ST.

Joseph University in Tanzania

ST. Joseph College of Engineering and Technology,

Dar es Salaam

Department of Mechanical Engineering

CET1105 BASIC CIVIL AND MECHANICAL

UNIT V Metal Forming and Metal Joining Processes
 3

Metal Forming

Metal forming is a large group of manufacturing

processes in which plastic deformation is used to
change the shape of metal workpieces
• The tool, usually called a die, applies stresses that
exceed the yield strength of the metal
• The metal takes a shape determined by the
geometry of the die
 4

Stresses in Metal Forming

• Stresses to plastically deform the metal are usually

compressive
▪ Examples: rolling, forging, extrusion
• However, some forming processes
▪ Stretch the metal (tensile stresses)
▪ Others bend the metal (tensile and compressive)
▪ Still others apply shear stresses (shear spinning)
 Material Properties in Metal 5

Forming
• Desirable material properties:
▪ Low yield strength
▪ High ductility
• These properties are affected by temperature:
▪ Ductility increases and yield strength decreases when work
temperature is raised
• Other factors:
▪ Strain rate and friction
 6

Basic Types of Deformation Processes

1. Bulk deformation
▪ Rolling
▪ Forging
▪ Extrusion
▪ Wire and bar drawing
2. Sheet metalworking
▪ Bending
▪ Deep drawing
▪ Cutting
 7

Bulk Deformation Processes

• Characterized by significant deformations and

massive shape changes
• "Bulk" refers to work parts with relatively low
surface area-to-volume ratios
• Starting work shapes include cylindrical billets
and rectangular bars
 8

Rolling

Basic bulk deformation processes: rolling

 9

Forging

Basic bulk deformation processes: forging

 10

Extrusion

Basic bulk deformation processes: (c) extrusion

 11

Wire and Bar Drawing

Basic bulk deformation processes: (d) drawing

METAL FORGING

BY: TESFA G.
 Forging
➢ Forging is a deformation process in which
the work is compressed between two dies,
using either impact or gradual pressure to
form the part.

➢ It is the oldest of metal-forming operations,

dating back to perhaps 5000 B.C.

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 Forging …cont’d
➢ Today, forging is an important industrial process
used to make a variety of high-strength components
for automotive, aerospace, and other applications.

➢ These components include engine crankshafts and

connecting rods, gears, aircraft structural
components, and jet engine turbine parts.

➢ In addition, steel and other basic metals industries

use forging to establish the basic form of large
components that are subsequently machined to final
shape and dimensions.

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 Cont…

1/25/2024 15
 Types of forging processes

➢ Forging is carried out in many different ways

1. Based on working temperature:
• Cold forging
• Warm forging
• Hot forging
2. Based on source of power
• forging hammer ,Applied Impact load
• forging press, Applied Gradual pressure
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 Types of forging processes…cont’d

3. Based on the degree to which the flow of the

work metal:
• Open-die forging,
• Impression-die forging, and
• Flashless forging.

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 Types of forging processes…cont’d
Fig. 1 Three types of
forging operation:
(a) open-die forging,
(b) impression-die forging,
and
(c) flashless forging.

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 1. Open-die forging

➢ The work is compressed between two flat (or almost

flat) dies, thus allowing the metal to flow without
constraint in a lateral direction relative to the die
surfaces.

➢ The simplest case of open-die forging involves

compression of a work part of a cylindrical cross-
section between two flat dies, much in the manner of a
compression test.

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 Open-die forging…cont’d
➢ This forging operation, known as upsetting or upset
forging, reduces the height of the work and increases
its diameter.

Analysis of open-die forging

If open-die forging is carried out under ideal conditions
of no friction between work and die surfaces, then
homogeneous deformation occurs, and the radial flow
of the material is uniform throughout its height, as
shown in Fig. 2.

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 Open-die forging…cont’d

Fig. 5.2 Homogeneous deformation of a cylindrical

work part under ideal conditions in an open-die forging
operation: (1) start of process with work piece at its
original length and diameter, (2) partial compression,
and (3) final size
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 Open-die forging…cont’d

Fig. 3 Actual deformation of a cylindrical work part in

open-die forging, showing pronounced barreling: (1) start
of process, (2) partial deformation, and (3) final shape.

