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Italian Elitism and the Reshaping
of Democracy in the United States
This book deals with the reception of Italian elitism in the United States,
identifying its key protagonists, phases, and themes. It starts from the
reconstruction of the scientific and political debates aroused in the United
States by the works of Mosca, Pareto, and Michels and moves on to define
their theoretical influence in the American scientific and academic contexts.
The analysis takes into consideration the period from the first contact between
elitists and American academia in the early 1920s to the publication of The
Power Elite by Mills in 1956, which marks the emancipation of American
elitism. After introducing the fundamental principles of elite theory, the first
part of the study reconstructs the debate that it aroused beyond the Atlantic.
The second part examines the original American reworking of the elitist
lesson, concentrating on the works of the authors most strongly influenced
by it: Joseph A. Schumpeter, Harold D. Lasswell, and Charles W. Mills.
The book aims to shed light on the contribution of Italian elitism to the
development of American political thought.
In 1944, the Italian philosopher Benedetto Croce called his fellow scholars
to de-nationalise the study of the past, overcoming the cast in which history
had been shaped from the nineteenth century onwards and that had contrib-
uted to make the nation a seemingly natural and everlasting phenomenon.
Indeed, the scholarly community has had to wait more than half a century
for the so-called transnational turn, which has led to many new insights
but focused primarily on political and social developments. Considering the
renewed interest in intellectual and conceptual history, the aim of ‘Ideas
beyond Borders’ is to contribute to a new understanding of the ways in
which ideas, discourses, images, and representations have been shaped trans-
nationally, going beyond national, regional, or civilisational borders. The
series focuses on transnational concepts and notions, such as Europe, civili-
sation, pan-region, etc. The timespan ranges, roughly, from the sixteenth
century to the present day.
Giorgio Volpe
First published in English 2021
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2021 Giorgio Volpe
The right of Giorgio Volpe to be identified as author of this work
has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the
Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or
reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical,
or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including
photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or
retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks
or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and
explanation without intent to infringe.
An earlier version of this work was published in Italian as We,
the Elite: Storia dell’elitismo negli Stati Uniti dal 1920 al 1956 by
FedOA – Federico II University Press 2019.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Volpe, Giorgio, author.
Title: Italian elitism and the reshaping of democracy in the United
States / Giorgio Volpe.
Description: Abingdon, Oxon ; New York : Routledge, 2021. | Series:
Ideas beyond borders | Includes bibliographical references and
index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2020049730 (print) | LCCN 2020049731 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Elite (Social sciences)—Italy. | Elite (Social sciences)—
Philosophy. | Democracy—United States.
Classification: LCC HN490.E4 V65 2021 (print) | LCC HN490.E4
(ebook) | DDC 305.5/208951073—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020049730
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020049731
Typeset in Sabon
by Apex CoVantage, LLC
For Tina
Contents
Acknowledgements viii
Introduction 1
2 Politics in transformation 38
Conclusion 178
Index 182
Acknowledgements
I, first of all, thank Maurizio Viroli for having firmly believed in this research
project from the very beginning. His encouragement, valuable advice, and
acute criticism have been a fundamental resource for the completion of this
book. I would also like to thank the James Madison Program for offering
me the opportunity of pursuing my studies on elitism in such a stimulating
intellectual environment as is the University of Princeton. I address a grateful
thought to Edoardo Massimilla, who first fed my interest in the ideas and
works of Robert Michels, transmitting to me his own passion and rigour for
research. I am grateful to Giovanni Borgognone and Francesco Tuccari, with
whom I shared the initial idea of the book and whose studies have been a
source of inspiration. I also thank Matthew D’Auria and Max Novick, who
patiently and skilfully followed the various editorial phases of this volume.
My most sincere gratitude also goes to those who have read the manuscript
and have helped me with their observations and advice, in particular, Ales-
sandro Arienzo, Gennaro Barbuto, Maurizio Griffo, and Marialuisa Zam-
pella. I cannot forget the colleagues and friends who have discussed this
book with me. Among others, I would like to mention Gabriella Argnani,
Luigi Musella, Marcello Gisondi, George Kateb, and Pierluigi Totaro. While
everyone mentioned here and above has helped to improve the form and
content of the present work, any remaining faults, distortions, and omissions
are my responsibility alone.
