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UNIT 1

1. What are the environmental aspects of energy conservation?


The environmental problems directly related to energy production and consumption
include air pollution, climate change, water pollution, thermal pollution, and solid waste
disposal. The emission of air pollutants from fossil fuel combustion is the major cause of
urban air pollution.
2.Write a short noe on Biomass as Energy source
Bio mass is produced in nature through photosynthesis achieved by solar energy conversion.
Biomass is organic matter.
Biomass resources fall in to three categories :
1. Biomass in its traditional solid mass (wood and agricultural residues)
2. Biomass in non-traditional form (converted in to liquid fuels)- ethanol and methanol
3. Ferment anaerobically to obtain gaseous fuel called bio gas

Biomass resources include


1 . concentrated waste- municipal solids,sewage wood producrs,industrial waste ,manure of
large lots
2.Dispersed waste residue- Crop residue,legging residue ,dipsosed manure
3.Harvested biomass ,standby bio mass , biomass energy plantation
3. Explain Ocean Thermal Energy conversion system
A large amount of solar energy is collected and stored in tropical ocean.The susface of the
water acts as the collector for solar heat ,while the upper layer of the sea constitutes infinite
heat storage reservoir .Thus the heat contained in the ocean could be converted in to
electricity by utilizing the fact that the temperature difference between the warm surface
waters of the tropical oceans and the colder water in the depths is about 20-25 0 K .Utilization
of this Energy,with its associated temperature difference and its conversion in to work forms
the basis of ocean Thermal Energy conversion system
4. Expalin Rankine cycle OTEC plant with schematic diagram
Basically, OTEC system has four main components which are heat exchanger, working fluid,
turbine generator and pumps. The warm seawater passes through the evaporator providing
heat to the working fluid, in this case ammonia, then the working fluid will form into gas
phases. The vaporized ammonia is pumped to drive the turbine and produces the electricity
using generator. After that, low-pressure working fluid will be condensed into liquid form
using the cold water pumped from deep water. To maintain the cycle, the liquid ammonia
will be pumped back to the evaporator. This cycle is repeated continuously
5. Write a shortnote on hydrogen Energy
An alternative to conventional fuels provided its technical problems of production,storage
and transportation can be resolved satisfactorily and the cost could be brought down to
acceptable limits.One of the most attractive feature of hydrogen as an energy carrier is that it
can be produced from water which is abundantly available in nature.Hydrogen has the highest
energy content per unit of mass any chemical fuel and can be substituted for hydrocarbon in
broad range of applications. ,often with increased combustion efficiency. Its burning process
is non polluting and it can be used in fuel cells to produce both electricity and useful heat.
6. List the classisfication of fuel cell
Based on the type of Electrolyte
(a) Phosphoric acid fuel cell
(b) Alkaline fuel cell
(c) Polymer electrolytic member fuel cell or protone membrane fuel cell
(d) Molten carbon fuel cell
(e) Solid oxide fuel cell

Based on type of fuel and oxident


(a) Hydrogen (pure)-oxygen (pure)fuel cell
(b) Hydrogen rich gas –air fuel cell
(c) Hydrazine-oxygen/hydrogen peroxide fuel cell
(d) Ammonia-air fuel cell
(e) Synthesis gas –air fuel cell
(f) Hydrocarbon(gas)-air fuel cell
(g) Hydrocarbon(gas)-air fuel cell

Based on operating Temperature


(a) Low temperature fuel cell(<150 C)
(b) Medium temperature fuel cell (150 C-250 C)
(c) High temperature fuel cell (250 C-800C)
(d) Very high temperature fuel cell(800 C- 1100 C)
Based on the chemical Nature of Electrolyte
(a) Acid electrolyte type
(b) Alkaline elctrolyte type
(c) Neutral Electrolyte type
Based on Application
(a) Fuel cell for space application
(b) Fuel cell for vehicle propulsion
(c) Fuel cell for submarine
(d) Fuel cell for defence application
(e) Fuel cell for commercial application

