trajectories of planets, asteroids, and comets by
applying the ellipse equations.
Equation

The equation of an ellipse in a polar coordinate (r, θ) system is

r=p1+ϵcos θ

Where,

p : semi-latus rectum = is made up of half of the latus rectum. The latus rectum of an ellipse is a line
drawn perpendicular to the ellipse’s transverse axis and going through the foci of the ellipse.

ε : eccentricity = distance between foci divided by the length of the major axis.

2. Second Law

Statement: “An imaginary line joining a planet and the Sun sweeps out equal areas in equal time
intervals“.

Also known as the Law of Equal Areas, this law implies that the areal velocity of the revolving planet
remains constant. In other words, planets do not move at a constant speed in their orbits. A line
segment joining the planet and Sun sweeps out equal parts in equal time intervals. Hence, the speed of
the planet at perihelion is higher than at aphelion. Kepler’s second law is applied to study the angular
speeds at different points on the trajectory and the magnitude of acceleration.
Equation

The areal velocity is the area swept by the planet’s orbit divided by the time taken to sweep it. The
following expression gives its value.

dAdt=L2m

Where

dA/dt : Areal velocity

L : Angular momentum of the planet

m : Mass of the planet

3. Third Law

Statement: “The square of a planet’s orbital period is directly proportional to the cube of the orbit’s
semi-major axis“.

Also known as the Law of Harmonies, this law implies that the orbital period increases rapidly with the
orbit’s semi-major axis. The ratio of the squares of the periods to the cubes of the semi-major axes is the
same for each planet. Kepler’s third law is used to study the orbital periods and planet’s mass.
Equation

Suppose T is the orbital period and a is the semi-major axis of the elliptical orbit. Then,

T2∝a3

⇒T2=ka3

If T is expressed in Earth years and a in astronomical unit (A.U.), then k = 1.