1/25/2024 22
 Open-die forging…cont’d

⚫ This results from a higher coefficient of friction typical

in hot working and heat transfer at and near the die
surfaces, which cools the metal and increases its
resistance to deformation.

⚫ The hotter metal in the middle of the part flows more

readily than the cooler metal at the ends.

⚫ These effects are more significant as the diameter-to-

height ratio of the work part increases, due to the
greater contact area at the work-die interface.
1/25/2024 23
 2. Impression-die forging

➢ Impression-die forging, sometimes called closed-

die forging, is performed with dies that contain the
inverse of the desired shape of the part.
➢ The raw work piece is shown as a cylindrical part
similar to that used in the previous open-die
operation.
➢ As the die closes to its final position, flash is
formed by metal that flows beyond the die cavity
and into the small gap between the die plates.
1/25/2024 24
 Impression-die forging…cont’d

➢ Although this flash must be cut away from the

part in a subsequent trimming operation, it
actually serves an important function during
impression-die forging.
➢ As the flash begins to form in the die gap, friction
resists continued flow of metal into the gap, thus
constraining the bulk of the work material to
remain in the die cavity.
1/25/2024 25
 Impression-die forging…cont’d

Fig. 5 Sequence in impression-die forging: (1) just

prior to initial contact with raw workpiece, (2)
partial compression, and (3) final die closure,
causing flash to form in gap between die plates.
1/25/2024 26
 Impression-die forging…cont’d
➢ Several forming steps are often required in
impression die forging to transform the starting blank
into the desired final geometry.

➢ Separate cavities in the die are needed for each step.

The beginning steps are designed to redistribute the
metal in the work part to achieve a uniform
deformation and desired metallurgical structure in the
subsequent steps.

➢ The final steps bring the part to its final geometry.

1/25/2024 27
 3. Flashless forging
➢ Impression-die forging is sometimes called closed-
die forging in industry terminology; however, there is
a technical distinction between impression-die
forging and true closed-die forging.

➢ The distinction is that in closed-die forging, the raw

workpiece is completely contained within the die
cavity during compression, and no flash is formed.

1/25/2024 28
 Flashless forging…cont’d
➢ The term flashless forging is appropriate to identify this process.

Fig. 8 Flashless forging:

(1) just before initial
contact with the workpiece,
(2) partial compression,
and (3) final punch and
die closure. Symbols v
and F indicates motion
(v = velocity) and
applied force,
respectively.

1/25/2024 29
 Flashless forging …cont’d
➢ Flashless forging imposes requirements on process
control that are more demanding than impression-die
forging. Most important is that the work volume must
equal the space in the die cavity within a very close
tolerance.
➢ It is the best to part geometries that are usually simple
and symmetrical, and to work materials such as
aluminum and magnesium and their alloys.
➢ Flashless forging is often classified as a precision
forging process.

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 Flashless forging…cont’d

➢ Forces in flashless forging can be computed using the same

methods as for impression die forging.
➢ Coining is a special application of closed-die forging in which
fine details in the die are impressed into the top and bottom
surfaces of the work part.
➢ A common application of coining is, of course, in the minting of
coins as shown in Fig. 9.
➢ Coining is also used to provide good surface finish and
dimensional accuracy on work parts made by other operations.

1/25/2024 31
 Flashless forging …cont’d

➢ The term flashless forging is appropriate to identify this process.

Fig. 9 Coining operation: (1)

start of cycle, (2)
compression stroke, and (3)
ejection of finished part.

1/25/2024 32
Some common advantages of forging are given as under.
1. Forged parts possess high ductility and offers great resistance to
impact and fatigue loads.
2. Forging refines the structure of the metal.
3. It results in considerable saving in time, labor and material as
compared to the production of similar item by cutting from a solid stock
and then shaping it.
4. Forging distorts the previously created unidirectional fiber as created
by rolling and increases the strength by setting the direction of grains.
5. Because of intense working, flaws are rarely found, so have good
reliability.
6. The forged parts can be easily welded

1/25/2024 33
 Producing of crank shaft of alloy steel is a good example which
is produced by forging.
 Forging processes are among the most important
manufacturing techniques utilized
 widely in manufacturing of small tools, rail-road equipment,
automobiles and trucks and components of aero plane
industries.
 These processes are also extensively used in the manufacturing
of the parts of tractors, shipbuilding, cycle industries, railroad
components, agricultural machinery etc.