7. Discuss about anaerobic digestion and its advantages.


Anaerobic digestion is the natural breakdown of organic materials into methane and carbon
dioxide gas and fertiliser. This takes place naturally, or in an anaerobic digester. The process
is used for industrial or domestic purposes to manage waste or to produce fuels. Much of the
fermentation used industrially to produce food and drink products, as well as home
fermentation, uses anaerobic digestion.
Advantages of Anaerobic Digestion
1. It is a net energy producing process which produces renewable energy in the form of
biogas.
2. It produces a liquid and a fibrous fertilizer.
3. It sanitizes the feedstock/ waste which is put through it, as long as the temperature is held
above a required temperature for a pre-defined time period.
4. It reduces odour below unprocessed waste odour levels.
5. It is much less likely to cause environmental pollution than spreading untreated organic
waste on land.
6. The effect of the fertilizer is longer lasting than for untreated organic waste
8. Discuss how to use hydrogen energy to generate electric power?
Hydrogen fuel is a zero-emission fuel when burned with oxygen or used in a contained cell. It
often uses electrochemical cells, or combustion in internal engines, to power vehicles and
electric devices. Hydrogen gas is so light, it rises in the atmosphere and is therefore rarely
found in its pure form, H2. In a flame of pure hydrogen gas, burning in air, the hydrogen (H2)
reacts with oxygen (O2) to form water (H2O) and releases energy.

2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(g)


The energy released enables hydrogen to act as a fuel. In an electrochemical cell, that energy
can be used with relatively high efficiency. If it simply is used for heat, the usual
thermodynamics limits on the thermal efficiency apply.
9. Summarize the factors influencing solar power extraction?
 Cable Thickness
 Temperature
 Shading
 Charge Controller and Solar Cell’s IV Characteristics
 Inverter Efficiency  Battery Efficiency
10. Identify the limitation of solar power.
The chief limitations of solar energy include an inability to generate power at night, an
inability to ramp up power production to meet demand, and the cost of solar panels.
Transferring the electricity from areas where solar is more efficient to other areas of the
planet is also a problem.
11. Explain about NOCT and STC of a solar cell.
Standard Test Conditions are the laboratory conditions under which all PV modules are
tested. It can be said that STC is a benchmark for comparing different types of PV modules,
even if they are not from the same provider.
STC means:  An irradiance of 1000 watts per square meter, which simulates peak sunshine
on a surface directly facing the sun in a day without clouds.  A surface temperature of 25°C
 A light spectrum that closely simulates sunlight: AM 1.5 G However, these are idealized
conditions which don't reflect the real site conditions under which a PV module will operate.
The conditions at Nominal Operating Cell Temperature aim to simulate reality more closely:
 The irradiance is 800 watts per square meter, which takes into account the fact that PV
modules don't always face the sun. It also considers atmospheric or geographic conditions
what might diminish sunshine.  Solar panels heat up considerably during operation, so the
temperature considered is 45 (+/- 3) °C.  The light spectrum is the same as for STC.  A
windspeed of 1 m/s is considered, with air at 20°C This means that solar panels will always
have higher ratings at STC compared with NOTC.
12. Point out the impact of wind power penetration in power grid.
 Voltage variations in Steady state voltage under continuous production of power  Voltage
fluctuations Flicker during operation Flicker due to switching  Harmonics
13. List the types of wind turbine and differentiate it.
14.Give the classification of tidal power plant

PART B
1.Discuss the impacts of renewable energy system on environment
Environment means surrounding.Nature has provided a clean environment to the human beings. But
with the passage of time , the quality of the environment (main constituent air , soil, water) is
degrading. Every step must be taken to conserve the environment while supplying increased energy
demand. .
During every energy conversion process pollutants are produced as a byproduct.The various
pollutants and its harmful effects is an important environmental aspects of electric energy
conservation. Particulate matter ,CO2,CO,SOX,NOX are the various pollutants.Their harmful effects
are change in climatic condition,global warming , depriving oxygen and increase in cardiovascular
diseases, corrosion of architectural buildings etc.
Gases that trap heat in the atmosphere are called greenhouse gases (GHG) .The greenhouse is a n
enclosure having transparent glass pane trapping the heat in the atmosphere. Similarly the CO2 is
an enclosure present around the globe which prevents the heat from the earth to escape. This cause
the global warming. This effect of GHG such as methane, CO2,nitrous oxide,sulphur
hexafluoride,water vapour,hydroflurocarbon is lead to global warming.The CO2 leads to 82% of
total GHG emission.The main factors which influence the
GHG emission is –
(iv) Large scale fossil fuel combustion of power plant all over the world.
(v) Felling of trees- deforestation –industrialization
(vi) Pollution due to vehicles and byproducts of industries.
GHG :
Carbon dioxide enters the atmosphere through burning fossil fuels (coal, natural gas, and oil), solid
waste, trees and wood products, and also as a result of certain chemical reactions (e.g., manufacture
of cement).
(ii) Particulate matter lead to reduced sunlight and low visibility- respiratory problems
(iii) SO2,SO3 due to combustion of fuel from motor vehicles, power plant, waste disposal
(iv) Methane is emitted during the production and transport of coal, natural gas, and oil.
(v) Nitrous oxide is emitted during agricultural and industrial activities, as well as during combustion
of fossil fuels and solid waste.
(vi) Fluorinated gases: Hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, sulfur hexafluoride, and nitrogen
trifluoride are synthetic, powerful greenhouse gases that are emitted from a variety of industrial
process
Fossil fuels contributes more on to the GHG emission

