UNIT1&2
UNIT1&2
UNIT1&2
PART B
1.Discuss the impacts of renewable energy system on environment
Environment means surrounding.Nature has provided a clean environment to the human beings. But
with the passage of time , the quality of the environment (main constituent air , soil, water) is
degrading. Every step must be taken to conserve the environment while supplying increased energy
demand. .
During every energy conversion process pollutants are produced as a byproduct.The various
pollutants and its harmful effects is an important environmental aspects of electric energy
conservation. Particulate matter ,CO2,CO,SOX,NOX are the various pollutants.Their harmful effects
are change in climatic condition,global warming , depriving oxygen and increase in cardiovascular
diseases, corrosion of architectural buildings etc.
Gases that trap heat in the atmosphere are called greenhouse gases (GHG) .The greenhouse is a n
enclosure having transparent glass pane trapping the heat in the atmosphere. Similarly the CO2 is
an enclosure present around the globe which prevents the heat from the earth to escape. This cause
the global warming. This effect of GHG such as methane, CO2,nitrous oxide,sulphur
hexafluoride,water vapour,hydroflurocarbon is lead to global warming.The CO2 leads to 82% of
total GHG emission.The main factors which influence the
GHG emission is –
(iv) Large scale fossil fuel combustion of power plant all over the world.
(v) Felling of trees- deforestation –industrialization
(vi) Pollution due to vehicles and byproducts of industries.
GHG :
Carbon dioxide enters the atmosphere through burning fossil fuels (coal, natural gas, and oil), solid
waste, trees and wood products, and also as a result of certain chemical reactions (e.g., manufacture
of cement).
(ii) Particulate matter lead to reduced sunlight and low visibility- respiratory problems
(iii) SO2,SO3 due to combustion of fuel from motor vehicles, power plant, waste disposal
(iv) Methane is emitted during the production and transport of coal, natural gas, and oil.
(v) Nitrous oxide is emitted during agricultural and industrial activities, as well as during combustion
of fossil fuels and solid waste.
(vi) Fluorinated gases: Hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, sulfur hexafluoride, and nitrogen
trifluoride are synthetic, powerful greenhouse gases that are emitted from a variety of industrial
process
Fossil fuels contributes more on to the GHG emission
Wind Energy
It produces no air or water pollution, involves no toxic or hazardous substances (other than
those commonly found in large machines), and poses no threat to public safety. And yet a
serious obstacle facing the wind industry is public opposition reflecting concern over
the
visibility and noise of wind turbines, and their impacts on wilderness areas. The
noise
pollution from commercial wind turbines is sometimes similar to a small jet engine. This is
fine if you live miles away, where you will hardly notice the noise, but what if you
live
within a few hundred meters of a turbine?
Wind-power generation has very low emissions on a life cycle basis, but has a number of
environmental effects that may limit its potential. The most important effects on
the
environment are:
Noise: Wind turbines produce aerodynamic noise, from air passing over the blades
and
mechanical noise from the moving parts of the turbine, especially the gearbox. Better designs
have reduced noise, and research continues. Wind farms developed far from highly populated
areas are, by definition, less offensive.
Electromagnetic interference: Wind turbines may scatter electromagnetic signals causing
interference to communication systems. Appropriate siting (avoiding military zones
or
airports) can minimise this impact.
Bird safety: Birds get killed when they collide with the rotating blades of a
turbine.
Migratory species are at higher risk than resident species. Siting the turbines away
from
migratory routes reduces the impact.
Visual effects: Wind turbines must be in exposed areas and are therefore highly visible. They
are considered unsightly by some people, and concerns have increased with the larger size of
new generation turbines.
Large-scale generation of electricity through windmills can reduce wind-speeds and cause
stress to ecosystems. Lakes that are downwind from the windmills might become warmer
because of reduced evaporation from their surface. Soil moisture might also
increase.
