05-11-2024

Product Design and

Development
By
Dr. Jasvinder Singh
Assistant Professor
Production and Industrial Engineering
Punjab Engineering College Chandigarh

Design Fundamentals

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The Activity of Design

• What Designers Say
• What Designers Do

What Designers Say

• I believe in intuition. I think that’s the difference between a designer and an engineer. . . I
make a distinction between engineers and engineering designers. . . An engineering
designer is just as creative as any other sort of designer.
• A lot of engineering design is intuitive, based on subjective thinking. But an engineer is
unhappy doing this. An engineer wants to test; test and measure. He’s been brought up
this way and he’s unhappy if he can’t prove something. Whereas an industrial designer. .
. is entirely happy making judgements that are intuitive.
• As a matter of fact, the solution that I came up with wasn’t a solution to the problem at
all. I never saw it as that. . . But when the chair was actually put together (it) in a way
quite well solved the problem, but from a completely different angle, a completely
different point of view.
• To start with you see the thing in your mind and it doesn’t exist on paper and then you
start making simple sketches and organising things and then you start doing layer after
layer. . . it is very much a dialogue.

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What Designers Do
• Communication of designs
• Evaluation of designs
• Generation of designs
• Exploration of designs

Case Study
• Ex-Formula One racing car designer,
-by Gordon Murray

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The Nature of Design

• Design Problems
• ill-defined problems
• Problem Structures
• Problem solving

Design Problems

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ill-defined problems
• The characteristics of ill-defined problems can be summarised as
follows:
• There is no definitive formulation of the problem.
• Any problem formulation may embody inconsistencies.
• Formulations of the problem are solution-dependent.
• Proposing solutions is a means of understanding the problem.
• There is no definitive solution to the problem

Problem Structures

Fig.: Problem
structure
found in a
housing
design
problem.

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Problem Solving
• By designers
• By scientists

Final Design

A simple four-stage model French’s model Archer’s model

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Archer’s three phase summary model

problem to solution
Pahl and Beitz’s model

Integrative model

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Design Procedures
• Systematic Procedures
• Design Methods
• Creative Methods
• Brainstorming
• Synectics
• Enlarging the search space
• The creative process
• Rational Methods

Design Methods
• any procedures, techniques, aids, or ‘tools’ for designing

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Synectics
• Creative thinking often draws on analogical thinking
• The use of analogical thinking has been formalised in a creative
design method known as ‘synectics.
• In a synectics session, the group is encouraged to use particular
types of analogy, as follows:
• Direct analogies
• Personal analogies
• Symbolic analogies
• Fantasy analogies

Rational methods
Identifying User scenarios
opportunities Aim: to identify and define an opportunity for anew or improved product.
Clarifying Objectives tree
objectives Aim: to clarify design objectives and sub-objectives, and the relationships between them.
Establishing Function analysis
functions Aim: to establish the functions required, and the system boundary, of a new design.
Setting Performance specification
requirements Aim: to make an accurate specification of the performance required of a design solution.
Determining Quality function deployment
characteristics Aim: to set targets to be achieved for the engineering characteristics of a product, such that they satisfy
customer requirements.
Generating Morphological chart
alternatives Aim: to generate the complete range of alternative design solutions for a product, and hence to
widen the search for potential new solutions.
Evaluating Weighted objectives
alternatives Aim: to compare the utility values of alternative design proposals, on the basis of performance
against differentially weighted objectives.
Improving details Value engineering
Aim: to increase or maintain the value of a product to its purchaser whilst reducing its cost to its producer.

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PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT

Product Development Process

• A product development process is the sequence of steps or
activities that an enterprise employs to conceive, design, and
commercialize a product.
• These steps and activities are intellectual and organizational.
• A well-defined development process is useful for the following
reasons:
• Quality assurance
• Coordination
• Planning
• Management
• Improvement

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Generic product development process

•
definition of the product architecture
•
decomposition of the product into subsystems and
components
• Preliminary design of key components
• phase zero • allocation of detail design responsibility
• complete to both internal
specification of the geometry, materials,
and external resources
• opportunity identification
• needs of the target and tolerances
• Initial plans for the production system and final assembly
• assessment of technology are usually defined • process plan
market are identified,
• • tooling
of• theproduct
is designed
isa made using the intended production
alternative productoutput
developments and• market -a geometric-layout
specification of each of• theoutput
product,
- control
system
product’s
functional
documentation
subsystems,and a (geometry and its
objectives concepts are generated • Construction
preliminary process • and
production
flow diagram tooling,
forevaluation
train the
thefinal the
assembly
workforce specifications, the
of multiple
• Output comes as project
• concepts are selected for
process. preproduction • Product
production
versionssupply chain,
supplied toand the process
preferred plansand
customers
mission statement further development • and assembly
carefullyof
Alpha prototypes the product)
evaluated
• • product islaunched
Beta prototypes

Concept Development

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Adapting the Generic Product Development

Process

Product Development Process Flows

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Tyco Product Development Process

• Tyco is primarily a market-pull enterprise.
• generally drives its development projects based on a perceived
market need
• Utilizes new or established technologies to meet the need.
• Hence, established a common product development process

Tyco’s Rally Point product development process

Characteristics of Successful Product

Development
• Product quality: How good is the product resulting from the development effort? Does it satisfy
customer needs? Is it robust and reliable? Product quality is ultimately reflected in market share and
the price that customers are willing to pay.
• Product cost: What is the manufacturing cost of the product? This cost includes spending on capital
equipment and tooling as well as the incremental cost of producing each unit of the product. Product
cost determines how much profit accrues to the firm for a particular sales volume and a particular
sales price.
• Development time: How quickly did the team complete the product development effort?
Development time determines how responsive the firm can be to competitive forces and to
technological developments, as well as how quickly the firm receives the economic returns from the
team’s efforts.
• Development cost: How much did the firm have to spend to develop the product? Development cost
is usually a significant fraction of the investment required to achieve the profits.
• Development capability: Are the team and the firm better able to develop future products as a result
of their experience with a product development project? Development capability is an asset the firm
can use to develop products more effectively and economically in the future.

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Who Designs and Develops Products?

• Project team - core team and extended team

The composition of a
product development team
for an electromechanical
product of modest
complexity.

Example: composition of a team

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Challenges of Product Development

• Trade-offs: An airplane can be made lighter, but this action will probably increase
manufacturing cost. One of the most difficult aspects of product development is
recognizing, understanding, and managing such trade-offs in a way that maximizes the
success of the product.
• Dynamics: Technologies improve, customer preferences evolve, competitors introduce new
products, and the macroeconomic environment shifts. Decision making in an environment of
constant change is a formidable task.
• Details: The choice between using screws or snap-fits on the enclosure of a computer can
have economic implications of millions of dollars. Developing a product of even modest
complexity may require thousands of such decisions.
• Time pressure: Any one of these difficulties would be easily manageable by itself given
plenty of time, but product development decisions must usually be made quickly and
without complete information.
• Economics: Developing, producing, and marketing a new product requires a large
investment. To earn a reasonable return on this investment, the resulting product must be
both appealing to customers and relatively inexpensive to produce.

• Creation: The product development process begins with an idea and ends
with the production of a physical artifact. When viewed both in its entirety
and at the level of individual activities, the product development process is
intensely creative.
• Satisfaction of societal and individual needs: All products are aimed at
satisfying needs of some kind. Individuals interested in developing new
products can almost always find institutional settings in which they can
develop products satisfying what they consider to be important needs.
• Team diversity: Successful development requires many different skills and
talents. As a result, development teams involve people with a wide range of
different training, experience, perspectives, and personalities.
• Team spirit: Product development teams are often highly motivated,
cooperative groups. The team members may be colocated so they can focus
their collective energy on creating the product. This situation can result in
lasting camaraderie among team members.

