Chapter Four

4. Marginalized, Minorities, and Vulnerable Groups

4.1 Definition of concepts

What is marginalization? Marginalization is defined as a treatment of a person or social group as

minor, insignificant or peripheral. Marginalization involves exclusion of certain groups from
social interactions, marriage relations, sharing food and drinks, and working and living together.
Who are mostly marginalized? There are marginalized social groups in every society and culture.
Women, children, older people, and people with disabilities are among marginalized groups
across the world. The nature and level of marginalization varies from society to society as a
result of cultural diversity. Religious, ethnic, and racial minorities are also among social groups
marginalized in different societies and cultures. Crafts workers such as tanners, potters, and
ironsmiths are marginalized in many parts of Ethiopia.

Vulnerability refers to the state of being exposed to physical or emotional injuries. Vulnerable
groups are people exposed to possibilities of attack, harms or mistreatment. As a result,
vulnerable persons/groups need special attention, protection and support. For example, children
and people with disabilities need special support and protection as they are exposed to risks and
neglect because of their age and disabilities. Universities have introduced special needs
education for students with disabilities to give them special support.

Minority groups: The phrase ‘minority group’ refers to a small group of people within a
community, region, or country. In most cases, minority groups are different from the majority
population in terms of race, religion, ethnicity, and language. For example, black

Americans are minorities in the United States of America. Christians could be minorities in a
Muslim majority country. Muslims can be minorities in a predominantly Hindu society. Hence,
minority groups can be ethnic minorities, religious minorities, or racial minorities in a given
community, region of country. There are different forms of marginalization.

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4.2 Gender-based marginalization

Gender inequality involves discrimination on a group of people based on their gender. Gender
inequality mainly arises from socio-cultural norms. The manifestation of gender inequality varies
from culture to culture. Girls and women face negative discrimination in societies across the
world. Women are exposed to social and economic inequalities involving unfair distribution of
wealth, income and job opportunities.

Gender-based marginalization is a global problem. It involves exclusion of girls and women

from a wide range of opportunities and social services. Gender disparities in education is a good
example. Girls in developing countries, especially those who live in remote and rural areas, are
excluded from formal education. The enrollment of girls in higher education is much lower than
that of boys. Women do not enjoy equal employment opportunities. They do not have equal
rights in terms of property ownership and inheritance. Women and girls are also vulnerable to
gender-based violence such as rape, early/child marriage, abduction/forced marriage, domestic
violence and female genital cutting/mutilation. There are some customary practices that affect
the health and wellbeing of girls and women. These practices collectively are called harmful
traditional practices (HTPs). We will discuss two examples: early/child marriage and female
circumcision, also called female genital cutting/mutilation. Let us begin with female genital
cutting, which is widely practiced in most regions of Ethiopia.

Female genital cutting

Female genital cutting (FGC) is practiced in 28 countries in western, northern and eastern Africa.
The prevalence of FGC is very high in Somali (98%), Djibouti (93%), Egypt (87%), Sudan
(87%), and Eritrea (83%). Ethiopia is one of the high prevalence countries in Africa.

According to recent reports, 65% of girls and women in 15 to 49 years age category are
circumcised. According to Ethiopian Demographic and Health Survey report, the prevalence of
FGC in Ethiopia varied from region to region. Somali (99%), Afar (91%), and Harari (84%) are
thethree regions with very high prevalence of the practice. The prevalence of FGC in Oromia
(76%), Benishangul-Gumuz (63%), Amhara (62%) and Southern, Nations, Nationalities and
Peoples (SNNP) regional states (62%) is also high. The prevalence of the practice in also high in

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big cities such as Addis Ababa (54%) and Dire Dawa (79%). The two regions with relatively low
FGC prevalence are Tigray (24%) and Gambella (33%).