impacts of renewable energy system on environment

Wind Energy
It produces no air or water pollution, involves no toxic or hazardous substances (other than
those commonly found in large machines), and poses no threat to public safety. And yet a
serious obstacle facing the wind industry is public opposition reflecting concern over
the
visibility and noise of wind turbines, and their impacts on wilderness areas. The
noise
pollution from commercial wind turbines is sometimes similar to a small jet engine. This is
fine if you live miles away, where you will hardly notice the noise, but what if you
live
within a few hundred meters of a turbine?
Wind-power generation has very low emissions on a life cycle basis, but has a number of
environmental effects that may limit its potential. The most important effects on
the
environment are:
Noise: Wind turbines produce aerodynamic noise, from air passing over the blades
and
mechanical noise from the moving parts of the turbine, especially the gearbox. Better designs
have reduced noise, and research continues. Wind farms developed far from highly populated
areas are, by definition, less offensive.
Electromagnetic interference: Wind turbines may scatter electromagnetic signals causing
interference to communication systems. Appropriate siting (avoiding military zones
or
airports) can minimise this impact.
Bird safety: Birds get killed when they collide with the rotating blades of a
turbine.
Migratory species are at higher risk than resident species. Siting the turbines away
from
migratory routes reduces the impact.
Visual effects: Wind turbines must be in exposed areas and are therefore highly visible. They
are considered unsightly by some people, and concerns have increased with the larger size of
new generation turbines.
Large-scale generation of electricity through windmills can reduce wind-speeds and cause
stress to ecosystems. Lakes that are downwind from the windmills might become warmer
because of reduced evaporation from their surface. Soil moisture might also
increase.
Nevertheless, these impacts may not be of great consequence except in certain
sensitive
areas. Other is aspects of wind power is its use of land. Most studies assume that
wind
turbines will be spaced a certain distance apart and that all of the land in between should be
regarded as occupied.
Solar Energy
Since solar power systems generate no air pollution during operation, the
primary
environmental, health, and safety issues involve how they are manufactured, installed, and
ultimately disposed off.
National Conference on Emerging Trends in Mechanical Engineering , 20 - 21 March, 2009
MED, G H Patel College of Engineering and Technology, Vallabh Vidyanagar – 388 120
Materials used in some solar systems can create health and safety hazards for workers and
anyone else coming into contact with them. In particular, the manufacturing of photovoltaic
cells often requires hazardous materials such as arsenic and cadmium. Even relatively inert
silicon, a major material used in solar cells, can be hazardous to workers if it is breathed in as
dust.
It is also estimated that central photovoltaic-based systems require exotic inputs, some
of
which-such as cadmium sulphide - are toxic and explosive. According to this report
both
types of solar energy systems would generate significant concentrations of problematic water
pollutants, including antifreeze agents, rust inhibitors, and heavy metals leached from
the
system. There shall also be indirect generation of water pollutants via the use of herbicides to
deter excessive vegetation growth around the collectors. Some other adverse
impacts of
central solar systems are permanent use of a large land area; no reclamation until the plant is
decommissioned; generation of non-recyclables during decommissioning: fiberglass,
glass,
coolant, insulations; in PV-based systems, additional disposal problems would be caused by
cadmium and arsenic; hazard to eyesight from reflectors, hazard from toxicants in coolant
fluids; soil erosion and compaction; wind diversion; potential decrease in evaporation
rate
from soil.
There is an additional-probably very small-danger that hazardous fumes released
from
photovoltaic modules attached to burning homes or buildings could injure fire fighters.
Geothermal Energy
Geothermal energy is heat contained below the earth's surface. The only type of geothermal
energy that has been widely developed is hydrothermal energy, which consists of trapped hot
water or steam. However, new technologies are being developed to exploit hot dry
rock
(accessed by drilling deep into rock), geopressured resources (pressurized brine mixed with
methane), and magma.
The likely adverse environmental effects of geothermal energy sources are:
surface
disturbances, physical effects (such as land subsidence) caused by fluid withdrawal, noise,
thermal pollution, and release of offensive chemicals. The various geothermal resource types
differ in many respects, but they raise a common set of environmental issues. Air and water
pollution are two leading concerns, along with the safe disposal of hazardous waste and land
subsidence.
Metals, minerals, volatile species of boron, arsenic and mercury and gases leach out into the
geothermal steam or hot water as it passes through the rocks. The large amounts of chemicals
released when geothermal fields are tapped for commercial production can be hazardous or
objectionable to people living and working nearby.
Most geothermal power plants will require a large amount of water for cooling or
other
purposes. In places where water is in short supply, this need could raise conflicts with other
users for water resources.
At The Geysers, the largest geothermal development, steam vented at the surface contains
hydrogen sulfide (H2S)-accounting for the area's "rotten egg" smell-as well as
ammonia,
methane, and carbon dioxide.
Usually where there is volcanic activity where you find geothermal energy, you will also find
other types of tectonic activity such as earthquakes and also active volcanoes.
It is important to take care of a geothermal site because if the holes were drilled improperly,
then potentially harmful minerals and gas could escape from under ground. These hazardous