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PRODUCT PLANNING

PRODUCT PLANNING
• The product planning process takes place
• before a product development project is formally approved,
• before substantial resources are applied
• before the larger development team is formed.
• Product planning is an activity that considers
• both the current product line
• and the potential portfolio of projects that an organization might pursue.
• support the broader business strategy of the company
• Product planning answer the questions:
• What product development projects will be undertaken?
• What mix of fundamentally new products, platforms, and derivative products
should be pursued?
• How do the various projects relate to the current product line and to each other
as a portfolio?
• What will be the timing and sequence of the projects?

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Product Planning Process

• The product plan identifies
• portfolio of products to be developed by the organization
• timing of their introduction to the market.
• product development opportunities identified by many sources, including
suggestions from marketing, sales force, technical research, customers,
current product development teams, customer service, product support,
and benchmarking of competitors.
• From among these opportunities, a portfolio of projects is chosen,
timing of projects is outlined, and resources are allocated.

• Inefficiencies due to improper PDP such as

• Inadequate coverage of target markets with competitive products.
• Poor timing of market introductions of products.
• Mismatches between aggregate development capacity and the number of
projects pursued.
• Poor distribution of resources, with some projects overstaffed and others
understaffed.
• Initiation and subsequent cancellation of ill-conceived projects.
• Frequent changes in the directions of projects.

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Four Types of Product Development Projects

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Product Planning Process steps

Product Planning Process

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Identify Opportunities (e.g.)

• Develop a next-generation cordless stick vacuum with new
technology for the U.S. market (new platform).
• Create a derivative of the IONFlex cordless stick vacuum for the China
market with a modified cleaning head (derivative).
• Update two current products with a new dust cup design
(improvements).
• Develop a cordless upright vacuum cleaner for larger homes (new
platform)

Evaluate and Prioritize Projects

• Competitive Strategy
• Technology leadership
• Cost leadership
• Customer focus
• Imitative
• Market Segmentation
• Technological Trajectories
• Product Platform Planning
• Technology Road-mapping
• Evaluating Fundamentally New Product Opportunities
• Balancing the Portfolio

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Allocate Resources and Plan Timing

• Resource Allocation
• Project Timing
• Timing of product introductions
• Technology readiness
• Market readiness
• Competition
• The Product Plan

Complete Pre-Project Planning

• Mission Statements
• Brief (one-sentence) description of the product
• Benefit proposition
• Key business goals
• Target market(s) for the product
• Assumptions and constraints that guide the development effort
• Stakeholders
• Assumptions and Constraints
• Staffing and Other Pre-Project Planning Activities

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Reflect on the Results and the Process

• In this final step of the planning and strategy process, the team should ask several questions to assess
the quality of both the process and the results. Some suggested questions are:
• Is the opportunity funnel collecting an exciting and diverse set of product opportunities?
• Does the product plan support the competitive strategy of the firm?
• Does the product plan address the most important current opportunities facing the firm?
• Are the total resources allocated to product development sufficient to pursue the firm’s competitive
strategy?
• Have creative ways of leveraging finite resources been considered, such as the use of product
platforms, joint ventures, and partnerships with suppliers?
• Does the core team accept the challenges of the resulting mission statement?
• Are the elements of the mission statement consistent?
• Are the assumptions listed in the mission statement really necessary or is the project over-
constrained? Will the development team have the freedom to develop the best possible product?
• How can the product planning process be improved?

CONCEPT
DEVELOPMENT PHASE

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Identifying Customer Needs

• The philosophy behind the method is to create a high-quality information channel that runs directly between customers
in the target market and the developers of the product.
• This philosophy is built on the premise that those who directly control the details of the product, including the engineers
and industrial designers, must interact with customers and experience the use environment of the product.
• The process of identifying customer needs is an integral part of the larger product development process and is very
closely related to opportunity identification, product planning, concept generation, concept selection, competitive
benchmarking, and the establishment of product specifications.

Importance of Latent Needs

Latent needs are those not yet widely recognized by most customers and not yet
addressed by existing products.

Consider the following examples:

· Mobile telephones did not contain cameras prior to the year 2000. Most
consumers did not know that they wanted to be able to take photographs with
their telephones until Nokia and Motorola added the camera.
· When smart speakers emerged with Amazon Echo and Google Home, people
began to realize how convenient it would be to use simple verbal requests for
access to online services and control of connected devices in the home.
· Until Ford developed the hands-free powered liftgate, people had struggled
for years to open the trunk of the car while carrying shopping.

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Process of Identifying Customer Needs

• 1. Gather raw data from
customers.
• 2. Interpret the raw data
in terms of customer
needs.
• 3. Organize the needs into
a hierarchy of primary,
secondary, and (if
necessary) tertiary needs.
• 4. Establish the relative
importance of the needs.
• 5. Reflect on the results
and the process.

Gather Raw Data from Customers

• Interviews
• Focus groups
• Observing the product in use
• Online surveys

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Art of Eliciting Customer Needs Data

Here are some general hints for effective interaction with
customers:
• Go with the flow
• Use visual stimuli and props
• Suppress preconceived hypotheses about the product technology
• Have the customer demonstrate the product and/or typical tasks related
to the product
• Be alert for surprises and the expression of latent needs
• Watch for nonverbal information
• Data privacy

Documenting Interactions with Customers

• 1. Audio recording:
• 2. Notes:
• 3. Video recording
• 4. Still photography:

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Interpret Raw Data in Terms of Customer

Needs
• Express the need in terms of what the product has to do, not in
terms of how it might do it.
• Express the need as specifically as the raw data.
• Use positive, not negative, phrasing.
• Express the need as an attribute of the product.
• Avoid the words must and should.

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Organize the Needs into a Hierarchy

• 1. Print or write each needs statement on a separate card or self-
stick note.
• 2. Eliminate redundant statements.
• 3. Group the cards according to the similarity of the needs they
express.
• 4. For each group, choose a label.
• 5. Consider creating supergroups consisting of two to five groups.
• 6. Review and edit the organized needs statements

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Establish the Relative Importance of the

Needs
• The outcome of this step is a numerical importance weighting for
a subset of the needs. There are two basic approaches to the task:
• relying on the consensus of the team members based on their experience
with customers, or
• basing the importance assessment on further customer surveys.

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Reflect on the Results and the Process

• A good way to summarize the results of the process is to list the most
important needs and the latent needs.
• The thermostat is easy to use.
• The thermostat can adjust temperature during the day according to user
preferences.
• The thermostat works with my existing heating and/or cooling system.
• The thermostat reduces energy consumption.
The latent needs are:
• The thermostat can be programmed from a comfortable position.
• The thermostat works pretty well right out of the box with no setup.
• The thermostat automatically responds to occupancy.
• The thermostat exterior surfaces do not fade or discolor over time.
• The thermostat prevents pipes from freezing in cold months.

Product Specifications
• As a result of self riding, customer interviews, and store dealer
interview, team had assembled a list of customer needs. They
now faced several challenges:
• How could the relatively subjective customer needs be translated into
precise targets for the remaining development effort?
• How could the team and its senior management agree on what would
constitute success or failure of the resulting product design?
• How could the team develop confidence that its intended product would
garner a substantial share of the suspension fork market?
• How could the team resolve the inevitable trade-offs among product
characteristics like cost and weight?

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What Are Specifications?

• Term product specifications to
mean the precise description
of what the product has to do.
• Also “product requirements”
or “engineering
characteristics”.
• Moreover “specifications” or
“technical specifications”.
•A specification (singular)
consists of a metric and a
value. For example, “average
time to assemble” is a metric,
while “less than 75 seconds”
is the value of this metric.

When Are Specifications Established?

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Establishing Target Specifications

• The process of establishing the target specifications contains four
steps:
• Prepare the list of metrics.
• Collect competitive benchmarking information.
• Set ideal and marginally acceptable target values.
• Reflect on the results and the process.

Prepare the List of Metrics

• A few guidelines should be considered when constructing the list
of metrics:
• Metrics should be complete.
• Metrics should be dependent, not independent, variables.
• Metrics should be practical.
• Some needs cannot easily be translated into quantifiable metrics.
• The metrics should include the popular criteria for comparison in the
marketplace.