I also thank the Harvey S. Firestone Memorial Library of Princeton Uni-
versity, the Library of the University of Lugano, the Istituto italiano per
gli Studi storici in Naples, the Fondazione “Luigi Einaudi” in Turin, the
Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas in Austin, the University
of Chicago Library, and the Department of Political Studies at the Sapi-
enza University in Rome, which allowed me to conduct my research in the
best conditions I could ask for. I also express my appreciation for FedOA –
Federico II University Press, particularly Roberto Delle Donne, that has pub-
lished a much different and shorter version of this book, titled We the Elite:
Storia dell’elitismo negli Stati Uniti dal 1920 al 1956.
My family and all of my friends deserve a special mention for putting up
with me and never letting me lack their support and affection, even in the most
challenging moments. Especially, I thank Tina, to whom I dedicate this book.
Introduction
Notes
1 James Farr, Jacob S. Hacker, and Nicole Kazee, “The Policy Scientist of Democ-
racy: The Discipline of Harold D. Lasswell,” The American Political Science
Review 100/4 (2006), 585. In the same volume, Mark Blyth, “Great Punctua-
tions: Prediction, Randomness, and the Evolution of Comparative Political Sci-
ence” also mentions Pareto, but not concerning the elite theory.
2 Henry Stuart Hughes, Consciousness and Society: The Reorientation of Euro-
pean Social Thought, 1890–1930 (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1958).
3 James H. Meisel, The Myth of the Ruling Class: Gaetano Mosca and the Elite
(Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1958).
4 James H. Meisel, “Mosca Transatlantico,” Cahiers Vilfredo Pareto 2/4 (1964),
109–17. The following year, Meisel reprinted the essay in a volume that collected
some studies on Mosca and Pareto, written by mainly American scholars: James
H. Meisel (ed.), Mosca and Pareto (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1965).
8 Introduction
5 Peter Bachrach, The Theory of Democratic Elitism: A Critique (Boston, MA:
Little Brown & Company, 1967).
6 Thomas B. Bottomore, Elites and Society (London: C. A. Watts, 1964).
7 Suzanne I. Keller, Beyond the Ruling Class: Strategic Elites in Modern Society
(New York: Random House, 1963); Geraint Parry, Political Elites (London: G.
Allen & Unwin, 1969).
8 Norberto Bobbio, Saggi sulla scienza politica in Italia (Bari and Rome: Laterza,
1969), partial English translation: On Mosca and Pareto (Geneva: Librairie
Droz, 1972).
9 Robert A. Nye, The Anti-Democratic Sources of Elite Theory: Pareto, Mosca,
Michels (London and Beverly Hills: Sage, 1977).
10 Alan Zuckerman, “The Concept ‘Political Elite’: Lessons from Mosca and Pareto,”
The Journal of Politics 39/2 (1977), 324–44.
11 Mario Stoppino, “Potere ed élites politiche,” in L’analisi della politica: Tradizioni
di ricerca, modelli, teorie, edited by Angelo Panebianco (Bologna: Il Mulino,
1989), 221–53; reprinted in Mario Stoppino, Potere ed élites politiche (Milan:
Giuffré Editore, 2000), 1–48.
12 Giorgio Sola, La teoria delle élites (Bologna: Il Mulino, 2000). See also idem,
Storia della scienza politica (Rome: La Nuova Italia Scientifica, 1996).
13 Giovanni Borgognone, I tecnocrati del progresso (Turin: Utet, 2015); idem,
James Burnham: Totalitarismo, managerialismo e teoria delle élites (Aosta: Sty-
los, 2000); idem, “Neomachiavellismo, realismo e tecnocrazia nella teoria polit-
ica americana,” in Il realismo politico: Figure, concetti, prospettive di ricerca,
edited by Alessandro Campi and Stefano De Luca (Soveria Mannelli: Rubbet-
tino, 2014), 315–34.
14 Fabio Grassi Orsini, “Pareto, Mosca, Salvemini e la politologia americana,” in
Oltreoceano: Politica e comunicazione tra Italia e Stati Uniti nel Novecento,
edited by Davide Grippa (Florence: Olschki, 2017), 197–210.
15 Ettore A. Albertoni, Dottrina della classe politica e teoria delle élite (Milan: Giuf-
frè, 1985); idem, Mosca and the Theory of Elitism (Oxford: Blackwell, 1987);
idem (ed.), Studies on the Political Thought of Gaetano Mosca: The Theory of
the Ruling Class and Its Development Abroad (Milan: Giuffrè, 1982); idem
(ed.), Elitismo e democrazia nella cultura politica del Nord-America (Stati Uniti –
Canada – Messico) (Milan: Giuffrè, 1989).