Nevertheless, these impacts may not be of great consequence except in certain
sensitive
areas. Other is aspects of wind power is its use of land. Most studies assume that
wind
turbines will be spaced a certain distance apart and that all of the land in between should be
regarded as occupied.
Solar Energy
Since solar power systems generate no air pollution during operation, the
primary
environmental, health, and safety issues involve how they are manufactured, installed, and
ultimately disposed off.
National Conference on Emerging Trends in Mechanical Engineering , 20 - 21 March, 2009
MED, G H Patel College of Engineering and Technology, Vallabh Vidyanagar – 388 120
Materials used in some solar systems can create health and safety hazards for workers and
anyone else coming into contact with them. In particular, the manufacturing of photovoltaic
cells often requires hazardous materials such as arsenic and cadmium. Even relatively inert
silicon, a major material used in solar cells, can be hazardous to workers if it is breathed in as
dust.
It is also estimated that central photovoltaic-based systems require exotic inputs, some
of
which-such as cadmium sulphide - are toxic and explosive. According to this report
both
types of solar energy systems would generate significant concentrations of problematic water
pollutants, including antifreeze agents, rust inhibitors, and heavy metals leached from
the
system. There shall also be indirect generation of water pollutants via the use of herbicides to
deter excessive vegetation growth around the collectors. Some other adverse
impacts of
central solar systems are permanent use of a large land area; no reclamation until the plant is
decommissioned; generation of non-recyclables during decommissioning: fiberglass,
glass,
coolant, insulations; in PV-based systems, additional disposal problems would be caused by
cadmium and arsenic; hazard to eyesight from reflectors, hazard from toxicants in coolant
fluids; soil erosion and compaction; wind diversion; potential decrease in evaporation
rate
from soil.
There is an additional-probably very small-danger that hazardous fumes released
from
photovoltaic modules attached to burning homes or buildings could injure fire fighters.
Geothermal Energy
Geothermal energy is heat contained below the earth's surface. The only type of geothermal
energy that has been widely developed is hydrothermal energy, which consists of trapped hot
water or steam. However, new technologies are being developed to exploit hot dry
rock
(accessed by drilling deep into rock), geopressured resources (pressurized brine mixed with
methane), and magma.
The likely adverse environmental effects of geothermal energy sources are:
surface
disturbances, physical effects (such as land subsidence) caused by fluid withdrawal, noise,
thermal pollution, and release of offensive chemicals. The various geothermal resource types
differ in many respects, but they raise a common set of environmental issues. Air and water
pollution are two leading concerns, along with the safe disposal of hazardous waste and land
subsidence.
Metals, minerals, volatile species of boron, arsenic and mercury and gases leach out into the
geothermal steam or hot water as it passes through the rocks. The large amounts of chemicals
released when geothermal fields are tapped for commercial production can be hazardous or
objectionable to people living and working nearby.
Most geothermal power plants will require a large amount of water for cooling or
other
purposes. In places where water is in short supply, this need could raise conflicts with other
users for water resources.
At The Geysers, the largest geothermal development, steam vented at the surface contains
hydrogen sulfide (H2S)-accounting for the area's "rotten egg" smell-as well as
ammonia,
methane, and carbon dioxide.
Usually where there is volcanic activity where you find geothermal energy, you will also find
other types of tectonic activity such as earthquakes and also active volcanoes.
It is important to take care of a geothermal site because if the holes were drilled improperly,
then potentially harmful minerals and gas could escape from under ground. These hazardous
materials are nearly impossible to get rid of properly.
Biomass
Biomass power, derived from the burning of plant matter, raises more serious environmental
issues than any other renewable resource except hydropower. Combustion of biomass
and
biomass-derived fuels produces air pollution; beyond this, there are concerns about
the
impacts of using land to grow energy crops. How serious these impacts are will depend on
how carefully the resource is managed. The picture is further complicated because there is no
single biomass technology, but rather a wide variety of production and conversion methods,
each with different environmental impacts.