1/25/2024 34
 Disadvantages of Forging
Few dis-advantages of forging are given as under.
1. Rapid oxidation in forging of metal surface at high temperature
results in scaling which wears the dies.
2. The close tolerances in forging operations are difficult to maintain.
3. Forging is limited to simple shapes and has limitation for parts
having undercuts etc.
4. Some materials are not readily worked by forging.
5. The initial cost of forging dies and the cost of their maintenance is
high.
6. The metals gets cracked or distorted if worked below a specified
temperature limit.

1/25/2024 35
 Applications of Forging

• Almost all metals and alloys can be forged.

• The low and medium carbon steels are readily hot forged
without difficulty,
• but the high-carbon and alloy steels are more difficult to
forge and require greater care.
• Forging is generally carried out on carbon alloy steels,
wrought iron, copper-base alloys, aluminum alloys, and
magnesium alloys.
• Stainless steels, nickel based super-alloys, and titanium are
forged especially for aerospace uses

1/25/2024 36
 Cont…
• Producing of crank shaft of alloy steel is a good example which is
produced by forging.
• Forging processes are among the most important manufacturing
techniques utilized
• widely in manufacturing of small tools, rail-road equipment,
automobiles and trucks and components of aero plane industries.
• These processes are also extensively used in the manufacturing
of the parts of tractors, shipbuilding, cycle industries, railroad
components, agricultural machinery etc.

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Welding
 The history of welding
• Methods for joining metals have been known for thousands of
years, but for most of this period the only form of welding was
forge welding by a blacksmith.

• A number of totally new welding principles emerged at the end of

the 19th century.

• It became possible to combine and store safely gases such as

oxygen and acetylene to produce a flame with enough heat.

• At the same time sufficient electrical current could then be

generated for resistance welding and arc welding.
 The history of welding cont’d
• The intensity of the heat source enabled heat to be generated in, or
applied to, the workpiece quicker than it was conducted away into
the surrounding metal.

• Consequently it was possible to generate a molten pool which

solidified to form the unifying bond between the parts being
joined.

• The basic welding methods of resistance welding, gas welding

and arc welding were all developed during the time before World
War I.
 Introduction
• Welding:
• A process of joining two materials at their contacting surfaces by
the application of pressure and/or heat.
• It is used in the manufacture of automobile bodies, aircraft frames,
railway wagons, machine frames, structural works, tanks,
furniture, boilers, general repair work and ship building, etc.

• Advantage:
• Portable, permanent, stronger than the parent materials with a
filler metal, the most economical method to join in terms of
material usage and fabrication costs.

• Disadvantage:
• Expensive manual labor, high energy and dangerous, does not
allow disassemble and can have defects.
 Intro…..
• Welding metallurgy may be defined as:
• the science of joining metals by welding that is related closely to
the field of metallurgy, or
• the science and technology of changes that occur in metals as a
result of being joined by the welding process.

• It is a special branch of metallurgy

– where reaction times are in the order of minutes, seconds,
fraction of seconds contrary to other branches of metallurgy
– where reactions times are in the order of hours and minutes.

• Welding metallurgy
– deals with the interaction of different metals being joined and
the interaction of metals with gases and chemicals of all types.
 Intro….
• A weld is theoretically produced by bringing atoms on
opposing metallic surfaces close enough.
– The act that generates a spontaneous inter-atomic
attractive forces;
– whereby the cloud electrons are shared between atoms
across the interfaces resulting in an ideal weld.

• Unfortunately, real metallic surfaces cannot be prepared

to attain a perfectly smooth contour on an atomic scale.
– Continuous oxides or other surface films including
water molecules and gases from ambient atmosphere
tend to interfere.
 Intro….
• Atomic contacts between the surfaces to be joined can be achieved by:
• – Removing, shielding or dispersing completely oxides and non-metallic
films from the area being joined.

• – reducing consistently the separation distance of metallic atoms on the

proposed joint to an atomic scale.