materials are nearly impossible to get rid of properly.
Biomass
Biomass power, derived from the burning of plant matter, raises more serious environmental
issues than any other renewable resource except hydropower. Combustion of biomass
and
biomass-derived fuels produces air pollution; beyond this, there are concerns about
the
impacts of using land to grow energy crops. How serious these impacts are will depend on
how carefully the resource is managed. The picture is further complicated because there is no
single biomass technology, but rather a wide variety of production and conversion methods,
each with different environmental impacts.
The stress such a massive plantation would cause on soil moisture, through uptake as well as
evapotranspiration of precious water, has not been estimated but would obviously be quite
great. There would be other impacts of a large magnitude - on soil
productivity,
microclimate, wildlife - some of which would be disastrous to the ecology of the region.
From Aquatic weed farms, It would be difficult to prevent percolation of sewage from such
large ponds to the underground aquifers and the dangers of groundwater contamination would
be very real. There would be such other problems to contend with as mosquito menace and
propagation of pathogens. Further, disposal of spent water hyacinth, after energy is extracted
from it, would be a major problem.
The removal of biomass from land and water for energy production programmes
may
increase soil and water degradation, flooding, and removal of nutrients. It might also affect
wildlife and the natural biota. These and other threats to the environment from the production
of biomass do not seem to have been widely understood.
Biomass energy production projects can exacerbate soil erosion problems Soil
erosion
contributes significantly in hastening water run-o, thus, retarding ground-water recharge; the
nutrient-rich run-o can harm the quality of receiving rivers, lakes or estuaries by
causing
eutrophication. Significant nutrient loss will be incurred by the harvesting of crop residues for
biomass energy.
Conversion of natural ecosystems into energy-crop plantations will change both the habitat
and food sources of wildlife and other biota. Alteration of forests and wetlands will reduce
many preferred habitats and mating areas of some mammals, birds, and other biota.
The major social impacts will be shifts in employment and increases in occupational health
and safety problems. Total employment overall is expected to increase if the nation's energy
National Conference on Emerging Trends in Mechanical Engineering , 20 - 21 March, 2009
MED, G H Patel College of Engineering and Technology, Vallabh Vidyanagar – 388 120
needs are provided by biomass resources. The labour force would be needed in agricultural
and forest production to cut, harvest, and transport biomass resources and in the operation of
conversion facilities.
Bioenergy plants have lower emissions of SO2 than do coal and oil plants, but they
may
produce more particulate matter.
Hydropower
The development of hydropower has become increasingly problematic. The construction of
large dams has virtually ceased because most suitable undeveloped sites are
under
environmental protection. To some extent, the slack has been taken up by a revival of small-
scale development.
Large hydroelectric projects cause major adverse environmental impacts, especially on water
quality, and large hydel may be the most ecologically damaging. Large-scale projects may
disturb local ecosystems, reduce biological diversity or modify water quality. They may also
cause socio-economic damage by displacing local populations. A number of projects
in
developing countries have been stalled or scaled down for these reasons; obtaining
loans
from international lending institutions and banks for major projects has become
more
difficult.
Hydro-power emits some greenhouse gases on a life-cycle basis (especially
methane
generated by decaying bioenergy in reservoirs), but in most cases far less than the burning of
fossil fuels.
Ocean Thermal Energy
Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) power plants have the potential to cause major
adverse impacts on the ocean water quality. Such plants would require
entraining and
discharging enormous quantities of seawater. Marine biota may be impinged on the screens
covering the warm and coldwater intakes of an OTEC plant. Small fishes and crustaceans
may be entrained through the system, where they will experience rapid changes
of
temperature, salinity, pressure, turbidity, and dissolved oxygen. A major change occurring in
the cold water pipe is the depressurization of up to 107 Pascal in water coming from a depth
of 1000 m to the surface.
Sea surface temperatures in the vicinity of an OTEC plant could be lowered by the discharge
of effluent from the cold water pipe. This will have impacts on organisms and microclimate.
The pumping of large volumes of cold water from depths of the ocean to the surface will
release dissolved gases such as carbon dioxide, oxygen, and nitrogen to the atmosphere. This
would influence water pH and DO status, causing stress to marine life
2.Explain construction, working and different characterestics of solar array
2. What is fuel cell? Explain any 3 type of fuel cell
UNIT 2
1. Distinguish between induction generator and synchronous generator.
2. Show the merits of DFIG over SCIG for wind energy conversion?
An induction generator or asynchronous generator is a type of AC electrical generator that
uses the principles of induction motors to produce power. Induction generators operate by
mechanically turning their rotor in generator mode, giving negative slip. It is of two types : 1.
SCIG (Squirrel cage IG) 2. DFIG (Doubly fed IG) The DFIG consists of a stator connected
directly to grid and a rotor via slip rings is connected to grid through four- quadrant ac-to-dc
converter based on insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) .
The merits of this system are :
(i)Reduced inverter cost, because inverter rating is typically 30% of total system power.
(ii) Improved system efficiency.
(iii) Power-factor control can be implemented at lower cost.
(iv) It has a complete control of active and reactive power