16 Mario Stoppino, “Democrazia e classe politica: Un confronto tra Schumpeter e
Mosca,” in Studi in onore di Carlo Emilio Ferri, vol. 1 (Milan: Giuffrè, 1973),
539–60; reprinted in Stoppino, Potere ed élites politiche, 239–58.
17 James Lane, “Pareto’s English Language Critics: A Reassessment of British and
American Interpretations,” Revue européenne des sciences sociales 16/43 (1978),
105–29; John E. Tashjean, “Politics: Lasswell and Pareto,” Cahiers Vilfredo
Pareto 8/22–23 (1970), 267–72; Joseph Lopreato and Sandra Rusher, “Vilfredo
Pareto’s Influence on USA sociology,” Revue européenne des sciences sociales
21/65 (1983), 69–122.
18 Robert T. Keller, “The Harvard Pareto Circle and the Historical Development of
Organization Theory,” Journal of Management 10/2 (1984), 193–204; Barbara
S. Heyl, “The Harvard Pareto Circle,” Journal of the History of the Behavioral
Sciences 4/4 (1968), 316–34; Annie L. Cot, “A 1930s North American Creative
Community: The Harvard ‘Pareto Circle’,” History of Political Economy 43/1
(2011), 131–59; Joel Isaac, Working Knowledge: Making the Human Sciences
from Parsons to Kuhn (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2012), 63–91.
19 Seymour Martin Lipset, “Introduction,” in Robert Michels, Political Parties:
A Sociological Study of the Oligarchical Tendencies of Modern Democracy
(London: Crowell-Collier, 1962), 15–39; Juan J. Linz, “Robert Michels and His
Contribution to Political Sociology in Historical and Comparative Perspective,”
Introduction 9
in Juan J. Linz, Robert Michels, Political Sociology, and the Future of Democracy
(New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers, 2006), 1–80; idem, “Robert Michels,”
in International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, edited by David L. Sills,
vol. 10 (New York: Macmillan and Free Press, 1968), 265–72.
20 Francesco Tuccari, “Un inedito michelsiano: La relazione sull’America del 1927,”
Annali della Fondazione Luigi Einaudi 40 (2006), 371–89; idem, “Machiavel-
lian? Il Michels di James Burnham,” in Il realismo politico, 529–58.
21 Heinrich Best and John Higley (eds.), The Palgrave Handbook of Political Elites
(London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018).
1 The Italian school of elitism
Elites
Elitism rests on the assumption that in every society a minority of people
holds the greatest amount of existing resources and, consequently, power in
its various forms, by virtue of which it dominates the rest of the population.
From this assumption, it follows that all types of government are oligarchies
and that political ideologies represent the changing rational justifications of
the concrete power relationships that have always characterized the life of
all societies.1
Such principles were formulated in a series of works published between
1884 and 1916, refined and expanded after the advent of Fascism. These
include Sulla Teorica dei governi e sul governo parlamentare (1884) and
Elementi di scienza politica (1896 and 1923) by Gaetano Mosca;2 Les sys-
tèmes Socialistes (1902–1903) and Trattato generale di sociologia (1916 and
1923) by Vilfredo Pareto;3 Zur Soziologie des Parteiwesens in der modernen
Demokratie (1911 and 1925)4 and Corso di Sociologia politica (1927) by
Robert Michels.5 Although elite theorists discussed themes that had always
been involved in the debate about humanity and society, their analyses were
imbued with unprecedented realism and the aspiration to apply scientific
methods to the study of politics, thus allowing them to capture the attention
of the scientific community. The aim of elitist research was not to ascertain
the best possible form of government or understand how to achieve the per-
fect society, but to empirically identify the concrete foundations of human
relationships as well as key sociopolitical dynamics. Elitism, Bobbio writes,
“was not deduced from a priori principles but was derived exclusively from
an unprejudiced and ruthless observation of the facts”;6 therein lay the
strength of its arguments and the causticity of its critique.