Health impacts of female genital cutting

There are four major types of FGC. They are Type I (clitoridectomy), Type II (excision), Type
III (infibulation), and Type IV (all the rest). The first three types of FGC are practiced in
Ethiopia. According to the Ethiopian demographic and health survey (EDHS 2016), 3% of
circumcised women (age 15-49) experienced the type of circumcision that involves cutting
without flesh removing (clitoridectomy), 7% experienced sewn closed type (infibulation), and
73% experienced cut and flesh removed (excision). Harms of FGC vary because the types of
FGC practiced in different regions and cultural settings are different. Type III (also called
infibulation or phraonic) is the most severe form of FGC. This type of FGC is widely practiced
in the Somali, Afar, and Harari regions. Short term and long term implications for the health of
girls and women including severe bleeding, infections, pain during sexual intercourse, delivery
complications, and fistula. The impacts also include psychological trauma.

Factors that encourage female genital cutting

The prevalence of FGC has been declining in Ethiopia. However, it is still practiced in most of
the regions in the country. Why do people practice FGC? The practice is sustained for
somereasons:

1. people consider it as an integral part of their culture; and

2. people believe that the practice has some benefits. The following are some of the beliefs
related to the practice:
 FGC is considered as a process of purifying girls. In some cultures uncircumcised
girls/women are considered as impure. According to local beliefs, marriage to
uncircumcised girls would bring misfortunes such as illness, infertility, and conflict.
Hence, girls must be circumcised to be clean and ready for marriage
 Uncircumcised girls would be disobedient, powerful and ill-mannered. In some parts of
Ethiopia, people believe that uncircumcised girls tend to destroy household utensils.

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  There is a widely held belief that uncircumcised girls are promiscuous because they have
high sexual drive. Some people believe that marriage to uncircumcised girls/women
would not be stable and long-lasting.
 FGC is also considered as a means of preserving girls’ virginity, which is considered as a
precondition for marriage in some cultures.
 Female genital cutting is sustained is enforced by social expectations and norms. Girls
and parents who decide to abandon the practice would be subject to social sanctions. The
following are examples:
 Social exclusion and marginalization: Community members would exclude uncut
girls and women from a wide range of social relations and interactions.
 Gossip and insult: community members, including peer groups, boys, women and
men, put pressure on uncircumcised girls and their parents through gossiping and
insulting.
 In some parts of Ethiopia, men do not marry uncircumcised girls. As a result,
uncircumcised girls are excluded from marriage opportunities and love
relationships.
 In some parts of the country, people do not eat food cooked by uncircumcised
girls. Uncircumcised girls/women are not also allowed to join other people for
prayer. This is because uncut girls are labeled as impure.

4.3 Marginalized occupational groups

According to anthropological findings, there are occupational marginalized groups in many parts
of Ethiopia. The following are marginalized occupational groups in our country: tanners, potters,
weavers and ironsmiths. These craft-workers have different names in different parts of the
country. Craft-workers such as potters and tanners are considered as impure and excluded from
social interactions, ownership of economic resources (e.g., land), and participation in
associations and celebrations.

As noted above, marginalized occupation groups are people engaged in craftworks such as
pottery, tannery, and iron works. Craft-workers in Ethiopia produce several articles such as
traditional hand-woven clothes, household utensils, and farm tools. Crafts workers lead a life of
paradoxes. They have important contributions to their communities; however, they are

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marginalized by the dominant and majority groups. For examples, weavers produce cultural
clothes highly demanded by thousands and millions of people. Many people use cultural clothes
during annual celebrations, religious holidays, weddings, culture days, and mourning. The
demand of cultural dresses has been increasing in the last three decades. People dress cultural
clothes in different occasions such as cultural festivals, days of nations and nationalities, and
religious celebrations. Despite their contributions, weavers are marginalized from the wider
society.

Ironsmiths are among occupational groups marginalized in many cultural setting in Ethiopia.
Ironsmiths make and repair iron articles without using machines. They contribute a lot especially
in rural areas. Ironsmiths serve rural communities by producing farming tools such as plough
shares, sickles, and hoes. Ethiopia families widely use household utensils (e.g., knives and axes)
made by ironsmiths. Tanners make leather products that serve community members. Potters
produce pottery articles essential for food processing and serving and fetching water. Despite
their contributions, these craft-workers are considered inferior and marginalized from wide areas
of social interactions.

