Friction

When a body moves or tends to move over another body, a force opposing the motion develops at the contact surfaces. The
force which opposes the movement or the tendency of movement is called the frictional force or simply friction.

Whenever a resultant force acts in the direction of contacting surfaces frictional force develops to oppose that force. The
frictional force, like any other reaction, has a remarkable property of adjusting itself in magnitude to the tangential force.
However, there is a limit beyond which the magnitude of the frictional force will not develop. If the applied tangential
force is more than this maximum frictional force, there will be movement of one body over the other body with an
acceleration as per Newton’s second law of mass times acceleration equal to the resultant force. This maximum value of
frictional force, which comes into play when the motion is impending is known as Limiting Friction.

When the applied tangential force is less than the limiting friction, the body remains at rest and such friction is called
Static Friction, which will have any value between zero and limiting friction.

If the value of applied tangential force exceeds the limiting friction, the body starts moving over another body and the
frictional resistance experienced while moving is known as Dynamic Friction. The magnitude of dynamic friction is
found to be less than limiting friction. Dynamic friction may be further classified into two groups:

(i) Sliding Friction: It is the friction experienced by a body when it slides over the other body.

(ii) Rolling Friction: It is the friction experienced by a body when it rolls over another body.
 Friction
It has been experimentally proved that, between two contacting surfaces, the magnitude of limiting friction bears a
constant ratio to the normal reaction between the two and this ratio is called ‘Coefficient of Friction’.

In Fig. A body weighing W is being pulled by a force P and the

motion is impending. Let N be normal reaction and F the
limiting frictional force. Then

F
Coefficient of Friction = N

Coefficient of friction is denoted by 𝜇, then

F
𝜇=
N
 Laws of Friction
The principles discussed in a previous article are mainly due to the experimental studies by Coulomb (1781) and by Mozin
(1831). These principles constitute the laws of dry friction and may be called as Coulomb’s laws of dry friction. These laws
are listed below

(i) The frictional force always acts in a direction opposite to that in which the body tends to move.

(ii) Till the limiting value is reached, the magnitude of frictional force is exactly equal to the tangential force which tends
to move the body.

(iii) The magnitude of the limiting friction bears a constant ratio to the normal reaction between the two contacting
surfaces.

(iv) The force of friction depends upon the roughness/smoothness of the surfaces.

(v) The force of friction is independent of the area of contact between the two surfaces.

(vi) After the body starts moving, the dynamic friction comes into play, the magnitude of which is less than that of limiting
friction and it bears a constant ratio to the normal force. This ratio is called coefficient of dynamic friction.
 Angle of Friction
Consider the block shown in Fig. subject to pull P. Let F be the frictional
force developed and N the normal reaction. Thus, at contact surface, the
reactions are F and N. They can be combined to get the resultant reaction
R which acts at angle 𝜃 to normal reaction. This angle is given by
F
tan 𝜃 = N

As frictional force increases the angle 𝜃 increases and it can reach

maximum value 𝛼 when limiting value of friction is reached. Thus, when
motion is impending

F
tan 𝛼 = =𝜇
N

and this value of 𝛼 is called angle of limiting friction. Hence, the angle of
limiting friction can be defined as the angle between the resultant reaction
and the normal to the plane on which the motion of the body is
impending.
 Angle of Repose
Now consider the block of weight W shown in Fig. which is resting on an inclined
plane that makes angle θ with the horizontal. When θ is a small, block rests on the
plane. If θ is increased gradually a stage is reached at which the block starts sliding.
The angle made by the plane with the horizontal is called angle of friction for the
contacting surfaces. Thus, the maximum inclination of the plane on which the body,
free from external forces, can repose is called angle of repose.

Consider the equilibrium of the block shown in Fig. Since the surface of contact is not smooth, not only normal reaction but
frictional force also develops. As the body tends to slide down, the frictional resistance will be up the plane
ΣForces normal to plane = 0
N = W cos θ ………..1
Σ Forces parallel to plane = 0
F = W sin θ ………..2
Dividing eqn. (ii) by eqn. (i) we get
F
N = tan 𝜃
If ∅ is the value of θ when motion is impending, frictional force will be limiting friction and hence
F
tan ∅ = N
tan ∅ = 𝜇 = tan 𝛼
∅=𝛼
Thus, the value of angle of repose is the same as the value of limiting angle of friction.
 Friction
Block A weighing 1000 N rests over block B which weighs 2000 N as shown in Fig. Block A is tied to a wall with a horizontal
string. If the coefficient of friction between A and B is 1/4 and that between B and the floor is 1/3, what value of force P is
required to create impending motion if (a) P is horizontal, (b) P acts 30° upwards to horizontal?
(a) When P is horizontal: The free body diagrams of the two blocks are shown in Fig.
(b). Note the frictional forces are to be marked in the opposite directions of impending
relative motion. In this problem, block B is having impending motion to the right.
Hence on it F1 and F2 are towards right. The relative motion of block A w.r.t. B is to the
left. Hence the direction of F1 in this is towards the right.
Consider the equilibrium of block A.
ΣV = 0
N1 – 1000 = 0
N1 = 1000 newton
Since F1 is limiting friction,
F
N =𝜇
F1 1
N1 = 𝜇 1 = 4
1
F1 = x 1000 = 250 newton
4
ΣH = 0
F1 – T = 0
T = F1, T = 250 newton.
 Friction
Block A weighing 1000 N rests over block B which weighs 2000 N as shown in Fig. Block A is tied to a wall with a horizontal
string. If the coefficient of friction between A and B is 1/4 and that between B and the floor is 1/3, what value of force P is
required to create impending motion if (a) P is horizontal, (b) P acts 30° upwards to horizontal?
Consider the equilibrium of block B.
ΣV = 0
N2 – N1 – 2000 = 0
N2 = N1 + 2000 = 1000 + 2000 = 3000 newton.