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Collect Competitive Benchmarking

Information

Target Specifications

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Set Ideal and Marginally Acceptable Target

Values
• In this step, the team synthesizes the available information to
actually set the target values for the metrics.
• Two types of target value are useful: an ideal value and a
marginally acceptable value.
• The ideal value is the best result the team could hope for. The marginally
acceptable value is the
• value of the metric that would just barely make the product commercially
viable.

• There are five ways to express the values of the metrics:

• At least X: These specifications establish targets for the lower bound on a
metric, but higher is still better. For example, the value of the brake
mounting stiffness is specified to be at least 325 kilonewtons/meter.
• At most X: These specifications establish targets for the upper bound on
a metric, with smaller values being better. For example, the value for the
mass of the suspension fork is set to be at most 1.4 kilograms.
• Between X and Y: These specifications establish both upper and lower
bounds for the value of a metric. For example, the value for the spring
preload is set to be between 480 and 800 newtons. Any more and the
suspension is harsh; any less and the suspension is too bouncy.

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• Exactly X: These specifications establish a target of a particular value of a

metric, with any deviation degrading performance. For example, the ideal
value for the rake offset metric is set to 38 millimeters. This type of
specification is to be avoided if possible because such specifications
substantially constrain the design. Often, upon reconsideration, the team
realizes that what initially appears as an “exactly X” specification can be
expressed as a “between X and Y” specification.
• A set of discrete values: Some metrics will have values corresponding to
several discrete choices. For example, the headset diameters are 1.000,
1.125, or 1.250 inches. (Industry practice is to use English units for these and
several other critical bicycle dimensions.)

Reflect on the Results and the Process

• The team may require some iteration to agree on the targets. Reflection
after each iteration helps to ensure that the results are consistent with
the goals of the project. Questions to consider include:
• Are members of the team “gaming”? For example, is the key marketing
representative insisting that an aggressive value is required for a particular
metric in the hopes that by setting a high goal, the team will actually achieve
more than if his or her true, and more lenient, beliefs were expressed?
• Should the team consider offering multiple products or at least multiple options
for the product to best match the particular needs of more than one market
segment, or will one “average” product suffice?
• Are any specifications missing? Do the specifications reflect the characteristics
that will dictate commercial success?

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Setting the Final Specifications

• Develop technical models of the product.
• Develop a cost model of the product.
• Refine the specifications, making trade-offs where necessary.
• Flow down the specifications as appropriate.
• Reflect on the results and the process.

Develop technical models of the product

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Develop a Cost Model of the Product

Refine the Specifications, Making Trade-Offs

Where Necessary

Final
Specifications

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Flow down the specifications as appropriate

Reflect on the Results and the Process

• As always, the final step in the method is to reflect on the outcome and the process.
Some questions the team may want to consider are:
• Is the product a winner? The product concept should allow the team to actually set the
specifications so that the product will meet the customer needs and excel competitively. If
not, then the team should return to the concept generation and selection phase or abandon
the project.
• How much uncertainty is there in the technical and cost models? If competitive success is
dictated by metrics around which much uncertainty remains, the team may wish to refine the
technical or cost models to increase confidence in meeting the specifications.
• Is the concept chosen by the team best suited to the target market, or could it be best
applied in another market (say, the low end or high end instead of the middle)? The selected
concept may actually be too good. If the team has generated a concept that is dramatically
superior to the competitive products, it may wish to consider employing the concept in a
more demanding, and potentially more profitable, market segment.
• Should the firm initiate a formal effort to develop better technical models of some aspect of
the product’s performance for future use? Sometimes the team will discover that it does not
really understand the underlying product technology well enough to create useful
performance models. In such circumstances, an engineering effort to develop better
understanding and models may be useful in subsequent development projects.

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Concept Generation
• After identifying a set of customer needs and establishing target
product specifications, the team faced the following questions:
• What existing solution concepts, if any, could be successfully adapted for
this application?
• What new concepts might satisfy the established needs and
specifications?
• What methods can be used to facilitate the concept generationAprocess?
cordless electric
roofing nailer.

Activity of Concept Generation

• The concept generation process begins with a set of customer needs and target specifications and results in a
set of product concepts from which the team will make a final selection.
• an effective development team will generate hundreds of concepts, of which 5 to 20 will merit serious
consideration during the concept selection activity.

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Structured Approaches Reduce the Likelihood of Costly Problems

• Common dysfunctions exhibited by development teams during
concept generation include:
• Consideration of only one or two alternatives, often proposed by the most
assertive members of the team.
• Failure to consider carefully the usefulness of concepts employed by
other firms in related and unrelated products.
• Involvement of only one or two people in the process, resulting in lack of
confidence and commitment by the rest of the team.
• Ineffective integration of promising partial solutions.
• Failure to consider entire categories of solutions.

Five-Step Method
• Clarify the Problem
• Search Externally
• Search Internally
• Explore Systematically
• Reflect on the Solutions and Process

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Clarify the Problem

• Clarifying the problem consists of developing a general
understanding and then breaking the problem down into
subproblems if necessary.
• Decompose a Complex Problem into Simpler Subproblems
• Decomposition by sequence of user actions
• Decomposition by key customer needs
• Focus Initial Efforts on the Critical Subproblems

Search Externally
• Interview Lead Users
• Consult Experts
• Search Patents
• Search Published Literature
• Benchmark-Related Products

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Search Internally
• Five guidelines are useful for improving both individual and group
internal search:
• Suspend judgment
• Generate a lot of ideas
• Welcome ideas that may seem infeasible
• Make plenty of sketches
• Build sketch models

The nailer team used both individual effort and group sessions for internal search. For example, during one particular
week each member was assigned one or two subproblems and was expected to develop at least 10 solution concepts.

Hints for Generating Solution Concepts

• Experienced individuals and teams can usually just sit down and
begin generating good concepts for a subproblem. Here are some
hints:
• Make analogies
• Wish and wonder
• Distort ideas
• Use related stimuli
• Use unrelated stimuli
• Set quantitative goals
• Use the gallery method

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Explore Systematically
Systematic exploration
• is aimed at navigating the space of possibilities by organizing and
synthesizing these solution fragments.
• e.g. The Nailer team focused on the energy storage, conversion, and delivery
subproblems and had generated dozens of concept fragments for each
subproblem
• There are two specific tools for managing this complexity and organizing the
thinking of the team:
• concept classification tree
• concept combination table.

Concept Classification Tree

The concept classification tree is used to divide the entire space of
possible solutions into several distinct classes that will facilitate
comparison and pruning. Classification tree provides at least four
important benefits:
1. Pruning of less-promising branches
2. Identification of independent approaches to the problem
3. Exposure of inappropriate emphasis on certain branches
Example of Refinement of the problem decomposition for a particular branch
4. Refinement of the problem decomposition for a particular
branch

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Concept Combination Table

• The concept combination table provides a way to consider
combinations of solution fragments systematically.

Reflect on the Solutions and the Process

• The team explored several of these concepts in more detail and
built working prototypes of nailers incorporating two
fundamentally different directions:
• A motor winding a spring with energy released in a single blow,
• A motor with a rotating mass that repeatedly hit the nail at a rate of about
10 cycles per second until the nail was fully driven.

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Concept Selection

One of the existing outpatient syringes.

Concept Selection
• Concept Selection Is an Integral Part of the Product Development
Process

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Some Method for Choosing a Concept

• External decision: Concepts are turned over to the customer, client, or some other external entity for
selection.
• Product champion: An influential member of the product development team chooses a concept
based on personal preference.
• Intuition: The concept is chosen by its feel. Explicit criteria or trade-offs are not used. The concept just
seems better.
• Multi-voting: Each member of the team votes for several concepts. The concept with the most votes is
selected.
• Online survey/crowdsourcing: Using an online survey tool, each concept is rated by many people to
find the best ones.
• Pros and cons: The team lists the strengths and weaknesses of each concept and makes a choice
based upon group opinion.
• Prototype and test: The organization builds and tests prototypes of each concept, making a selection
based upon test data.
• Decision matrices: The team rates each concept against prespecified selection criteria, which may be
weighted.