• Thus, the quality of a weld depends on

• – geometry, presence of cracks, residual stresses, inclusions and oxide
films.

• In practice (non-fusion welding) the pressure may be applied to

plastically deformed the contacting surfaces
– in order to create the required intimacy of contact asperities

• Alternatively, the surfaces to be joined may be bridged by a liquid metal

by the process of fusion welding.
Classification of welding processes
 Characteristics of Welding
• Deposition rate
• Deposition efficiency
• Operation factor
• Penetration
• Welding speed
• Heat input
• Power density
Overview of
Brazing and
Soldiering
 Overview of Brazing and Soldiering
• Both use filler metals to permanently join metal
parts, but there is no melting of base metals
• When to use brazing or soldiering instead of
fusion welding:
▪ Metals have poor weld ability
▪ Dissimilar metals are to be joined
▪ Intense heat of welding may damage components
being joined
▪ Geometry of joint not suitable for welding
▪ High strength is not required
Brazing, Braze Welding, and Soldering
• Brazing joins two metals by heating and melting a filler (alloy)
that bonds to the two pieces of metal and joins them.

• Brazing can join dissimilar metals such as aluminum, silver,

copper, gold, and nickel.

• Braze welding is the use of a bronze or brass filler rod coated

with flux to join steel workpieces.
 Brazing
• Brazing is a metal-joining process in which two or more metal items are
joined together by melting and flowing a filler metal into the joint, with
the filler metal having a lower melting point than the adjoining metal.

• Brazing differs from welding in that it does not involve melting the work
pieces and from soldering in using higher temperatures for a similar
process, while also requiring much more closely fitted parts than when
soldering.

• The filler metal flows into the gap between close-fitting parts by capillary
action.

• Capillary action (sometimes capillarity, capillary motion, capillary

effect, or wicking) is the process of a liquid flowing in narrow spaces
without the assistance of, or even in opposition to, external forces
like gravity.
 Brazing
• The filler metal is brought
slightly above its melting
(liquidus) temperature while
protected by a suitable
atmosphere, usually a flux.

• It then flows over the base

metal (in a process known
as wetting) and is then cooled
to join the work pieces
together.

• A major advantage of brazing

is the ability to join the same
or different metals with
considerable strength.
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazing
 Brazing
• Joining process in which a filler metal is melted and
distributed by capillary action between faying surface of
metal parts being joined
• No melting of base metals occurs
▪ Only the filler melts
• Filler metal Tm greater than 450 °C (840 °F ) but less
than Tm of base metal(s) to be joined
 Some filler metals for brazing
Base Metal(s) Filler metal(s)
Aluminum Aluminum and silicon
Nickel-copper alloy Copper
Copper Copper and phosphorous
Steel, cast iron Copper and zinc
Stainless steel Gold and silver
 Common techniques for Brazing
• Torch brazing
• Torch brazing is by far the most common method of
mechanized brazing in use.

• It is best used in small production volumes or in specialized

operations, and in some countries, it accounts for a majority
of the brazing taking place.

• There are three main categories of torch brazing in

use: manual, machine, and automatic torch brazing.
 Common techniques for Brazing
• Furnace brazing
• Furnace brazing is a semi-automatic process used widely in industrial
brazing operations due to its adaptability to mass production and use of
unskilled labor.

• There are many advantages of furnace brazing over other heating

methods that make it ideal for mass production.

• One main advantage is the ease with which it can produce large
numbers of small parts that are easily jigged or self-locating.
 Common techniques for Brazing
• Silver brazing
• Silver brazing, sometimes known as a hard soldering, is
brazing using a silver alloy based filler.

• These silver alloys consist of many different percentages of

silver and other metals, such as copper, zinc and cadmium.
 Common techniques for Brazing
• Braze brazing
• Braze welding is the use of a bronze or brass filler rod
coated with flux to join steel workpieces.

• The equipment needed for braze welding is basically

identical to the equipment used in brazing.

• Since braze welding usually requires more heat than

brazing, acetylene or methylacetylene-propadiene (MAP)
gas fuel is commonly used.

• The name comes from the fact that no capillary action is

used..
 Common techniques for Brazing
• Cast iron "welding"
• The "welding" of cast iron is usually a brazing operation,
with a filler rod made chiefly of nickel being used although
true welding with cast iron rods is also available.