Marginalization of despised occupational groups is manifested in many ways in different parts of

Ethiopia. Dena Freeman and Alula Pankhurst (2001) well-known anthropologists, identified
different forms of marginalization targeting minority occupational groups.

Types and manifestations of marginalization of craft-workers

A. Spatial marginalization
 Craft-workers settle/live on the outskirts of villages, near to forests, on poor land, around
steep slopes.
 They are segregated at market places (they sell their goods at the outskirts of markets).
 When they walk along the road, they are expected to give way for others and walk on the
lower side of the road.
B. Economic marginalization
 Craft-workers are excluded from certain economic activities including production and
exchanges. In some cultures they are not allowed to cultivate crops.
 They have a limited access to land and land ownership.

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 C. Social marginalization
 Craft-workers are excluded from intermarriage, they do not share burial places with
others; they are excluded from membership of associations such as iddirs.
 When marginalized groups are allowed to participate in social events, they must sit on
the floor separately-sometimes outside the house or near the door.
D. Cultural marginalization

Cultural marginalization is manifested in negative stereotyping such as the following:

 Occupational minorities are labelled as impure and polluting; they are accused of eating
animals that have died without being slaughtered;
 Occupational minorities are also considered unreliable, lacking morality, respect and
shame

4.4 Age-based vulnerability

Age-based vulnerability is susceptibility of people, especially children and older people, to

different forms of attack, physical injuries and emotional harms. For example, children and older
people (people aged 60 and above) are exposed to possibilities of attack, harm and mistreatment
because of their age. As a result, vulnerable persons/groups need special attention, protection and
support.

4.4.1 Children: Discrimination/vulnerability

Children are among vulnerable groups exposed to harm because of their age. Both boys and girls
are exposed to some harm and abuse in the hands of older people. However, girls are exposed to
double marginalization and discrimination because of the gender. Child girls are exposed to
various kinds of harm before they reach at the age of maturity. As discussed earlier in this
chapter, girls are exposed to HTPs such as female genital cutting. Minor girls are also exposed to
early/child marriage in many parts of Ethiopia.

Early/child marriage: Early marriage refers to marriage which involves girls below the age of
18. The prevalence of early marriage is declining in Ethiopia and other African countries.

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However, it is still widely practiced in different regions of Ethiopia. According to international
human rights conventions, early marriage is regarded as violation of the rights of the child. Early
marriage has the following major harmful consequences:

 Young girls enter into marital relation when they are too young to give their consent to
get married.
 Early marriage inhibits girls' personal development; it hinders girls’ chance to education
and future professional development.
 Early marriage exposes young girls to sexual abuse by their older husbands.
 Early marriage leads to early pregnancies, which increases risks of diseases and
complications during delivery, fistula, and death of the mother or child.

Child marriage is an illegal practice according to the Criminal Code of Ethiopia. Despite this
legal restriction, however, early marriage is still practiced in different regions of the country.

Factors encouraging early marriage.

According to study findings, there are various factors that drive early marriage. Social norms
and economic factors are the two major drivers of the practice.

Social norms: Social norms contribute a lot for the continuation of early marriage in many parts
of the world. Chastity of girls is one of the social norms that influence parents and relatives to
protecting girls from pre-marital sex. The value attached to virginity is another driver of early
marriage. Girl’s reputation and family social status are associated with sexual purity of girls.
Parents incline to marry off their daughter before the girl reach at the stage of poverty to avoid
the possibility of pre-marital sex and love affair. Community members influence unmarried teen-
age girls to get married as early as possible. They do this through social pressure including
insulting unmarried young girls. Komoker, an Amharic term, is the widely used insult to ridicule
girls considered to be late to get married.