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A Structured Method
• A customer-focused product: Because concepts are explicitly evaluated against customer
oriented criteria, the selected concept is likely to be focused on the customer.
• A competitive design: By benchmarking concepts with respect to existing designs, designers
push the design to match or exceed their competitors’ performance along key dimensions.
• Better product-process coordination: Explicit evaluation of the product with respect to
manufacturing criteria improves the product’s manufacturability and helps to match the product
with the process capabilities of the firm.
• Reduced time to product introduction: A structured method becomes a common language
among design engineers, manufacturing engineers, industrial designers, marketers, and project
managers, resulting in decreased ambiguity, faster communication, and fewer false starts.
• Effective group decision making: Within the development team, organizational philosophy and
guidelines, willingness of members to participate, and team member experience may constrain
the concept selection process. A structured method encourages decision making based on
objective criteria and minimizes the likelihood that arbitrary or personal factors influence the
product concept.
• Documentation of the decision process: A structured method results in a readily understood
archive of the rationale behind concept decisions. This record is useful for assimilating new team
members and for quickly assessing the impact of changes in the customer needs or in the
available alternatives.

Concept selection methodology

A two-stage concept selection methodology:
• First stage is concept screening
• Second stage is concept scoring
• Screening is a quick, approximate evaluation aimed at producing a
few viable alternatives.
• Scoring is a more careful analysis of these relatively few concepts
to choose the single concept most likely to lead to product
success.

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• Both stages, concept screening and concept scoring, follow a six-

step process that leads the team through the concept selection
activity. The steps are:
• Prepare the selection matrix.
• Rate the concepts.
• Rank the concepts.
• Combine and improve the concepts.
• Select one or more concepts.
• Reflect on the results and the process.

Concept Screening
• The purposes of this stage are to narrow the number of concepts
quickly and to improve the concepts.

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Concept Scoring

Concept Testing

A prototype of emPower Corporation’s electric scooter product concept.

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Concept Testing

Method for testing product concepts

• Define the purpose of the concept test.
• Choose a survey population.
• Choose a survey format.
• Communicate the concept.
• Measure customer response.
• Interpret the results.
• Reflect on the results and the process.

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Define the Purpose of the Concept Test

The primary questions addressed in concept testing are typically:
• Do customers like the concept we have developed?
• Does the concept address the customer needs?
• Which of several alternative concepts should be pursued?
• How can the concept be improved to better meet customer
needs?
• Approximately how many units are likely to be sold?
• Should development be continued?

Choose a Survey Population

• An assumption underlying the concept test is that the population
of potential customers surveyed reflects that of the target market
for the product.

Factors leading to relatively smaller or larger survey sample sizes.

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Choose a Survey Format

• Face-to-face interaction
• Telephone
• Postal mail
• Electronic mail
• Internet

Communicate the Concept

Concepts can be communicated in any of the following ways, listed
in order of increasing richness of the description.
• Verbal description
• Sketch
• Photos and renderings
• Storyboard
• Video
• Simulation
• Interactive multimedia
• Physical appearance models
• Working prototypes

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Measure Customer Response

• why respondents react the way they do and on how the product
concepts could be improved.
• Customer Response helps to measure purchase intent.
• Purchase-intent scale has five response categories:
• Definitely would buy.
• Probably would buy.
• Might or might not buy.
• Probably would not buy.
• Definitely would not buy.

Interpret the Results

E.g. forecasting sales of new products
Q, the quantity of the product expected to be sold during a time period,
as Q = N × A × P
N is the number of potential customers expected to make purchases
during the time period.
For an existing and stable product category (e.g., bicycles) N is the
expected number of purchases to be made of existing products in the
category over the time period
A is the fraction of these potential customers or purchases for which the
product is available and the customer is aware of the product.
P is the probability that the product is purchased if available and if the
customer is aware of it. P is estimated in turn by

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P=C definitely × F definitely + C probably × F probably

• Fdefinitely is the fraction of survey respondents indicating in the concept test

survey that they would definitely purchase.
• Fprobably is the fraction of survey respondents indicating that they would
probably purchase
• (often called the “second box” score).
• Cdefinitely and Cprobably are calibration constants usually established based on
the experience
• of a company with similar products in the past.
• Generally the values of Cdefinitely and Cprobably fall in these intervals: 0.10 <
Cdefinitely < 0.50, 0 < Cprobably < 0.25.
• many teams use values of Cdefinitely = 0.4 and Cprobably = 0.2.
• Note that these values reflect the typical bias of respondents to overestimate
the probability that they would actually purchase the product.
For new product category product, N is the number of customers in the target market for the new product, and P is the
probability of a target-market customer purchasing the product within a given time period, often a year. Note

Reflect on the Results and the Process

• The primary benefit of the concept test is in getting feedback from real
potential customers.
• In reflecting on the results of the concept test, the team should ask two
key diagnostic questions.
• First, was the concept communicated in a way that is likely to elicit customer
response that reflects true intent? For example, if one of the primary benefits of
the concept is its aesthetic appeal, was the concept presented in a way that this
aspect of the product was clear to respondents?
• Second, is the resulting forecast consistent with observed sales rates of similar
products? For example, if only 1,000 gasoline-powered GoPed scooters (a
competing product) are currently sold to college students each year, why does
the emPower team believe it will sell 30 times as many of its product?

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Product Architecture
Product architecture is the assignment of the functional elements of a product to the
• In considering their next steps, the team members asked:
physical building blocks of the product.
• How would the architecture of the product impact their ability to offer
product variety?
• What would be the cost implications of different product architectures?
• How would the architecture of the product impact their ability to
complete the design within 12 months?
• How would the architecture of the product influence their ability to
manage the development process?

What Is Product Architecture?

• A product can be thought of in both functional and physical terms.
• The functional elements of a product are the individual
operations and transformations that contribute to the overall
performance of the product.
• E.g For a printer, some of the functional elements are “store paper” and
“communicate with host computer.”
• The physical elements of a product are the parts, components,
and subassemblies that ultimately implement the product’s
functions.
• E.g, the DeskJet embodies a product concept involving a thermal ink
delivery device, implemented by a print cartridge.
The physical elements of a product are typically organized into several major
physical building blocks, which we call chunks

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What Is Product Architecture?

• The architecture of a product is the scheme by which the
functional elements of the product are arranged into physical
chunks and by which the chunks interact.

What Is Product Architecture?

• most important characteristic of a product’s architecture is its
modularity
• A modular architecture has the following two properties:
• Chunks implement one or a few functional elements in their entirety.
• The interactions between chunks are well defined and are generally
fundamental to the primary functions of the product.

Two designs of bicycle brake and shift controls. The levers on the left exemplify
a modular architecture; the lever on the right uses an integral architecture.

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What Is Product Architecture?

• The opposite of a modular architecture is an integral
architecture. An integral architecture exhibits one or more
of the following properties:
• Functional elements of the product are implemented using more than
one chunk.
• A single chunk implements many functional elements.
• The interactions between chunks are ill defined and may be incidental to
the primary functions of the products.

• Each of the interfaces between chunks in a slot-modular

architecture is of a different type from the others, so that
the various chunks in the product cannot be interchanged.
• E.g. An automobile radio is an example of a chunk in a
slotmodular architecture.
• The radio implements exactly one function, but its interface
is different from any of the other components in the vehicle
Types of Modularity (e.g., radios and speedometers have different types of
interfaces to the instrument panel).
• Slot-modular architecture • There is a common bus to which the other chunks connect via
the same type of interface.
• Bus-modular architecture • A common example of a chunk in a bus-modular architecture
would be an expansion card for a personal computer.
• Sectional-modular architecture • Nonelectronic products can also be built around a bus-
modular architecture.
• Track lighting, shelving systems with rails, and adjustable roof
racks for automobiles all embody a bus-modular architecture.
• all interfaces are of the same type, but there is no single
element to which all the other chunks attach.
• The assembly is built up by connecting the chunks to each
other via identical interfaces.
• Many piping systems adhere to a sectional-modular
architecture, as do sectional sofas, office partitions, and
some computer systems.