If the elite theorists assumed the same realistic and value-free approach
in the study of politics, their analyses stemmed from different disciplin-
ary perspectives. Vilfredo Pareto, a sociologist, focused his research on the
reasons and dynamics that cause the social equilibrium to be established,
undergo a crisis, and re-establish itself. Starting from the acknowledgement
of the heterogeneity and stratification of society, he focused on issues such
as the identification of social forces, the distinction between logical and
The Italian school of elitism 11
non-logical actions, and the processes of social selection. In this sense, it is
fair to say that Pareto aimed to explain the reasons for the social inequalities
that inevitably characterize human nature. Gaetano Mosca, a political sci-
entist, centred his investigation on the formation, organization, distribution,
and legitimization of the political power that would enable the imposition
of decisions on the community. He covered topics such as the identification
of the subjects who hold power, the study of the tools and techniques of
government, as well as the analysis of the relationship between the rulers
and the ruled. Thus, from his perspective, elitism’s aim is to understand the
foundations of political power. Assigning Robert Michels’ studies a clear
methodological connotation is a more difficult task. Taking the party struc-
ture as the main object of his examination of democracy, he addressed both
the traditional topics of political science, such as the organization and the
bureaucratization of political parties, and sociological issues like leaderism
and the relationship between leaders and the masses. However, Michels’
relationship with elitism was problematic. Often, his positions were original
and not always comparable to those of Pareto and Mosca.
From this quick summary, it becomes clear how the different scientific
orientations of Mosca, Pareto, and Michels were reflected in a greater or
lesser sensitivity to the key themes of elitism. For this reason, the first two
sections of this chapter present the fundamental elements of the elite theory
by comparing the work of Mosca and Pareto, as they lend themselves to
being contrast by focusing on the political and the sociological. The third
section looks at Michels’ work, showing his empirical approach. The final
section provides an overview of the political implications of the thinking of
these three authors.
*
The elite theory was first articulated by Mosca in his work On the Theory
of Governments and Parliamentary Government (1884), and later exhaus-
tively discussed in The Ruling Class (1896), where it received its canonical
formulation:
Among the constant facts and tendencies that are to be found in all
political organisms, one is so obvious that it is apparent to the most
casual eye. In all societies – from societies that are very meagerly devel-
oped and have barely attained the dawning of civilization, down to the
most advanced and powerful societies – two classes of people appear –
a class that rules and a class that is ruled. The first class, always the
less numerous, performs all political functions, monopolizes power and
enjoys the advantages that power brings, whereas the second, the more
numerous class, is directed and controlled by the first; in a manner that
is now more or less legal, now more or less arbitrary and violent, and
supplies the first, in appearance at least, with material means of subsis-
tence and with the instrumentalities that are essential to the vitality of
12 The Italian school of elitism
the political organism. In practical life we all recognize the existence of
this ruling class.7
As can be seen from these few lines, Mosca adopted the term “ruling class”
to defne a select group of people who hold political power. The more
famous term “elite” was frst used by Pareto in the introduction to Socialist
Systems (1902) and later in The Mind and Society (1916):
Although the second term enjoyed greater popularity for being more easily
recognizable and applicable to various social contexts, Mosca continued
to defend his choice, believing that the ruling classes should possess the
ability to govern, but that this “by no means implies that they are the ‘best’
individuals intellectually, much less the ‘best’ individuals morally.”9 In other
words, Mosca deemed Pareto’s choice of term incorrect as in his opinion
“elite” had a positive connotation, which made its use improper from a sci-
entifc viewpoint. Mosca’s words went unheeded; however, in preferring the
term “elite” scholars chose not to focus on the term as a value judgement.
Michels chose the term “oligarchy” instead, frst in a series of essays on the
theme and then in his major work, Political Parties (1911). In his case, the
choice of the term was dictated by a different criterion. While Mosca and
Pareto sought to identify a power group, the German-born sociologist high-
lighted a political practice, which is to say that all forms of government are
oligarchic regardless of their formal differences.