3. Compare the PMSG and IG used in WECS?


For a sudden blow of wind the torque to the generator is increased ,this wind leads to large
stresses on the wind turbine’s drive train. However IG allows a small change of speed with
the change of torque going to the generator and lower stresses/tear and wear of the drive
train. As the IG and the PMSG machine have similar Stator, the cost difference is mainly due
to the rotor. PMSG generators have higher efficiency so the higher material cost may be
somewhat compensated for the extra electricity generated. But the inductive power factor
of the induction generators require capacitors for power factor correction and may increases
the overall cost of the IG. Hence the advantage of IG and PMSG depends on the application
and differ from case to case.
4. Differentiate between synchronous generator and PMSG.
A synchronous generator is essentially the same machine as a synchronous motor. The
magnetic field of the rotor is supplied by direct current or permanent magnets. If it is
supplied by permanent magnet it is called PM SG. If the field is supplied by a dc supply it is
called a synchronous generator. Brushes are required in synchronous generator to supply DC
voltage to the rotor( field) for excitation. In both cases it is a synchronous generator because
the waveform of generated voltage is synchronized with (directly corresponds to) the rotor
speed. The frequency of output can be given as f = N * P / 120 Hz. where N is speed of the
rotor in rpm and P is number of poles.

5. Compose the characteristics of SCIG?

6. What is the application of reference theory?


 Reference frame theory is used to eliminate Rotor Position Dependence Inductances and
Capacitances
 Transforms Nonlinear Systems to Linear Systems for Certain Cases
 Fundamental Tool For Rigorous Development of Equivalent Circuits  Can Be Used to Make
AC Quantities Become DC Quantities
 Used as a Framework for Most Controllers
7. Define Park transformation.
The dq0 transform (often called the Park transform) is a space vector transformation of
three-phase time-domain signals from a stationary phase coordinate system (ABC) to a
rotating coordinate system (dq0).

PART B

1.Explain the principle of operation and constructional feature of SCIG in detail.Also


analyse the merits and demerits of the above.