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Implications of the Architecture

• Decisions about how to divide the product into chunks and about
how much modularity to impose on the architecture are tightly
linked to several issues of importance to the entire enterprise:
• Product change
• Product variety
• Component standardization
• Product performance
• Manufacturability
• Product development management

Product Change
• Chunks are the physical building blocks of the product,
• but the architecture of the product defines how these blocks
relate to the function of the product.
• The architecture therefore also defines how the product can
be changed.
• Modular chunks allow changes to be made to a few isolated
functional elements of the product.
• Changing an integral chunk may influence many functional
elements and require changes to several related chunks.

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Some of the motives for product change are:

• Upgrade
• Add-ons
• Adaptation
• Wear
• Consumption
• Flexibility in use
• Reuse

Product Variety
• Variety refers to the range of product models the firm can produce
within a particular time period in response to market demand.
• Products built around modular product architectures can be more
easily varied without adding tremendous complexity to the
manufacturing system.
• For example, Swatch produces hundreds of different watch models, but
can achieve this variety at relatively low cost by assembling the variants
from different combinations of standard chunks.

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Component Standardization

Product Performance
• Product performance …………..as how well a product implements
its intended functions
• Product performance characteristics are speed, efficiency, life,
accuracy, and noise.

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Manufacturability
• Product architecture also directly affects the ability of the team to
design each chunk to be produced at low cost.
• design-for-manufacturing (DFM) strategy involves the
minimization of the number of parts in a product through
component integration

Product Development Management

• Modular and integral architectures also demand different project
management styles.
• Modular approaches require very careful planning during the
system-level design phase.
• but detail design is largely concerned with ensuring that the teams
assigned to chunks are meeting the performance, cost, and schedule
requirements for their chunks.
• An integral architecture may require less planning and
specification during system-level design.
• But such an architecture requires substantially more integration, conflict
resolution, and coordination during the detail design phase

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Establishing the Architecture

Four-step method to structure the decision process:
• Create a schematic of the product.
• Cluster the elements of the schematic.
• Create a rough geometric layout.
• Identify the fundamental and incidental interactions.

Delayed Differentiation
• Postponing the differentiation of a product until late in the supply
chain is called delayed differentiation or simply postponement.
• It may offer substantial reductions in the costs of operating the
supply chain, primarily through reductions in inventory
requirements.
• Postponement enables substantial reductions in the cost of
inventories because there is substantially less randomness in the
demand for the basic elements of the product

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Two design principles are necessary conditions for

postponement.

• The differentiating elements of the product must be concentrated

in one or a few chunks.
• The product and production process must be designed so that the
differentiating chunk(s) can be added to the product near the end
of the supply chain.

Platform Planning there are market

There are design and
manufacturing
• A desirable property of the product architecture
benefits to maximizing is that it enables a
company to offer two or more products that
there are market the extent are highly differentiated yet
to which
these different
share a substantial fraction of theirproducts
benefits to offering components.
share
several very
• The collection of assets,
distinctive versions including
commoncomponent
components. designs, shared by
these products is called a
of a product. product platform .
• Planning the product platform involves managing a basic trade-off
between distinctiveness and commonality.
• Two simple information systems allow the team to manage this trade-
off:
• Differentiation plan
• Commonality plan.

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Differentiation Plan

Commonality Plan

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Managing the Trade-Off between

Differentiation and Commonality
• Several guidelines for managing this tension:
• Platform planning decisions should be informed by quantitative estimates
of cost and revenue implications.
• Iteration is beneficial.
• The product architecture dictates the nature of the trade-off between
differentiation and commonality.

Related System-Level Design Issues

• The four-step method for establishing the product architecture
guides the early system-level design activities.
• But issue arise during subsequent system-level design activities
and their implications for the product architecture are as:
• Defining Secondary Systems.
• Establishing the Architecture of the Chunks.
• Creating Detailed Interface Specifications.

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Industrial Design

Philips Sonicare ProtectiveClean electric toothbrush

Its commercial success is at least in part due to several factors

the Sonicare team had to take into consideration in their new
design:
• Technological compatibility
• Physical interface
• Maintenance
• Brushing styles
• Desirability
• Brand consistency
• Ergonomics

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What Is Industrial Design (ID)?

• German architect and industrial designer Dieter Rams 10
principles:
• Good design is innovative
• Good design makes a product useful
• Good design is aesthetic
• Good design makes a product understandable
• Good design is unobtrusive
• Good design is honest
• Good design is long-lasting
• Good design is thorough down to the last detail
• Good design is environmentally friendly
• Good design is as little design as possible

Assessing the Need for Industrial Design

• Expenditures for Industrial Design
• How Important Is Industrial Design to a Product?
• User Experience Needs
How important is usability?
• Aesthetic• Needs
• How• Isimportant
visual product
is easedifferentiation required?
of maintenance?
• How• How important
complex are theare pride of required
interactions ownership,
for the product’s
image, and style?
functions?
• How• Will an aesthetically
familiar appealing product
are the user interactions to the user?
• Whatmotivate the team?
are the safety issues?

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Results of such analysis

The Impact of Industrial Design

• Is Industrial Design Worth the Investment?
• Direct cost, Manufacturing Cost, Time cost
• How Does Industrial Design Establish a Corporate Identity?
• Some brands that have effectively used ID to establish visual equity and corporate identity through their product lines
include:
• Apple: The original Macintosh had a small, upright shape and a benign buff coloring. This design purposely gave the
product a nonthreatening, user-friendly look that has since been associated with all of Apple’s products. More recent Apple
designs have rounded rectangular forms, clean lines, and minimal user controls.
• OXO: The “Good Grips” line of household products was originally designed for use by persons with limited strength and/or
mobility but has become commonly sold as better products for any user. The visual equity of many OXO products is derived
from their use of nonslip, black rubber grips and rounded forms.
• Braun: Braun kitchen appliances and shavers have clean lines and basic colors. The Braun name has long been associated
with simplicity and quality.
• Bang & Olufsen: B&O high-fidelity consumer electronics systems are designed to have sleek lines and impressive visual
displays, providing an image of technological innovation.
• BMW: BMW automobiles, known for luxury features and driver-oriented performance, display exterior styling features that
have evolved slowly, retaining the equity associated with the brand.

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Industrial Design Process

Control
Drawing`
• ID process can be thought of as consisting of the following
activities: • •InThe
the final refinement
preliminary step before
refinement phase,
selecting a concept is to create hard
industrial designers build models of
• Investigation of customer needs. models.
• Conceptualization.
the most promising concepts.
• They
• Soft are made
models areor from wood,
typically dense
• Preliminary refinement. foam, plastic, metal; made in full
are painted
• scale using foam or foam-core
and textured; and have some
Further refinement and final concept selection. board.
• Control drawings or models. “working”are
• Concepts features suchbyasindustrial
evaluated buttons
• that push
designers,
Coordination with engineering, manufacturing, or sliders that
engineers,
and external move.
vendors. marketing
Hard models
•personnel, andcan
(at then be potential
times) used by
industrial designers and engineers
customers through the process of
to furtherfeeling,
touching, refine and
the final concept
modifying the
specifications.
models.

Management of the Industrial Design Process

• Technology-driven products
• User-driven products

• Timing of Industrial Design Involvement

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Assessing the Quality of Industrial Design

• Usability
• Emotional Appeal
• Ability to Maintain and Repair the Product
• Appropriate Use of Resources
• Product Differentiation

NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
• Any quantity whose variation depends on random causes is
distributed according to the normal law.
• Its importance lies in the fact that a large number of distributions
approximate to the normal distribution.
• Let us define a variate ,
• where x is a binomial variate with mean np and S.D.
• So that z is a variate with mean zero and variance unity.
• In the limit as n tends to infinity, the distribution of z becomes a
continuous distribution extending from - ∞ to ∞.

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• It can be shown that the limiting form of the binomial distribution

for large values of n when neither p nor q is very small, is the
normal distribution.

• where μ and σ are the mean and standard deviation respectively.