Since F2 is limiting friction,

1
F2 = 𝜇2 N2 = 3 x 3000 = 1000 newton
ΣH = 0
P – F1 – F2 = 0
P = F1 + F2 = 250 + 1000 = 1250 newton
 Friction
Block A weighing 1000 N rests over block B which weighs 2000 N as shown in Fig. Block A is tied to a wall with a horizontal
string. If the coefficient of friction between A and B is 1/4 and that between B and the floor is 1/3, what value of force P is
required to create impending motion if (a) P is horizontal, (b) P acts 30° upwards to horizontal?
(b) When P is inclined: Free body diagrams for this case are shown in Fig.
Considering equilibrium of block A, we get
ΣV = 0
N1 = 1000 newton
1
F1 = x 1000 = 250 newton
4
ΣH = 0
T = F1 = 250 newton
Consider the equilibrium of block B.
ΣV = 0
N2 – 2000 – N1 + P sin 30 = 0
N2 + 0.5P = 3000
From law of friction 0.5 P
1 P cos 30 – 250 – (1000 - 3 ) = 0
F2 = 𝜇2 N2 = 3 X (3000 – 0.5P)
0.5 P
0.5 P P (cos 30 + ) = 1250
= 1000 – 3 3
P = 1210.4 newton
ΣH = 0
P cos 30 – F1 – F2 = 0
 Friction
What should be the value of θ in Fig. (a) which will make the motion of 900 N block down the plane to impend? The coefficient
of friction for all contact surfaces is 1/3.
900 N block is on the verge of moving downward. Hence frictional forces F1 and F2
[Ref. Fig. (b)] act up the plane on 900 N block. Free body diagrams of the blocks are as
shown in Fig. (b).
Consider the equilibrium of 300 N block
Σ Forces normal to plane = 0
ΣV = 0
N1 – 300 cos θ = 0 or N1 = 300 cos θ …………1
From law of friction,
1
F1 = 3 N1 = 100 cos θ .................2
For 900 N block:
Σ Forces normal to plane = 0 Σ Forces parallel to the plane = 0
ΣV = 0 F1 + F2 – 900 sin θ = 0
N2 – N1 – 900 cos θ = 0 100 cos θ + 400 cos θ = 900 sin θ
N2 = N1 + 900 cos θ 500
tan θ = 900
= 300 cos θ + 900 cos θ θ = 29.05°
= 1200 cos θ
From law of friction,
1
F2 = 𝜇2 N2 = x 1200 cos θ = 400 cos θ
3
 Wedge Friction
A wedge is a simple machine that is often used to transform an applied force into much larger forces, directed at approximately
right angles to the applied force. Wedges also can be used to slightly move or adjust heavy loads.

Consider, for example, the wedge shown in Fig. a which is used to lift the block by applying a
force to the wedge. Free-body diagrams of the block and wedge are shown in Fig. b.
The weight of the wedge is excluded since it is usually small compared to the
weight W of the block. Also, note that the frictional forces F1 and F2 must oppose
the motion of the wedge. Likewise, the frictional force F3 of the wall on the block
must act downward so as to oppose the block’s upward motion.
There are seven unknowns, consisting of the applied force P, needed to cause
motion of the wedge, and six normal and frictional forces.
The seven available equations consist of four force equilibrium equations, Σ Fx =
0, ΣFy = 0 applied to the wedge and block, and three frictional equations, F = 𝜇N,
applied at each surface of contact.
 Wedge Friction
Determine the force P required to start the movement of the wedge as shown in Fig. (a). The angle of friction for all
surfaces of contact is 15°.
 Wedge Friction
Determine the force P required to start the movement of the wedge as shown in Fig. (a). The angle of friction for all
surfaces of contact is 15°.
As wedge is driven, it moves towards left and the block moves upwards.
When motion is impending limiting friction develops. Hence resultant force
makes limiting angle of 15° with normal. The care is taken to mark 15°
inclination such that the tangential component of the resultant opposes the
impending motion.
The free body diagrams of the block and wedge are shown in Fig. (b). The
forces on block and wedge are redrawn in Figs. (c) and (d) so that Lami’s
theorem can be applied conveniently.
Applying Lami’s theorem to the system of forces on block
R1 R 20
= =
Sin (180 − 15 − 20) Sin (90 − 15) Sin (15 + 20 + 90 + 15)

