1 Fields and Vector Space

1 Fields and Vector Space

1.1 Fields
De�nition 1.1. Given non-empty set and two operators + and ·, ( , +, ·) is said to be a �eld, if each of the
following axioms are satis�ed:
Addition:
1. 0 + 1 2 , for all 0, 1 2 . (Closed under addition)
2. 0 + 1 = 1 + 0, for all 0, 1 2 . (Commutative Law for addition)
3. (0 + 1) + 2 = 0 + (1 + 2), for all 0, 1, 2 2 . (Associative Law for addition)
4. There exists 0 2 such that 0 + 0 = 0 + 0 = 0, for all 0 2 . (Existence of Additive Identity)
5. For each 0 2 there exists 0 2 such that 0 + ( 0) = ( 0) + 0 = 0. (Existence of Additive Inverse)
Multiplication:
6. 0 · 1 2 , for all 0, 1 2 . (Closed under multiplication)
7. 0 · 1 = 1 · 0, for all 0, 1 2 . (Commutative Law for Multiplication)
8. (0 · 1) · 2 = 0 · (1 · 2), for all 0, 1, 2 2 . (Associative Law for Multiplication)
9. There exists 1 2 such that 0 · 1 = 1 · 0 = 0, for all 0 2 . (Existence of Multiplicative Identity)
10. For each 0 2 with 0 < 0, there exists 0 1 2 such that 0 · 0 1 =0 1 · 0 = 1.
(Existence of Multiplicative Inverse)
Addition and Multiplication:
11. (0 + 1) · 2 = 0 · 2 + 1 · 2, for all 0, 1, 2 2 (Distributive Law of Multiplication over Addition)

Example 1.1. • Set of real numbers with usual addition and multiplication, (R, +, ·) is a �eld.
• Set of integers, (Z, +, ·), does not form a �eld as it violates axiom 5.

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Theorem 1.1: Properties of �elds

1. 0 is unique.
2. For each 0 2 , 0 is unique.
3. For each 0 2 , ( 0) = 0.
4. 1 is unique.
5. For each 0 2 with 0 < 0, 0 1 is unique.
6. For each 0 2 with 0 < 0, (0 1 ) 1 = 0.
7. For each 0 2 , 0 · 0 = 0.
8. For every 0, 1 2 , ( 0) · 1 = (0 · 1) = 0 · ( 1).
9. For every 0, 1 2 , ( 0) · ( 1) = 0 · 1 .

1.2 Vector Spaces

De�nition 1.2. Let + be a set on which two operations (addition and scalar multiplication) are de�ned. If the
listed axioms are satis�ed for every u, v, w in + and every scalar 2, 3 in , then (+ , +, ·) is called a vector space
over a �eld ( , +, ·).
Addition:
1. u + v 2 + . (Closed under addition)
2. u + v = v + u. (Commutative Law)
3. (u + v) + w = u + (v + w), for all 0, 1, 2 2 . (Associative Law)
4. There exists 0 2 + such that u + 0 = 0 + u = u. (Additive Identity)
5. For each u 2 + there exists u 2 + such that u + ( u) = ( u) + u = 0. (Additive Inverse)
Scalar Multiplication:
6. 2 · u 2 + . (Closed under scalar multiplication)
7. 2 · (u + v) = 2 · u + 2 · v. (Distributive Law)
8. (2 + 3) · u) = 2 · u + 3 · u. (Distributive Law)
9. 2 · (3 · u) = (2 · 3) · u (Associative Law)
10. There exists 1 2 such that 1 · u = u. (Scalar Identity)

Note:
• The elements of are called scalars and elements of + are called vectors.
• Both vector addition and scalar addition are denoted by the same symbol +.
• 02 and 0 2 + are two di�erent elements in two di�erent sets.
• Both scalar additive inversion and vector additive inversion also have the same symbol .
• Both multiplication between two scalars and multiplication of a vector by a scalar are also denoted by
the same symbol ·.

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Important Vector Spaces

Theorem 1.2: Properties of Scalar Multiplication

Let u be any element of a vector space + and let 2 be any scalar. Then the following properties are true.
(a) 0 · u = 0.
(b) 2 · 0 = 0.
(c) If 2 · u = 0, then 2 = 0 or u = 0.
(d) ( 1) · u = u.

Proof: Proofs of parts (b) and (c) will be done in the class. The proofs of the parts (a) and (d) properties
are left as exercises.

1.2.1 Subspaces of Vector Spaces

De�nition 1.3. A nonempty subset , of a vector space + is called a subspace of + if , is a vector space under
the operations of addition and scalar multiplication de�ned in + .

Example 1.2. Show that the set , = {(G 1, 0, G 3 ) : G 1 and G 3 are real numbers} is a subspace of R3 with the
standard operations.

Theorem 1.3: Test for a Subspace

If , is a nonempty subset of a vector space + , then , is a subspace of + if and only if the following
closure conditions hold.
1. If u and v are in , , then u + v is in , .
2. If u is in , and 2 is any scalar, then 2 · u is in , .

Proof: Will be done in the class.