Properties of the normal distribution

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Exponential Distribution

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Weibull Distribution

Lognormal distribution
• If X is a random variable and Y=ln(X) is normally distributed, then X
is said to be distributed lognormally.
• Similarly, if Y has a normal distribution, then the exponential
function of Y will be having a lognormal distribution, i.e. X=exp(Y).
• A statistical result of the multiplicative product of many
independent random variables, each of which is positive is
considered as a lognormal process.

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A random variable X is distributed log-normally if and only if the

logarithm of X is normally distributed. Also, the value of X should be
positive.
The lognormal distribution is a two-parameter distribution with
parameters μ and σ. The probability density function can be defined
as:

On applying the derivative, we get

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Mean of Lognormal distribution

• The major lognormal distribution functions are:
• Mean
• The mean of a lognormal distribution of

• The mean of the natural logarithms of time-to-failure

• Median
• Mode

Lognormal distribution curve

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Applications of Lognormal distribution

• Rubik’s Cube solves, both general or by a person, appear to be
following a lognormal distribution
• The length of comments posted on social media website
discussion forums follows a lognormal distribution
• Time spent by a user on online articles (jokes, news etc.) follows a
lognormal distribution
• In economics, to analyse the income of the population other than
higher-income individuals
• In order to analyse the fluctuations in the stock markets

Design for Manufacturing (DFM)

• Some of the challenges for the design team were as follows:
• Initial relatively low volumes; hundreds of units per year not thousands.
• Uncertainty of market size and future production quantities because of a
lack of directly comparable products in the marketplace.
• Requirement for very low cost to appeal to the target market.
• Limited funding for capital investments in tooling such as molds and dies.
• Anticipated requirement to rapidly iterate the design in response to early
market feedback.

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Cont………………….
• DFM uses information of several types, including
• sketches, drawings, product specifications, and design alternatives.
• a detailed understanding of production and assembly processes.
• strategic choices about suppliers and their global configuration.
• estimates of manufacturing cost, production volume, and ramp-up
timing.
• DFM begins during the concept development phase.

DFM Methodology
1. Consider the strategic sourcing decisions.
2. Estimate the manufacturing costs
3. Reduce the costs of components.
4. Reduce the costs of assembly.
5. Reduce the costs of supporting production.
6. Reduce the costs of logistics.
7. Consider the impact of DFM decisions on other factors.

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Consider the Strategic Sourcing Decisions

The decision of what to outsource is called the make-versus-buy or simply make-buy decision.
Decision to make product by self or get it from supplier
• Supplier arrangements can be categorized as follows:
• Full vertical integration. Most manufacturing activities are done internally by the brand
owner, including both component production and assembly.
• Final assembly only. Only the final assembly of components into finished goods is done
by the brand owner. All component production is done by suppliers.
• Orchestration of suppliers. All production activities, including final assembly, are out-
sourced to different suppliers, but the brand owner coordinates the independent parties.
• Contract manufacturing. A supplier coordinates component production and performs
final assembly. The product is delivered as finished goods, usually in its final packaging.
The brand owner deals only with the contract manufacturer.
• Engaging an original design and manufacturer (ODM). A single supplier not only
coordinates all aspects of component production and assembly, as does a contract
manu- facturer, but also completes detailed design of the product for the brand owner
based on a functional specification of performance

The make-buy decision is often made in conjunction with a decision about where to locate production geographically.

Estimate the Manufacturing Costs

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Reduce the Costs of Components

• Understand the Process Constraints and Cost Drivers
• Redesign Components to Eliminate Processing Steps
• Choose the Appropriate Economic Scale for the Part Process
• Standardize Components
• Adhere to “Black Box” Component Procurement

Reduce the Costs of Assembly

• Integrate Parts
Part integration provides several benefits:
• Maximize Ease of Assembly
1. Integrated parts do not have to be assembled. In effect, the “assembly” of the geometric
features of the part is accomplished by the part fabrication process.
• Part is inserted from the top of the assembly
2. Integrated parts are often less expensive to fabricate than are the separate parts they
• Part is self-aligning
replace. For molded, stamped, and cast parts, this cost savings occurs because a
single
• Part does complex
not need mold
to beororiented
die is usually less expensive than two or more less complex
molds or dies and because there is usually less processing time and scrap for the
• Part requires
single, only one
integrated part.hand for assembly
•3. Part requiresparts
Integrated no tools
allow the relationships among critical geometric features to be
controlled
• Part by theinpart
is assembled fabrication
a single, process (e.g., molding) rather than by an assembly
linear motion
process. This usually means that these dimensions can be more precisely controlled.
• Part is secured immediately upon insertion

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Reduce the Costs of Supporting Production

• Minimize Systemic Complexity
• Error Proofing

Reduce the Costs of Logistics

Logistics costs are composed of
1. (1) the freight costs required to transport the product from the
manufacturing location to the distribution point in the market in
which prod- ucts will be sold, and
2. (2) duties, if any, levied on the complete product or on imported
components.
Freight costs are generally determined by a combination of volume
and weight.

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Cont…….
• Guidelines for minimizing volume:
• Partial disassembly, folding, or compression
• Minimum carton size
• Limited or no packaging
• Delayed final packaging

Consider the Impact of DFM Decisions on

Other Factors
• The Impact of DFM on Development Time
• The Impact of DFM on Development Cost
• The Impact of DFM on Product Quality
• The Impact of DFM on the Larger Enterprise
• Component reuse
• Life cycle costs
• Supply chain responsiveness

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Prototyping
“an approximation of the product along one or more dimensions of
interest.”
Prototyping is the process of developing such an approximation of
the product.

Types of Prototypes
• Prototypes can be usefully classified along two dimensions.
• Physical
First Dimension
• Analytical

Physical Prototype
Analytical Prototype

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• The second dimension is the degree to which a prototype is

• Comprehensive
A comprehensive prototype
• Focused corresponds closely to the
In contrast to
everyday use of the word
comprehensive
prototype, in that it is a full-
prototypes, focused
scale, fully operational
proto- types implement
version of the product.
one, or a few, of the
attributes of a product

What Are Prototypes Used For?

• Learning
• Communication
• Integration
• Milestones

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Principles of Prototyping
• Analytical Prototypes Are Generally More Flexible Than Physical
Prototypes
• Physical Prototypes Are Required to Detect Unanticipated
Phenomena
• A Prototype May Reduce the Risk of Costly Iterations
• A Prototype May Expedite Other Development Steps

Prototyping Technologies
• CAD Modeling and Analysis
• 3D Printing

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Planning for Prototypes

• Define the Purpose of the Prototype
• Establish the Level of Approximation of the Prototype
• Outline an Experimental Plan
• Create a Schedule for Procurement, Construction, and Testing

Robust Design
• Robust design is the product development activity of improving
the desired performance of the product while minimizing the
effects of noise.
• A robust setpoint is a combination of design parameter values for
which the product performance is as desired under a range of
operating conditions and manufacturing variations.

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Key points about Robust design

• The robust design process can be used at several stages of the product
development process.
• Robust design experiments can be used within the concept development
phase.
• It is beneficial to consider product robustness as early as the concept stage.
• Experiments for robust design are used most frequently during the detail-
design phase.
• It ensure the desired product per- formance under a variety of conditions.
• Robust design activity is also known as parameter design, as this is a matter
of choosing the right setpoints for the design parameters under our control.

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Example for Robust design

Seat belt design problem, Ford’s engineers for design parameters
and collision testing….. They developed:
• Develop a simulation model (calibrated using experimental crash
data.)
• Considering the hundreds of possible design parameter
combinations, collision conditions,
• Engineers chose to explore the simulation model using a carefully
planned experiment.

Design of Experiments
• DoE is the suitable approach for the robust design.
• One of design is Taguchi Method
• Desired performance (signal) and
• Undesired effects (noise)

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Robust Design Process

• To develop a robust product through DOE, we suggest this seven-step
process:
• 1. Identify control factors, noise factors, and performance metrics.
• 2. Formulate an objective function.
• 3. Develop the experimental plan.
• 4. Run the experiment.
• 5. Conduct the analysis.
• 6. Select and confirm factor setpoints.
• 7. Reflect and repeat.