Economic factors; are among the major factors that drive child marriage. In many areas of
Ethiopia marriage provides economic security for young girls. Hence, parents, in some cases
girls, support early marriage for economic benefits such as access to land and other resources.
Parents’ desire to get a good husband for their daughter is also another reason.

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4.4.2 Marginalization of older persons

People’s attitude towards older persons is changing over time in Ethiopia and all over the world.
Older men and women have been respected across Ethiopian cultures. Older persons have been
considered as custodians of tradition, culture, and history. The role of older persons crucial in
mentoring younger people, resolving disputes, and restoring peace across Ethiopian cultures.
Situations are changing as family structures and living patterns are changing over time. Rural-
urban migration, changes in values and life style, education and new employment opportunities
lead to so many changes. Care and support for older people tend to decline as younger people
migrate to urban areas and exposed to economic pressure and new life styles.

Ageism is a widely observed social problem in the world. Ageism refer to stereotyping,
prejudice, and discrimination against people based on their age. Older women and men enjoyed a
certain level of support and respected in the past. This was true in many cultures of Ethiopia in
the past. Things have been changing in recent times. Older people are facing various problems as
a result of modernization, globalization, and urbanization. Older people are exposed to social
exclusion because of their lower social and economic status. In most cases, older people are
excluded from social, cultural, political and economic interactions in their communities. Older
persons are marginalized because they are considered as social burden rather than social assets.
Communities do not provide older persons with opportunities to contribute to their communities.

4.5. Religious and ethnic minorities

. Religious and ethnic minorities groups also face different forms of marginalization. There are
several examples of marginalization and discrimination targeting religious and ethnic minorities
in the world. Let us mention two examples.

- The Jewish people suffered from discrimination and persecution in different parts of the
world. They were targets of extermination in Germany and other Western European
countries because of their identity.
- Muslim Rohingyas are among the most marginalized and persecuted people in the world.
According to Abdu Hasnat Milton et al (2017), the Rohingya are ‘one of the most ill-
treated and persecuted refugee groups in the world’. In recent years, more than half-a-
million Rohingyas fled from their homes in Nyanmar to neighboring countries such as

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 Bangladesh. As people living in refugee camps, the Rohingyas are vulnerable to
problems such as malnutrition and physical and sexual abuse.

These are among the widely known examples of discrimination against religious and ethnic
minorities. The problem is not limited to specific areas, regions or countries. Although the level
of the problem varies in different contexts, religious and ethnic minorities face different forms of
discrimination in many parts of the world.

4.6. Human right approaches and inclusiveness: Anthropological perspectives

All forms of marginalization and discrimination against vulnerable and minority groups
contradict the principles of human rights. The major human rights conventions denounce
discrimination against women, children, people with disability, older people and other minority
and vulnerable groups. People with disabilities have the right to inclusive services and equal
opportunities. The human rights of women and girls include right to be free from harmful
traditional practices such as forced marriage, early marriage, and female genital cutting. Any
form of discrimination, exclusion, and gender-based violence also violate the human rights girls
and women.

Anthropology appreciates cultural diversity and commonality. Do you remember the meaning of
cultural relativism? It is one of the guiding principles in social anthropology. It is about the
importance of understanding the values, norms, customs and practices of a particular culture in
its own context. This requires appreciating the life styles of others including their dressing styles,
food habits, beliefs, rituals and celebrations. It also requires avoiding value judgments such as
saying ‘this custom is backward or primitive’. This does not mean that we need to appreciate
every custom and practice. Anthropologists do not support/appreciate cultural practices that
violate the rights and wellbeing of individuals and groups. For example, anthropologists do not
support the following harmful practices in the name of cultural relativism:

 Female genital cutting (FGC): Anthropologists do not support FGC for practical reasons:
FGC violates the rights of girls to physical integrity. It has short and long term
consequences for the health of girls and women.
 Early/child marriage: Anthropologists do not support early marriage for similar reasons:
Early marriage violates the rights of young girls to make decision about their future. It

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destroys their chance to education, and personal and professional development. Early
marriage negatively affects their physical and psychological wellbeing.

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