Example 1.3. Let , be the set of all 2 ⇥ 2 symmetric matrices. Show that , is a subspace of the vector space
"2,2 with the standard operations of matrix addition and scalar multiplication.

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Exercises:
1. Let * and , be subspaces of + . Show that the intersection of * and , , * \ , , is also a subspace of + .
2. Let * and , be subspaces of + . Show that * + , = {u + w : u 2 * , w 2 , } is a subspace of + .

1.2.2 Linear Combinations and Spanning Sets

De�nition 1.4. LINEAR COMBINATION OF VECTORS: A vector v in a vector space + is called a linear
combination of the vectors u1, u2, . . . , u: in + if v can be written in the form

v = 2 1 u1 + 2 2 u2 + · · · + 2: u:

where 2 1, 2 2, . . . , 2: are scalars.

Example 1.4. 1. For the set of vectors in R3 , ( = {v1 = (1, 3, 1), v2 = (0, 1, 2), v3 = (1, 0, 5)}, v1 is a linear
combination of v2 and v3 because
v1 = 3v2 + v3

2. For the set of vectors in M2⇥2 ,

(     )
0 8 0 2 1 3 2 0
( = v1 = , v2 = , v3 = , v4 =
2 1 1 0 1 2 1 3

v1 is a linear combination of v2 , v3 and v4 because

v1 = v2 + 2v3 v4

Example 1.5. Write the vector w = (1, 1, 1) as a linear combination of vectors in the set (,

( = {(1, 2, 3), (0, 1, 2), ( 1, 0, 1)}

De�nition 1.5. SPANNING SET OF A VECTOR SPACE: Let ( = v1, v2, . . . , v: be a subset of a vector space + .
The set ( is called a spanning set of + if every vector in + can be written as a linear combination of vectors in (. In
such cases it is said that ( spans + .
Example 1.6. Show that the set ( = {(1, 2, 3), (0, 1, 2), ( 2, 0, 1)} spans R3 .

De�nition 1.6. SPAN OF A SET: If ( = {v1, v2, . . . , v: } is a set of vectors in a vector space + , then the span of
( is the set of all linear combinations of the vectors in (,

span(() = {2 1 v1 + 2 2 v2 + · · · + 2: v: : 2 1, 2 2, . . . , 2: are real numbers}.

The spans of ( is denoted by B?0=(() or span{v1, v2, . . . , v: }. If span(() = + , it is said that + is spanned by
{v1, v2, . . . , v: }, or that ( spans + .

Theorem 1.4: Span(() Is a Subspace of +

If ( = {v1, v2, . . . , v: } is a set of vectors in a vector space + , then span(() is a subspace of + . Moreover,
span(() is the smallest subspace of + that contains (, in the sense that every other subspace of + that
contains ( must contain span(().

Proof: Will be done in the class.

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1.2.3 Linear Dependence and Linear Independence

De�nition 1.7. A set of vectors ( = {v1, v2, . . . , v: } in a vector space + is called linearly independent if the vector
equation
2 1 v1 + 2 2 v2 + · · · + 2: v: = 0
has only the trivial solution, 2 1 = 0, 2 2 = 0, . . . , 2: = 0. If there are also nontrivial solutions, then ( is called linearly
dependent.

Testing for Linear Independence and Linear Dependence:

Let ( = {v1, v2, . . . , v: } be a set of vectors in a vector space + . To determine whether ( is linearly independent
or linearly dependent, perform the following steps.
1. From the vector equation 2 1 v1 + 2 2 v2 + · · · + 2: v: = 0 write a homogeneous system of linear equations
in the variables 2 1, 2 2, . . . , 2: .
2. Use Gaussian elimination to determine whether the system has a unique solution.
3. If the system has only the trivial solution, 2 1 = 0, 2 2 = 0, . . . , 2: = 0 then the set ( is linearly independent.
If the system also has nontrivial solutions, then ( is linearly dependent.
Example 1.7. Determine whether the set of vectors in M4⇥1 is linearly independent or linearly dependent.
8
> 9
>
>
2
6 1 37 26137 26 0 37 26 0 37 >
>
>
>
<6
> >
0 77 66177 66 3 77 66 17>7 =
( = 66
> 177 66077 66 1 77 66 7
17 >
, , ,
>
> 6 >
>
>
> 64 0 75 64275 64 275 64 2 75 >
>
: ;

Theorem 1.5: A Property of Linearly Dependent Sets

A set ( = {v1, v2, . . . , v: }, : 2 is linearly dependent if and only if at least one of the vectors v can be
written as a linear combination of the other vectors in (.

Proof: Will be done in the class.

Corollary 1.6

Two vectors u and v in a vector space + are linearly dependent if and only if one is a scalar multiple of
the other.

Example 1.8. The set

( = {(4, 4, 2), ( 2, 2, 1)}
is linearly dependent because v1 = 2v2 .

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1.2.4 Basis and Dimension

De�nition 1.8. [DEFINITION OF BASIS]: A set of vectors ( = {v1, v2, . . . , v= } in a vector space + is called a
basis for + if the following conditions are true.
1. ( spans + .
2. ( is linearly independent.