SCIGs may be read as stator converter induction generators or cage rotor


induction generators. There are two basic schemes:
• With AC–AC cascaded pulse-width modulator (PWM) converter (Figure 5.1a)
• With direct AC–AC PWM converter (Figure 5.1b) [1,2]
The configurations with thyristor DC current link AC–AC converter and, respectively,
with thyristor cycloconverter seem to be merely of historical interest, as their reactive
power drainage and current harmonics content are no longer acceptable in terms of
power quality standards. While the matrix converter is still in advanced laboratory
status, the cascaded AC–AC PWM converter is available off the shelf for powers up
to 1
MW and more, with up to ±100% reactive power capability.
The so-called high-voltage direct current (HVDC) light technology uses, in fact,
IGBTs in multilevel AC–AC cascaded power converters [3], but for higher DC link
voltage levels (tens of kilovolts) for DC.

MACHINE SIDE PWM CONVERTER CONTROL :


To let the control system open for motoring and generating, let us consider that only
torque vs. speed is performed. In essence, a functional generator produces the desired
torque vs. speed curve desired from the IG (Figure 5.2a through Figure 5.2c). For
motor starting, the torque vs. speed may decrease notably with speed (Figure 5.2a).
In essence, by an a priori applied optimization process involving the prime-mover
characteristics and IG capability, the optimum torque/speed curves are calculated.
From now on, positive or negative torque control is performed with the various torque
speed curves stored in tables and called upon according to the operation mode.
For generating, the reference power P* is set, but then its value is translated into the
torque/speed The direct torque and flux control (DTFC) seems to be inherent to the
application once torque control is required. Stator flux ( ) control is added, and thus, the
control system becomes robust and presents fast response. The stator flux functional may
also be expressed in terms of flux vs. torque, to minimize the losses in the IG over the whole
speed and power range. The space-vector modulation (SVM) is added to further reduce the
IG current harmonics, converter losses, and noise.

The two main components of DTFC for SCIGs are the state observers and the DTFC–SVM
strategy.Vector control strategies perform similarly but apparently with slightly larger online
computation efforts and higher sensitivity to machine parameter variation. GRID SIDE
CONVERTER CONTROL : Grid-side converter control is, in general, standard vector control,
where DC link voltage control provides for active power from (to) DC link voltage to (from
the power grid, while reactive power control provides for reactive power exchange with the
power grid). The reactive power exchange with the power grid is, in fact, provided by the
oversized DC link capacitor, which also “covers” the IG magnetization.The active power
exchange is controlled through the machine-side converter from (to) the IG. Adequate
voltage and capacitance oversizing of the DC link may provide for up to }100% reactive
power exchange , which is so useful in the local power grid voltage control and stabilization.
may be commanded by the grid voltage error with respect to a desired value. The DC link
reference voltage is generally kept constant under normal operation circumstances, but it
may be reduced in relation to reactive power requirements. When an inductance-
capacitance inductance (LCL) filter is introduced between the grid-side converter and the
grid, speed decoupling of filter inductance L along the q axis current control is added. The
measured frequency of power grid voltage is required for decoupling, to speed up the
response in the presence of the power filter.