The stress such a massive plantation would cause on soil moisture, through uptake as well as
evapotranspiration of precious water, has not been estimated but would obviously be quite
great. There would be other impacts of a large magnitude - on soil
productivity,
microclimate, wildlife - some of which would be disastrous to the ecology of the region.
From Aquatic weed farms, It would be difficult to prevent percolation of sewage from such
large ponds to the underground aquifers and the dangers of groundwater contamination would
be very real. There would be such other problems to contend with as mosquito menace and
propagation of pathogens. Further, disposal of spent water hyacinth, after energy is extracted
from it, would be a major problem.
The removal of biomass from land and water for energy production programmes
may
increase soil and water degradation, flooding, and removal of nutrients. It might also affect
wildlife and the natural biota. These and other threats to the environment from the production
of biomass do not seem to have been widely understood.
Biomass energy production projects can exacerbate soil erosion problems Soil
erosion
contributes significantly in hastening water run-o, thus, retarding ground-water recharge; the
nutrient-rich run-o can harm the quality of receiving rivers, lakes or estuaries by
causing
eutrophication. Significant nutrient loss will be incurred by the harvesting of crop residues for
biomass energy.
Conversion of natural ecosystems into energy-crop plantations will change both the habitat
and food sources of wildlife and other biota. Alteration of forests and wetlands will reduce
many preferred habitats and mating areas of some mammals, birds, and other biota.
The major social impacts will be shifts in employment and increases in occupational health
and safety problems. Total employment overall is expected to increase if the nation's energy
National Conference on Emerging Trends in Mechanical Engineering , 20 - 21 March, 2009
MED, G H Patel College of Engineering and Technology, Vallabh Vidyanagar – 388 120
needs are provided by biomass resources. The labour force would be needed in agricultural
and forest production to cut, harvest, and transport biomass resources and in the operation of
conversion facilities.
Bioenergy plants have lower emissions of SO2 than do coal and oil plants, but they
may
produce more particulate matter.
Hydropower
The development of hydropower has become increasingly problematic. The construction of
large dams has virtually ceased because most suitable undeveloped sites are
under
environmental protection. To some extent, the slack has been taken up by a revival of small-
scale development.
Large hydroelectric projects cause major adverse environmental impacts, especially on water
quality, and large hydel may be the most ecologically damaging. Large-scale projects may
disturb local ecosystems, reduce biological diversity or modify water quality. They may also
cause socio-economic damage by displacing local populations. A number of projects
in
developing countries have been stalled or scaled down for these reasons; obtaining
loans
from international lending institutions and banks for major projects has become
more
difficult.
Hydro-power emits some greenhouse gases on a life-cycle basis (especially
methane
generated by decaying bioenergy in reservoirs), but in most cases far less than the burning of
fossil fuels.
Ocean Thermal Energy
Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) power plants have the potential to cause major
adverse impacts on the ocean water quality. Such plants would require
entraining and
discharging enormous quantities of seawater. Marine biota may be impinged on the screens
covering the warm and coldwater intakes of an OTEC plant. Small fishes and crustaceans
may be entrained through the system, where they will experience rapid changes
of
temperature, salinity, pressure, turbidity, and dissolved oxygen. A major change occurring in
the cold water pipe is the depressurization of up to 107 Pascal in water coming from a depth
of 1000 m to the surface.
Sea surface temperatures in the vicinity of an OTEC plant could be lowered by the discharge
of effluent from the cold water pipe. This will have impacts on organisms and microclimate.
The pumping of large volumes of cold water from depths of the ocean to the surface will
release dissolved gases such as carbon dioxide, oxygen, and nitrogen to the atmosphere. This
would influence water pH and DO status, causing stress to marine life
2.Explain construction, working and different characterestics of solar array
2. What is fuel cell? Explain any 3 type of fuel cell
UNIT 2
1. Distinguish between induction generator and synchronous generator.
2. Show the merits of DFIG over SCIG for wind energy conversion?
An induction generator or asynchronous generator is a type of AC electrical generator that
uses the principles of induction motors to produce power. Induction generators operate by
mechanically turning their rotor in generator mode, giving negative slip. It is of two types : 1.