Identify Control Factors, Noise Factors, and

Performance Metrics

Parameter diagram used to design the seat belt experiment. Bold text indicates the performance metric used and the
control factors and noise factors chosen for exploration

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Formulate an Objective Function

Common forms of this objective function η are η = μ or η = μ2 ,
• Maximizing where
Common μ isforms
the mean of objective
of this the experimental
functionobservations
are η = μ or under
η = σ2a, where σ2 is the variance of the
given test condition.
experimental observations under a given test condition. Alternatively, such minimization
• Minimizing objectives can be formulated as functions to be maximized, such as η = 1/μ or η = 1/σ2
A common maximizing form of this objective function is η = 1/(μ − t)2 ,
• Target value where t is the target value.
A common maxi- mizing form of this objective function is
• Signal-to-noise ratio η = 10 log (μ2 /σ2 ).

Develop the Experimental Plan

• Experimental Designs
• Full factorial
• Fractional factorial
• Orthogonal array
• One factor at a time
• Testing Noise Factor

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Testing Noise Factors

• Some common ways to test noise factors are:
• Assign additional columns in the orthogonal array or fractional factorial layout to the
noise factors, essentially treating the noise as another variable. This allows the
effects of the noise factors to be determined along with the control factors.
• Use an outer array for the noise factors. This method tests several combinations of
the noise factors for each row in the main (inner) array. An example of this approach
is shown in the appendix, where the outer array consists of an L4 design, testing
combinations of three noise factors by replicating each row four times.
• Run replicates of each row, allowing the noise to vary in a natural, uncontrolled
manner throughout the experiment, resulting in measurable variance in
performance for each row. With this approach, it is particularly important to
randomize the order of the trials so that any trends in the noise are unlikely to be
correlated with the systematic changes in the control factors. (See step 4.)
• Run replicates of each row with compounded noise. In this method, selected noise
factors are combined to create several representative noise conditions or extreme
noise conditions. This approach also yields measurable variance for each row,
which can be attributed to the effect of noise.

Factor assignments and the L8

orthogonal array experiment design
used for the seat belt experiment.
This DOE plan tests seven factors
at two levels each. Each row was
replicated twice, under the two
compounded noise conditions,
yielding 16 test data points for
analysis.

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Run the Experiment

• To execute the experiment, the product is tested under the various
treatment conditions described by each row in the experimental
plan.
• Randomizing the sequence of the experi- mental runs ensures
that any systematic trend over the duration of the experiment is
not correlated with the systematic changes to the levels of the
factors.

Conduct the Analysis

• Computing the Objective Function
• Computing Factor Effects by Analysis of Means

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Select and Confirm Factor Setpoints

• Analysis of means and the factor effects charts help the team
determine which factors have a strong effect on mean
performance and variance, and therefore how to achieve robust
performance.
• These charts help to identify which factors are best able to reduce
the product’s variance (robustness factors) and which factors can
be used to improve the per- formance (scaling factors).
• By choosing setpoints based on these insights, the team should
be able to improve the overall robustness of the product.

Reflect and Repeat

• In subsequent experimentation and testing, the team may choose
to:
• Reconsider the setpoints chosen for factors displaying a trade-off of
performance versus robustness.
• Explore interactions among some of the factors in order to further improve
the performance. ∙
• Fine-tune the parameter setpoints using values between the levels tested
or outside this range. ∙
• Investigate other noise and/or control factors that were not included in
the initial experiment.

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Design for Maintainability?

• Design for Maintainability (DfM) is an approach to product or
system design that emphasizes ease of maintenance throughout
the product’s lifecycle. It involves anticipating future maintenance
needs—such as inspections, repairs, or part replacements—
during the design phase, making sure that maintenance is safe,
efficient, and cost-effective.

Key Principles of Design for Maintainability

(DfM)
•Accessibility
•Ensure that components that require frequent maintenance (e.g., filters, fasteners, or fuses) are easily accessible.
•Use ergonomic designs to allow maintainers to work comfortably in tight or awkward spaces.
•Avoid designing products that require disassembly of many parts to reach the component that needs servicing.
•Modularity and Standardization
•Design with modular components to allow faulty parts to be replaced without affecting the whole system.
•Use standardized parts across multiple models to reduce the variety of spare parts required and simplify maintenance.
•Ease of Disassembly and Assembly
•Incorporate fasteners, connectors, or snap-fits that allow for quick disassembly and reassembly.
•Reduce the number of tools required for maintenance.
•Self-Diagnostics and Monitoring Systems
•Integrate sensors and monitoring tools to detect failures early and provide diagnostic information.
•Use interfaces or displays to guide maintainers through troubleshooting processes.
•Minimized Wear and Tear
•Select materials and design components to minimize degradation over time (e.g., corrosion-resistant materials or lubricants).
•Incorporate design features that reduce mechanical stress, vibration, and friction to extend the life of parts.
•Error-Proofing and Safety
•Ensure that components can only be installed in the correct orientation (Poka-yoke or error-proofing).
•Include safety features (e.g., guards or interlocks) to protect maintainers during repairs.
•Use labels and visual cues for quick identification of parts and maintenance points.
•Documentation and Training Support
•Provide clear and concise user manuals or digital guides to support maintenance teams.
•Use QR codes or augmented reality (AR) tools for easy access to repair instructions and part lists.
•Design products to reduce the amount of specialized training required for maintainers.
•Maintenance Interval Optimization
•Balance preventive maintenance schedules to reduce the frequency and duration of service.
•Ensure that components are designed to last a specified amount of time between maintenance events (reliability-centered maintenance).

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Design Strategies for Maintainability

• Preventive Maintenance Support
• Enable easy inspection and cleaning of critical parts.
• Design with visual indicators (e.g., wear markers) to signal when maintenance is
due.
• Remote Maintenance Capabilities
• Use IoT and remote diagnostics to monitor equipment in real-time and perform
predictive maintenance.
• Allow remote software updates or configurations to minimize physical
interventions.
• Tool-Less Maintenance Design
• Where possible, design systems that can be maintained without specialized
tools (e.g., snap-in modules).
• Use quick-release mechanisms for fast component changes

Benefits of Design for Maintainability

•Reduced Downtime
•Easier maintenance reduces the time equipment or products are out of service, improving operational
efficiency.
•Lower Maintenance Costs
•Efficient design minimizes labor costs, tool requirements, and the need for specialized technicians.
•Standardized parts reduce spare part inventories.
•Improved Product Reliability and Safety
•Designing for maintainability reduces the likelihood of errors during servicing, enhancing overall product
reliability.
•Safety features protect maintainers and reduce the risk of accidents during maintenance tasks.
•Enhanced Customer Satisfaction
•Customers benefit from products that are easy to maintain, repair, or upgrade, increasing brand loyalty.
•Longer Product Life
•Regular, efficient maintenance extends the lifespan of products, reducing waste and promoting sustainability.

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Quantifiable measures of maintainability

• Mean time to repair: The average time it takes to repair something.
• Median time to repair: The median time it takes to repair something.
• Maximum time to repair: The maximum time it takes to repair a certain percentage of
failures.
• Mean system down time: The average time a system is down.
• Mean time to restore: The average time it takes to restore something.
• Cyclomatic complexity: A software metric that measures the number of linearly
independent paths in a code section.
• Halstead complexity measures: A metric that assesses the computational complexity of
code by measuring the number of operators and operands.
• Time and effort required for adaptive maintenance: The time and effort required to keep a
software product compatible with evolving environments.

Mean Time Between Maintenance Maintenance Downtime (MDT)

Mean Time to Repair (MTTR)
(MTBM)

Availability (A) Preventive Maintenance Ratio (PM Ratio) Corrective Maintenance Frequency
(CMF)

Spare Parts Availability Rate (SPAR) Maintenance Cost per Operating

Maintainability Index
Hour (MCOH)
(MI)

Repair Time Variability

(RTV)

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Maintainability Management Tasks During the

Product Life Cycle
• Concept and Feasibility Phase
At the earliest stages, designers and engineers assess maintainability
requirements and set objectives.
• Tasks: Requirement Definition: Identify maintainability goals (e.g., MTTR,
downtime limits).Include maintainability in the product’s specifications
and business objectives.
• Feasibility Studies: Assess whether the product can meet target
maintainability requirements. Compare options (e.g., modular vs.
integrated designs) from a maintenance perspective.
• Risk Analysis: Conduct preliminary Failure Mode and Effects Analysis
(FMEA) to identify potential maintenance challenges.