The elite theory focuses on several elements: composition and formation,
extension, renewal and replacement, and organization.10 As concerns the
first element, Mosca asserts that the members of the ruling class “are dis-
tinguished from the mass of the governed by qualities that give them a cer-
tain material, intellectual or even moral superiority.”11 Even though these
required qualities may change depending on the historical period, Mosca
believes that some of them are stable over time, such as wealth, military
valour, religious wisdom, and scientific culture. Alternatively, as often hap-
pened in the past, one may belong to a political class by inheritance, having
been born into a family in which the above characteristics were acquired
from an ancestor. However, this does not mean that the upper classes repre-
sent a higher degree of social evolution, as some interpretations of Darwin’s
thought or of authors like Gumplowicz12 seem to suggest:
Although Mosca’s analysis often lacks clarity on this particular point, the
second stratum may generally be identifed with elite classes who always
come between the ruling minority and the ruled majority, albeit in ways
that change over time. In “primitive autocratic systems,”18 the second stra-
tum included priests and warriors, that is, those who possessed the required
moral authority, material strength, and consequently fnancial power. This
model was superseded by the “bureaucratized autocracy”19 in which the
expansion of the state apparatus necessitated the enlisting of public ser-
vants, mainly drawn from the middle classes, who could absorb the task of
organizing and directing the masses. In representative regimes, fnally, the
role of trait d’union between the leaders and the people is played by that
portion of the electorate made up of high-ranking fgures who are able to
shape voters’ opinions and determine their actions:
From within it come the committees that direct political groupings, the
speakers who address assemblies and meetings, the men who make and
publish the newspapers and, finally, that small number of persons who
are capable of forming opinions of their own as to people and events of
the day, and therefore exercise great influence on the many who are not
capable of having opinions of their own and are ready, perhaps without
knowing it, always to follow the opinions of others.20
Similarly to Mosca, Pareto distinguishes two strata in the elite, albeit going
beyond the sphere of politics and concerned with the whole of society:
[W]e get two strata in a population: 1) lower stratum, the non-elite with
whose possible influence on government we are not just here concerned;
then 2) a higher stratum, the elite, which is divided into two: a) a gov-
erning elite; b) a non-governing elite.21
[T]he term “democratic” seems more suitable for the tendency which
aims to replenish the ruling class with elements deriving from the lower
classes, and which is always at work, openly or latently and with greater
or lesser intensity, in all political organisms. “Aristocratic” we would
call the opposite tendency, which also is constant and varies in intensity,
and which aims to stabilize social control and political power in the
descendants of the class that happens to hold possession of it at the
given historical moment.23
The two authors share the conviction that elites are short-lived: “Aristocra-
cies do not last. Whatever the causes, it is an incontestable fact that after
a certain length of time they pass away. History is a graveyard of aristoc-
racies.”24 In Pareto’s view, this phenomenon has “different and somewhat
obscure reasons,”25 but its main symptom is the weakening of virile senti-
ments. Except for the case where an elite is extinguished through the death
of its members or for the inability to renew itself from within, the crisis is
almost always heralded by “the intrusion of humanitarian feelings and of
affected sentimentalizing” that prevents those who hold power from defend-
ing it:
Mosca’s clearer and more detailed analysis, on the other hand, describes
three scenarios that point to change:
[A]s soon as there is a shift in the balance of political forces when – that
is, a need is felt that capacities different from the old should assert them-
selves in the management of the state, when the old capacities, therefore,
lose some of their importance or changes in their distribution occur –
then the manner in which the ruling class is constituted changes also. If
a new source of wealth develops in a society, if the practical importance
of knowledge grows, if an old religion declines or a new one is born, if
a new current of ideas spreads, then, simultaneously, far-reaching dislo-
cations occur in the ruling class. Ruling classes decline inevitably when
they cease to find scope for the capacities through which they rose to
power, when they can no longer render the social services which they
once rendered, or when their talents and the services they render lose in
importance in the social environment in which they live.27
Concerning the ways in which the “circulation of elites” occurs, Pareto and
Mosca have a slightly dissimilar perspective in their analysis, once again
informed by their diverging scientifc standpoints. Pareto draws a distinc-
tion between a horizontal political change, whereby members of the non-
governmental elites become part of the governmental elite, and a vertical
social change, whereby non-elite individuals move to the elite. Mosca speaks
of change within the ruling class, when its progressive renewal is caused by
the addition of new members, and change of ruling class as a result of a con-
fict between those who belong to it and those who are excluded. Nonethe-
less, both authors agree in pointing out the two main dynamics that bring
about the renewal of elites, either a peaceful and gradual process or a violent
and sudden upheaval. In the work of Pareto, the latter point is of particular
signifcance, since it explains how the “circulation of elites” is one of the
most apparent manifestations of social equilibrium:
As several scholars have pointed out, the theme of the “circulation of elites”
lends itself to an interesting comparison with the materialist conception of