SCIG (Squirrel cage IG) 2. DFIG (Doubly fed IG) The DFIG consists of a stator connected
directly to grid and a rotor via slip rings is connected to grid through four- quadrant ac-to-dc
converter based on insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) .
The merits of this system are :
(i)Reduced inverter cost, because inverter rating is typically 30% of total system power.
(ii) Improved system efficiency.
(iii) Power-factor control can be implemented at lower cost.
(iv) It has a complete control of active and reactive power
PART B
The two main components of DTFC for SCIGs are the state observers and the DTFC–SVM
strategy.Vector control strategies perform similarly but apparently with slightly larger online
computation efforts and higher sensitivity to machine parameter variation. GRID SIDE
CONVERTER CONTROL : Grid-side converter control is, in general, standard vector control,
where DC link voltage control provides for active power from (to) DC link voltage to (from
the power grid, while reactive power control provides for reactive power exchange with the
power grid). The reactive power exchange with the power grid is, in fact, provided by the
oversized DC link capacitor, which also “covers” the IG magnetization.The active power
exchange is controlled through the machine-side converter from (to) the IG. Adequate
voltage and capacitance oversizing of the DC link may provide for up to }100% reactive
power exchange , which is so useful in the local power grid voltage control and stabilization.
may be commanded by the grid voltage error with respect to a desired value. The DC link
reference voltage is generally kept constant under normal operation circumstances, but it
may be reduced in relation to reactive power requirements. When an inductance-
capacitance inductance (LCL) filter is introduced between the grid-side converter and the
grid, speed decoupling of filter inductance L along the q axis current control is added. The
measured frequency of power grid voltage is required for decoupling, to speed up the
response in the presence of the power filter.
The equivalent circuit for one phase of this ac generator is shown in Fig. b. It is
shown in
electrical machinery texts that the magnitude of the generated rms electromotive force
(emf) E is given by where f is the electrical radian frequency, is the flux
per pole, and k1 is a constant which includes the number of poles and the number of
turns in each winding. The reactance Xs is the synchronous reactance of the generator
in ohms/phase. The generator reactance changes from steady-state to transient
operation, and Xs is the steady-state value. The resistance Rs represents the resistance of
the conductors in the generator windings. It is normally much smaller than Xs, so is normally
neglected except in efficiency calculations. The synchronous impedance of the winding is
given the symbol Zs = Rs + jXs. The voltage E is the open circuit voltage and is sometimes
called the voltage behind synchronous reactance. The three coils of the generator can be
connected together in either wye or delta, although the wye connection shown in is much
more common. When connected in wye, E is the line to neutral voltage and one has to
multiply it by √ 3 to get the magnitude of the lineto-line voltage.
where p is the number of poles and n is the rotational speed in r/min. The speed required to
produce 60 Hz is 3600 r/min for a two pole machine, 1800 r/min for a four pole machine,
1200 r/min for a six pole machine, and so on. It is possible to build generators with large
numbers of poles where slow speed operation is desired. A hydroelectric plant might use a
72 pole generator, for example, which would rotate at 100 r/min to produce 60 Hz power.A
slow speed generator could be connected directly to a wind turbine, eliminating the need
for an intermediate gearbox. The propellers of the larger wind turbines turn at 40 r/min or
less, so a rather large number of poles would be required in the generator for a gearbox to
be completely eliminated. Both cost and size of the generator increase with the number of
poles, so the system cost with a very low speed generator and no gearbox may be greater
than the cost for a higher speed generator and a gearbox.When the generator is connected
to a utility grid, both the grid or terminal voltage V and the frequency f are fixed. The
machine emf E may differ from V in both magnitude and phase, so there exists a difference
voltage.
3. Explain the principle and operation of Double Fed Induction Generator used for Wind
Energy Conversion System.
4.Explain Double Fed Induction Generator