R1 R 20
= =
Sin (145) Sin (75) Sin (140)
R1 = 17.85 kN
R2 = 30.05 kN
Applying Lami’s theorem to system of forces on the wedge, we get
P R
=
Sin (130) Sin (105)
P = 23.84 kN
 Wedge Friction
The uniform stone in Fig. a has a mass of 500 kg and is held in the horizontal position using a wedge at B. If the coefficient
of static friction is 𝜇 = 0.3 at the surfaces of contact, determine the minimum force P needed to remove the wedge. Assume
that the stone does not slip at A.
The minimum force P requires F = 𝜇 N at the surfaces of contact with the wedge. The
free-body diagrams of the stone and wedge are shown in Fig. b. On the wedge the
friction force opposes the impending motion, and on the stone at A, FA ≤ 𝜇 NA, since
slipping does not occur there. There are five unknowns. Three equilibrium equations
for the stone and two for the wedge are available for solution. From the free-body
diagram of the stone,
Σ MA = 0;
-4905 N(0.5 m) + (NB cos 7 N)(1 m) + (0.3NB sin 7 N)(1 m) = 0
NB = 2383.1 N
Using this result for the wedge
Σ Fy = 0;
NC - 2383.1 cos 7 N - 0.3(2383.1 sin 7 N) = 0
NC = 2452.5 N
Σ Fx = 0;
2383.1 sin 7 N - 0.3(2383.1 cos 7 N) + P - 0.3(2452.5 N) = 0
P = 1154.9 N = 1.15 kN
 Ladder Friction
A ladder of length 4 m, weighing 200 N is placed against a vertical wall as shown in Fig. (a). The coefficient of friction
between the wall and the ladder is 0.2 and that between floor and the ladder is 0.3. The ladder, in addition to its own
weight, has to support a man weighing 600 N at a distance of 3 m from A. Calculate the minimum horizontal force to be
applied at A to prevent slipping.
The free body diagram of the ladder is as shown in Fig.
Σ MA = 0
200 x 2 cos 60 + 600 x 3 cos 60 – FB x 4 cos 60 – NB x 4 sin 60 = 0
Dividing throughout by 4 and rearranging the terms
0.866 NB + 0.5 FB = 275
From law of friction
FB = 𝜇 NB = 0.2 NB
0.866 NB + 0.5 x 0.2 NB = 275
NB = 284.7 newton
FB = 56.94 newton.
Σ FV = 0
NA – 200 – 600 + FB = 0
NA = 743.06 newton, since FB = 56.94
FA = 𝜇ANA
= 0.3 x 743.06 = 222.9 newton
Σ FH = 0 P = 61.8 newton
P + FA – NB = 0
P = NB – FA = 284.7 – 222.9
 Ladder Friction
The ladder shown in Fig. is 6 m long and is supported by a horizontal floor and a vertical wall. The coefficient of friction
between the floor and the ladder is 0.25 and between the wall and the ladder is 0.4. The weight of the ladder is 200 N and may
be considered as a concentrated load at G. The ladder supports a vertical load of 900 N at C which is at a distance of 1 m from
B. Determine the least value 𝛼 of at which the ladder may be placed without slipping. Determine the reaction at that stage.
Figure shows the free body diagram of the ladder.
From law of friction
FA = 0.25 NA …………………………… 1
FB = 0.40 NB ………………..2
ΣFV = 0
NA – 200 – 900 + FB = 0
NA + 0.4 NB = 900 + 200 = 1100 …………3
Σ FH = 0
FA – NB = 0, FA = NB
0.25 NA = NB ………………..4
From eqns. 3 and 4
NA (1 + 0.4 X 0.25) = 1100
NA = 1000 newton
FA = 0.25 X NA = 0.25 X 1000 = 250 N
From eqn. 4, NB = 0.25 NA = 250 N
FB = 0.4 X NB = 0.4 X 250 = 100 N
 Ladder Friction
The ladder shown in Fig. is 6 m long and is supported by a horizontal floor and a vertical wall. The coefficient of friction
between the floor and the ladder is 0.25 and between the wall and the ladder is 0.4. The weight of the ladder is 200 N and may
be considered as a concentrated load at G. The ladder supports a vertical load of 900 N at C which is at a distance of 1 m from
B. Determine the least value of 𝛼 at which the ladder may be placed without slipping. Determine the reaction at that stage.
Σ MA = 0
200 X 3 cos 𝛼 + 900 X 5 cos 𝛼 – FB X 6 cos 𝛼 – NB X 6 sin 𝛼 = 0
Substituting the values of FB and NB, we get
200 X 3 cos 𝛼 + 900 X 5 cos 𝛼 – 100 X 6 cos 𝛼 – 250 X 6 sin 𝛼 = 0
4500 cos α = 1500 sin α
tan α = 3
α = 71.57°