history. Indeed, both perspectives seek to interpret human history as the
result of class struggle, but on rather diverging bases. Contrary to Marx,
and despite their belief that members from the lower strata of society may
be able to become part of the elite, the elitists invariably evoke a clash of
oligarchies that has little to do with social confict. From the elitists’ point
of view, equality between individuals is merely an unrealistic ideal. In this
regards, Parry writes:
In Marx the significant social tensions are between the class which owns
the prevailing means of production and hence rules the society and the
ruled class or classes whose economic position impels them to orga-
nize in antagonism to the ruling class. In the elitist thesis the tension is
between the dominant political elite and any rival elite which may arise
to challenge for power. The mass of the population is unorganized and
only becomes politically significant when it is unified by an elite. . . . In
any strong sense the two theories are clearly irreconcilable.29
The last and arguably most signifcant aspect of elite theory is that of orga-
nization. More than by the characteristics required of their members, their
internal organization, or the ways in which they are renewed, elites are deter-
mined in their reason for being by the way they operate. Mosca is undoubt-
edly the author who offers the best insight on the subject. Ruling classes are
such by virtue of their organization, that is, the procedures adopted by the
minority to preserve cohesion and exert power over the majority:
For this reason, in his works, Mosca classifes some of the main forms of
political organization that have occurred in history.36 It seems relevant to
highlight the meaning of this operation: superseding the traditional clas-
sifcations of forms of government (by Aristotle, Machiavelli, and Montes-
quieu, among others) considered abstract or, at best, based on the number
of rulers. Political science needed to abandon the type of analysis pertaining
to political theory once and for all and focus solely on the study of political
practice.
Ideologies
To introduce the subject of the critique of ideologies in elitist theory, we may
usefully refer to Bobbio’s distinction between the weak and strong accep-
tation of the term. In the former, ideology is a system of beliefs or values
used in the political battle for the purpose of influencing the behaviour of
the masses, obtaining consensus, and founding the legitimacy of power; in
the latter, ideology is a false representation of reality which gives rise to a
false consciousness of social facts.37 When related to elitism, this distinc-
tion is perfectly fitting: Mosca is keen to grasp the practical implications of
the “political formula,” while Pareto is more interested in emphasizing the
groundlessness of the “non-logico-experimental theories.”
Beyond their different theoretical frameworks, however, the two scholars
agree on the irrational origins of the phenomenon. Humans do not rea-
son exclusively in rational terms, as passion often plays a vital role in their
judgements. Nevertheless, they have a tendency to draw logical connections
between their actions and a number of principles; therefore, scientifically
unprovable theories are often merely retrospective (and mostly false) expla-
nations of such actions. Referring to the “political formula” – that is, the
“legal and moral basis, or principle, on which the power of the political class
rests” – Mosca writes:
[P]olitical formulas are [not] mere quackeries aptly invented to trick the
masses into obedience. Anyone who viewed them in that light would
fall into grave error. The truth is that they answer a real need in man’s
social nature; and this need, so universally felt, of governing and know-
ing that one is governed not on the basis of mere material or intellectual
force, but on the basis of a moral principle, has beyond any doubt a
practical and a real importance.38
20 The Italian school of elitism
Thus, it is not important for ideologies to have a scientifc basis as long as
they are able to satisfy the masses’ need to believe. This is the reason for their
success, the measure of which will be greater the more ideologies will be
founded “upon the special beliefs and the strongest sentiments of the social
group in which it is current, or at least upon the beliefs and sentiments of
the particular portion of that group which holds political pre-eminence.”39
In this light, both Mosca and Pareto identify two main types of ideologies:
those founded on a supernatural belief that transcends experience and those
that are based on rational principles, at least in appearance.
If their analysis substantially revolves around the same object, their per-
spectives are quite different. For Mosca, who seeks to understand the mecha-
nisms and functioning of politics, the “political formula” is a key factor in
the stability of the ruling class. No minority can indefinitely maintain its rule
over a majority solely through the use of force and the imposition of laws;
it requires a body of abstract principles with which to legitimize its power
and obtain social consensus:
[I]n fairly populous societies that have attained a certain level of civili-
zation, ruling classes do not justify their power exclusively by de facto
possession of it, but try to find a moral and legal basis for it, represent-
ing it as the logical and necessary consequence of doctrines and beliefs
that are generally recognized and accepted.40
On the other hand, Pareto delves deeper in his analysis, revealing the
structure of ideologies. In his view, the “non-logical-experimental theories”
rest on two essential elements: derivations, which represent the manifes-
tation of feelings, and residues, constituted by the logical arguments with
which people tend to justify their actions. Pareto believes that in history
too much importance has been lent to the external manifestations of social
phenomena (derivations) without going back to their fundamental reasons
(residues). Thus, Pareto writes:
The third aspect to be taken into account is the utility, or the damage, that a
theory can generate, both for the individual and the community.