The standard synchronous generator solutions require speed governing in the


microhydroturbine for constant speed, to provide constant frequency. Also, the acceleration
and the synchronization take time, as they are done by the turbine and are not protected
from severe transients. The SCIG, on the other hand, may start with the IG in motoring by
fixing a positive torque reference to the machine-side converter to complement the
unregulated torque contribution of the turbine, after the water gate is opened. The
acceleration is fast, and the “synchronization” sequence is eliminated. All that is needed is to
set a negative reference torque (or power ) to control the system and a positive (or negative)
reactive reference to the grid-side converter. If pumping is required, the positive torque
(power) reference is maintained and tailored to speed to best exploit the pump induction
motor system up to 20 to 50% above base (rated) speed . For better pumping, the turbine
pump needs more speed than that needed for good turbining. Experiments were performed
on a laboratory system using two 10 kW cage rotor IMs, one playing the role of the turbine
and the other the role of the SCIG (Figure 5.12). The 25 kVA four-quadrant cascaded PWM
AC–AC converter was an offthe-shelf device intended for variable speed drives with fast
regenerative braking of large inertia loads. The turbine was emulated by a variable speed
drive in speed control mode. Starting can be performed either by the “turbine” up to a
preset speed or simultaneously by the turbine and the SCIG in the motoring mode. Steady-
state operations at the power grid in generating for 0 and 50% reactive power delivery are
The power grid current evolution when, for −100% reference torque (generator) at the IG
side converter, control input is maintained, and the speed is ramped down by “turbine”
control from 1500 Rather smooth generating to motoring transients were obtained. Grid
current vs. voltage waveforms during motoring acceleration (for pumping ) at zero reactive
power exchange with the power grid are It goes without saying that “synchronization” has
become an irrelevant concept, as it can be done at variable speed. Also the disconnection
from the power grid can be done smoothly via the grid-side and machine-side converters.
The two converters provide flexibility and opportunities for various actions, should power
grid faults occur.
The full rating of a four-quadrant AC–AC cascaded PWM converter turns out to be a
performance asset, as it controls the whole power exchanged with the grid: active and
reactive. All of this comes at higher costs than in WRIGs, where the rating of the
fourquadrant cascaded AC–AC PWM converter is 25 to 30% of the rated power. The latter,
however, has tight control only on • }25% of the power. It should be noted that the
commercial four-quadrant PWM IGBT converter used in our experiments and built for drives
requires additional LCL filtering between the grid-side converter section and the power grid
to improve the current waveforms in order to fully comply with the contemporary strict
power quality standards. Load rejection of SCIG at the power grid with controlled turbine
tends to lead to overspeeding, unless a ballast (alternative) load is provided in the DC
voltage line
2. Explain the principle and operation of Induction Generator used for Wind Energy Conversion
System.
Almost all electrical power is generated by three-phase ac generators which are
synchronized with the utility grid. Engine driven single-phase generators are used
sometimes, primarily for emergency purposes in sizes up to about 50 kW. Single-phase
generators would be used for wind turbines only when power requirements are small (less
than perhaps 20 kW) and when utility service is only single-phase. A three-phase machine
would normally be used whenever the wind turbine is adjacent to a threephase transmission
or distribution line. Three-phase machines tend to be smaller, less expensive, and more
efficient than single-phase machines of the same power rating, which explains their use
whenever possible. A construction diagram of a three-phase ac generator is shown in Fig. a.
There is a rotor which is supplied a direct current If through slip rings. The current If
produces a flux. This flux couples into three identical coils, marked aa0, bb0, and cc0, spaced
120o apart, and produces three voltage waveforms of the same magnitude but 120 electrical
degrees apart.

The equivalent circuit for one phase of this ac generator is shown in Fig. b. It is
shown in
electrical machinery texts that the magnitude of the generated rms electromotive force
(emf) E is given by where f is the electrical radian frequency, is the flux
per pole, and k1 is a constant which includes the number of poles and the number of
turns in each winding. The reactance Xs is the synchronous reactance of the generator
in ohms/phase. The generator reactance changes from steady-state to transient
operation, and Xs is the steady-state value. The resistance Rs represents the resistance of
the conductors in the generator windings. It is normally much smaller than Xs, so is normally
neglected except in efficiency calculations. The synchronous impedance of the winding is
given the symbol Zs = Rs + jXs. The voltage E is the open circuit voltage and is sometimes
called the voltage behind synchronous reactance. The three coils of the generator can be
connected together in either wye or delta, although the wye connection shown in is much
more common. When connected in wye, E is the line to neutral voltage and one has to
multiply it by √ 3 to get the magnitude of the lineto-line voltage.

where p is the number of poles and n is the rotational speed in r/min. The speed required to
produce 60 Hz is 3600 r/min for a two pole machine, 1800 r/min for a four pole machine,
1200 r/min for a six pole machine, and so on. It is possible to build generators with large
numbers of poles where slow speed operation is desired. A hydroelectric plant might use a
72 pole generator, for example, which would rotate at 100 r/min to produce 60 Hz power.A
slow speed generator could be connected directly to a wind turbine, eliminating the need
for an intermediate gearbox. The propellers of the larger wind turbines turn at 40 r/min or
less, so a rather large number of poles would be required in the generator for a gearbox to
be completely eliminated. Both cost and size of the generator increase with the number of
poles, so the system cost with a very low speed generator and no gearbox may be greater
than the cost for a higher speed generator and a gearbox.When the generator is connected
to a utility grid, both the grid or terminal voltage V and the frequency f are fixed. The
machine emf E may differ from V in both magnitude and phase, so there exists a difference
voltage.
3. Explain the principle and operation of Double Fed Induction Generator used for Wind
Energy Conversion System.
4.Explain Double Fed Induction Generator

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