• Ductile cast iron pipe may be also "cadwelded," a process

that connects joints by means of a small copper wire fused
into the iron when previously ground down to the bare
metal, parallel to the iron joints being formed as per hub
pipe with neoprene gasket seals.

• The purpose behind this operation is to use electricity along

the copper for keeping underground pipes warm in cold
climates.
 Common techniques for Brazing
• Vacuum brazing
• Vacuum brazing is a material joining technique that offers
significant advantages: extremely clean, superior, flux-free
braze joints of high integrity and strength.
• The process can be expensive because it must be
performed inside a vacuum chamber vessel.
• Temperature uniformity is maintained on the work piece
when heating in a vacuum, greatly reducing residual
stresses due to slow heating and cooling cycles.
• This, in turn, can significantly improve the thermal and
mechanical properties of the material, thus providing unique
heat treatment capabilities.
• One such capability is heat-treating or age-hardening the
workpiece while performing a metal-joining process, all in a
single furnace thermal cycle.
 Common techniques for Brazing
• Dip brazing
• Dip brazing is especially suited for brazing aluminium
because air is excluded, thus preventing the formation of
oxides.
• The parts to be joined are fixtured and the brazing
compound applied to the mating surfaces, typically in slurry
form.
• Then the assemblies are dipped into a bath of molten salt
(typically NaCl, KCl and other compounds), which functions
as both heat transfer medium and flux.

• Many dip brazed parts are used in heat transfer applications

for the aerospace industry.
 Brazing Compared to Welding
• Any metals can be joined, including dissimilar
metals
• Can be performed quickly and consistently,
permitting high production rates
• Multiple joints can be braze simultaneously
• Less heat and power Required than Fusion
welding
• Joint areas that are inaccessible by many welding
processes can be brazed; capillary action draws
molten filler metal into joint
 Disadvantages and Limitations of Brazing
• Joint strength is generally less than a welded
joint
• Joint strength is likely to be less than the base
metals
• High service temperatures may weaken a brazed
joint
• Color of brazing metal may not match color of
base metal parts, a possible aesthetic
disadvantage
 Brazing Applications
• Automotive (e.g. Joining tubes and pipes)
• Electrical equipment (e.g. joining wires and cables)
• Cutting tools (e.g. brazing cemented carbide inserts to
shanks)
• Jewelry
• Chemical process industry
• Plumbing and heating contractors join metal pipes and
tubes by brazing
• Repair and maintenance work
Soldering
 Soldering
• Soldering is a low-temperature analog to brazing. By the
American Welding Society’s definition, soldering takes place with
fillers (also known as solders) that melt at below 840°F (450°C).

• Metals that can be soldered include gold, silver, copper, brass, and
iron. The filler melts. When it solidifies, it is bonded to the metal
parts and joins them.
 Soldering
• Joining process in which a filler metal with Tm less than or equal to 450ᵒC is
melted and distributed by capillary action between faying surfaces of metal
parts being joined.

• No melting of base metals, but filler metal wets and combines with base
metal to form metallurgical bond.

• Soldering similar to Brazing, and many of the same heating methods are used.

• Filler metal called solder.

• Most closely associated with electrical and electronic assembly.(wire
soldering)
 Soldering Advantages and Disadvantages

• Advantages:
• Lower energy than brazing or fusion welding
• Variety of heating methods available.
• Good electrical and thermal conductivity in joint.
• Easy repair and rework.

• Disadvantages:
• Low joint strength unless reinforced by
mechanically means.
• Possible weak or melting of joint in elevated
temperature service.
 Filler metals in soldering

• Usually alloys of tin (Sn) and lead (Pb). Both

metals have low melting temperature.

• In soldering copper, copper and tin form

intermetallic compounds that strengthen bond.

• Silver and antimony also used in soldering alloys.

 Summary for Brazing and Soldering

• Brazing and soldering are process that have many

great advantages that are often overlooked.

• They are an excellent process for portable

applications and the versatility makes them great
choices for many jobs.

• Their ability to join may different materials with a

limited variety of fluxes and filler metals reduces
the need for a large inventory of materials.