Design and Development Phase

• This phase focuses on integrating maintainability into the product design, ensuring that
future maintenance tasks are easy, efficient, and cost-effective.
• Tasks:
• Maintainability Design Reviews:
• Perform design reviews to assess component accessibility, modularity, and ease of disassembly.
• Use maintainability checklists and guidelines (e.g., ensure parts are reachable without special
tools).
• FMEA and Reliability Analysis:
• Identify failure points and predict maintenance needs using FMEA or Reliability-Centered
Maintenance (RCM) analysis.
• Prototyping and Testing for Maintainability:
• Develop and test prototypes to simulate real-world maintenance activities (e.g., part replacement).
• Evaluate MTTR (Mean Time to Repair) based on mock repair activities.
• Maintenance Documentation Preparation:
• `Create initial service manuals, maintenance instructions, and troubleshooting guides.

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Manufacturing and Production Phase

• During this phase, processes are put in place to ensure the product is produced
according to maintainability requirements.
• Tasks:
• Manufacturing Process Audits:
• Ensure that the production processes adhere to maintainability-related design standards.
• Verify part modularity and ensure proper labeling for easier identification during maintenance.
• Training for Technicians and Operators:
• Provide maintenance teams with training on key product components and servicing
procedures.
• Spare Parts Planning:
• Identify critical components and ensure that spare parts are available and stocked
appropriately.
• Tool and Equipment Preparation:
• Ensure that special tools (if required) for maintenance are available in the production and field
service areas.

Deployment and Commissioning Phase

• This phase involves introducing the product to the market or user
environment, where initial operations and maintenance activities begin.
• Tasks:
• Commissioning Inspections:
• Ensure that installation is carried out according to guidelines and check for any early
defects or issues.
• Maintainability Validation:
• Test the product under real-world conditions to verify MTTR and ease of maintenance.
• Collect feedback from field technicians or customers to identify early maintainability
issues.
• Documentation Updates:
• Refine maintenance manuals based on the commissioning experience and early
feedback.

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Operation and Maintenance Phase

• This phase involves the regular use and servicing of the product throughout its
operational life.
• Tasks:
• Preventive and Predictive Maintenance:
• Develop a preventive maintenance schedule to ensure regular servicing (e.g., inspections, cleaning).
• Implement condition-based monitoring to detect early signs of wear and schedule predictive maintenance.
• Maintenance Data Collection and Analysis:
• Track maintenance activities, including downtime, MTTR, and frequency of repairs.
• Analyze data to identify recurring failures or areas for improvement.
• Spare Parts Management:
• Monitor spare parts inventory to ensure critical components are always available.
• Optimize the supply chain for spare parts to reduce lead times.
• Continuous Improvement and Feedback Loops:
• Collect feedback from users and maintenance personnel to identify new challenges.
• Implement design or process improvements in subsequent production cycles based on this feedback.

Mid-Life Upgrade or Modernization Phase

As products age, upgrades or modifications may be required to enhance
performance or extend the lifecycle.
• Tasks:
• Obsolescence Management:
• Identify components or systems that may become obsolete and plan for replacements.
• Product Upgrades:
• Modify or upgrade key components to improve performance and reliability (e.g., software
updates or hardware replacements).
• Documentation Revisions:
• Update manuals and procedures to reflect changes made during upgrades.
• Retraining of Maintenance Personnel:
• Provide additional training to maintenance teams to handle new systems or processes
introduced in the upgrade.

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Decommissioning and Disposal Phase

• This final phase involves the safe disposal or recycling of the product at
the end of its useful life.
• Tasks:
• Disassembly Planning:
• Ensure that the product can be easily disassembled for disposal, recycling, or reuse.
• Recovery of Valuable Components:
• Identify parts that can be reused or recycled to minimize waste.
• Environmental Compliance:
• Follow regulations for the disposal of hazardous materials (e.g., batteries or chemicals).
• Final Documentation:
• Document the decommissioning process for future reference, especially in case of
audits or regulatory requirements.

Life cycle costing

• An LCC analysis (LCCA) can provide a basis for evaluating the
economic and engineering performance of proposed assets, including
machines/equipment and production systems.
• LCC models are often projected as economic tools but they can also
provide the basis for improvements in system effectiveness, making
them useful for selecting equipment and production systems.
• Life cycle cost refers to the total costs associated with the product or
system over a defined life cycle, that is, all cost related to acquisition
and utilization of a product over a defined period of the product’s
lifetime.
• LCC = acquisition costs + operating costs + disposal costs

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• LCC is a tool for decision-making when several alternatives are

under consideration, whereas life cycle cost evaluates the
cumulative cost of a product throughout its whole life cycle.
• LCC can be very complex and requires large quantities of data.
• LCCis an economic decision tool and is a continuation of what
was earlier called cost benefit analysis.
• In LCC, the purpose is to analyze the differences between two or
more alternative products in economic terms to select the best
investment alternative.

Life Cycle Phases

• Need analysis and
specification phase
• Conceptual design phase
• Detail design and
development phase
• Construction, production,
and commissioning phase
• Installation, system use,
phase out, decommissioning,
and disposal phase

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Considerations of Life Cycle Cost

• Problems of Traditional Design
• Problem of Cost Visibility
• Structure of Cost Breakdown

Problems of Traditional Design

• Traditional design means not involving maintenance until after the
needs are identified and the chosen solution is adopted.
• In many cases, an optimized cost policy is not possible, especially
if there is some urgency in developing new equipment and putting
it into operation.

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Problem of Cost Visibility

• Operations cost
• Operating personnel
• Operator training
• Operational facilities
• Support and handling equipment
• Energy/utilities/fuel
• Maintenance cost
• Maintenance personnel and support
• Spare/repair part
• Test and support equipment maintenance
• Transition and handling
• Maintenance training
• Maintenance facilities
• Technical data
• System/product modifications
• Disposal cost

Structure of Cost Breakdown

1. Research and development (R&D) cost
2. Production and construction cost
3. Cost of operation and support
4. Cost of decommissioning and elimination

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General Life Cycle Cost Models

General Life Cycle Cost Model I

• The equipment or system life cycle cost is divided into two main parts: recurring cost and
nonrecurring cost. Thus, the system or equipment life cycle cost is expressed by
LCC= RC+NRC
Where,
• LCC is item or system life cycle cost.
• RC is recurring cost.
• NRC is nonrecurring cost.
• The recurring cost, RC, is expressed by
RC=OC+ IC+ SC+MC+MTC
• where
• OC is operating cost.
• IC is inventory cost.
• SC is support cost.
• MC is manpower cost.
• MTC is maintenance cost.

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General Life Cycle Cost Model II

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General Life Cycle Cost Model III

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General Life Cycle Cost Model IV

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General Life Cycle Cost Model V

General Life Cycle Cost Model VI

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• The research and development cost, C1, is composed of the following 10

components:
• research and development data cost;
• cost of research and development tooling;
• cost of research and development facilities;
• development engineering cost;
• prototype manufacturing cost;
• research and development test and evaluation cost;
• producibility engineering and planning cost;
• research and development system or project management cost;
• research and development training services and equipment cost; and
• other research and development costs.

• The investment cost, C2, is composed of 11 components:

• cost of production;
• initial training cost;
• transportation cost;
• cost of data;
• cost of engineering changes;
• nonrecurring investment cost;
• cost of system test and evaluation;
• production phase system or project management cost;
• cost of initial spares and repair parts;
• operational or site activation cost; and
• other investment costs.

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• Finally, the operating and support cost, C3, is composed of six

major components:
• cost of indirect support operations;
• cost of depot maintenance;
• cost of material modifications;
• consumption cost;
• cost of military personnel; and
• cost of other direct support operations.

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