Let us now apply the scheme of analysis outlined earlier to the specific
case of political ideologies. From the point of view of objectivity, ideologies
have nothing to do with empirical verification, and their propositions can-
not be scientifically proven. As already pointed out, humans are not beings
of pure reason, and ideologies testify to the importance of feelings in deter-
mining social actions. As Bobbio writes, “science and ideology belong to
two separate domains that have nothing in common: the first to the domain
of observation and reasoning, the second to the domain of feeling and of
faith.”43 It is therefore neither surprising nor necessarily a negative thing
when political theories are not the bearers of new truths. If anything, the
opposite is true, when an ideology masquerades as a science and propagan-
dizes value judgements as factual statements. There is a clear if implicit ref-
erence to scientific socialism, which had already been the target of criticism
in Socialist Systems. The study of ideologies from a subjective viewpoint
largely corresponds to the study of derivations. Compared to other living
beings, humans are unique in their need to reason, and find meaning in
their actions, even when there might be none. If feelings remain constant
over time (residues), conversely their external manifestations are extremely
changeable (derivations). A passage from The Mind and Society helps us
understand what the author means “A Chinese, a Muslim, a Calvinist, a
Catholic, a Kantian, a Hegelian, a Materialist, all refrain from stealing; but
each gives a different explanation for his conduct.”44 For this reason, deriva-
tions are important primarily because they enable us to trace residues, which
appear to be the prime movers of social action and, consequently, a funda-
mental element for understanding social equilibrium. Not surprisingly, as we
22 The Italian school of elitism
have already pointed out, Pareto uses the theory of residues to analyse and
describe the many aspects of elite theory. Finally, the analysis of ideologies
from the standpoint of their utility leads Pareto to clearly separate theory
from political praxis. In that regard, he points out that the social usefulness
of a theory, that is, its ability to contribute to the building up of social equi-
librium, is not necessarily dependent on its scientific soundness:
The political experience of the author makes Political Parties even more inter-
esting because it is an excellent and original example of elitism in action.
Unlike Mosca and Pareto, Michels restricts his feld of analysis to the study
of the modern political party. The assertion of the latter on the political stage
marked the transition to the democratic state gradually becoming the main
form of interaction between citizens and institutions. Michels, therefore,
believes that mass-based parties represent the most scientifcally adequate
as well as substantially unexplored feld of observation for the purpose of
his analysis, since it represents a miniature replica of the democratic state.
In particular, socialist parties allow for a more advanced perspective in the
study of democracy, at least in theory: “[T]he appearance of oligarchical phe-
nomena in the very bosom of the revolutionary parties is a conclusive proof
of the existence of immanent oligarchical tendencies in every kind of human
organization which strives for the attainment of defnite ends.”55 From this
perspective, the German party (Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands) is
undoubtedly the most signifcant, because it acts as a model for all the other
parties belonging to the Second International. As Michels clearly states,
Conversely, creating a solid and effective structure may also lead to negative
outcomes for the organized masses by “completely inverting the respective
position of the leaders and the led and dividing every party or professional
union into a minority of directors and a majority of directed.” A profoundly
elitist element is inherent in the very essence of the organization; indeed,
Michels believes that the “organization coeffcient” is inversely proportional
to the level of democracy attained, and, consequently, directly proportional
to that of oligarchy:
At this stage, we may usefully compare the above formulations with Mos-
ca’s ideas. Although the two authors agree on the importance and indispens-
ability of organization in politics, they do so for opposite reasons. In this
regards, Sola points out:
The apathy of the masses and their need for guidance has as its counter-
part in the leaders a natural greed for power. Thus the development of
the democratic oligarchy is accelerated by the general characteristics of
human nature. What was initiated by the need for organization, admin-
istration, and strategy is completed by psychological determinism.62
DRÁMAIRODALMUNK.