Note:
• If a vector space + has a basis consisting of a �nite number of vectors, then + is �nite dimensional.
Otherwise, + is called in�nite dimensional. [The vector space % of all polynomials is in�nite dimensional,
as is the vector space ⇠ ( 1, 1) of all continuous functions de�ned on the real line.]

Example 1.9. 1. Show that the following set is a basis for R3 .

( = {(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)}

2. Show that the set

( = {(1, 1), (1, 1)}
is a basis for R2 .

Theorem 1.7: Uniqueness of Basis Representation

If ( = {v1, v2, . . . , v= } is a basis for a vector space + , then every vector in + can be written in one and
only one way as a linear combination of vectors in (.

Proof: Will be done in the class.

Example 1.10. Let u = (D 1, D 2, D 3 ) be any vector in R3 . Show that the equation u = 2 1 v1 + 2 2 v2 + 2 3 v3 has a
unique solution for the basis ( = {v1, v2, v3 } = {(1, 2, 3), (0, 1, 2), ( 2, 0, 1)}.

Theorem 1.8: Bases and Linear Dependence

If ( = {v1, v2, . . . , v= } is a basis for a vector space + , then every set containing more than = vectors in +
is linearly dependent.

Proof: Will be done in the class.

Example 1.11. (a) Because R3 has a basis consisting of three vectors, the set

( = {(1, 2, 1), (1, 1, 0), (2, 3, 0), (5, 9, 1)}

must be linearly dependent.

(b) Because P3 has a basis consisting of four vectors, the set

( = {1, 1 + G, 1 G, 1 + G + G 2, 1 G + G2}

must be linearly dependent.

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Theorem 1.9: Number of Vectors in a Basis

If a vector space + has one basis with = vectors, then every basis for + has = vectors.

Proof: Will be done in the class.

De�nition 1.9. [DEFINITION OF DIMENSION OF A VECTOR SPACE: If a vector space + has a basis
consisting of = vectors, then the number = is called the dimension of + , denoted by 38<(+ ) = =. If + consists of
the zero vector alone, the dimension of + is de�ned as zero.

Example 1.12. • The dimension of R= with the standard operations is =.

• The dimension of P= with the standard operations is = + 1.
• The dimension of M<,= with the standard operations is <=.
Example 1.13. Determine the dimension of each subspace of R3 .
(a) , = {(3, 2 3, 2) : 2 and 3 are real numbers}
(b) , = {(21, 1, 0) : 1 is a real number}

Theorem 1.10: Basis Tests in an = Dimensional Space

Let + be a vector space of dimension =.

1. If ( = {v1, v2, . . . , v= } is a linearly independent set of vectors in + , then ( is a basis for + .
2. If ( = {v1, v2, . . . , v= } spans + , then ( is a basis for + .

Example 1.14. Show that the set of vectors given below is a basis for M5⇥1 .
8
> 2 1 37 26 0 37 26 0 37 26 0 37 26 0 37 9
>
>
> 6 >
>
>
> >
>
<6
>
6 2 77 66 1 77 66 0 77 66 0 77 66 0 77 >
>
=
>
( = 66 177 , 66 3 77 , 66 2 77 , 66 0 77 , 66 0 77
>
> >
>
>
6
6 3 77 66 277 66 177 66 2 77 66 0 77 >
>
>
>
> >
> 64 4 75 64 3 75 64 5 75 64 375 64 25 >
7 >
: ;

1.2.5 Coordinates and Change of Basis

De�nition 1.10. [Coordinate Representation Relative to a Basis]: Let ⌫ = {v1, v2, . . . , v= } be an ordered
basis for a vector space + and let x be a vector in + such that

x = 2 1 v1 + 2 2 v2 + · · · + 2= v=

The scalars 2 1, 2 2, . . . , 2= are called the coordinates of x relative to the basis ⌫. The coordinate matrix (or coordinate
vector) of x relative to ⌫ is the column matrix in R= whose components are the coordinates of x.
22 1 3
6 7
62 2 7
6 7
[x]⌫ = 6 .. 7
6.7
6 7
62= 7
4 5

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Example 1.15. 1. Find the coordinate matrix of x = ( 2, 1, 3) in R3 relative to the standard basis ( =
{(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)}.
2. The coordinate matrix of x in R2 relative to the (nonstandard) ordered basis ⌫ = {(1, 0), (1, 2)} is

3
[x]⌫ = .
2

Find the coordinates of x relative to the standard basis ⌫ 0 = {(1, 0), (0, 1)}.

Note:
• If x = {G 1, G 2, . . . , G= } is a vector in R= then the coordinates of x relative to the standard basis ( in R= is
2G 1 3
6 7
6G 2 7
6 7
[x]( = 6 .. 7
6.7
6 7
6G= 7
4 5

Change of Basis in R=
• Suppose that
⌫ = {v1, v2, . . . , v= } and ⌫ 0 = {u1, u2, . . . , u= }
are two ordered bases for R= . If x is a vector in R= and
22 1 3 23 1 3
6 7 6 7
62 2 7 63 2 7
6 7 6 7
[x]⌫ = 6 .. 7 and [x]⌫0 = 6 .. 7
6.7 6.7
6 7 6 7
62= 7 63= 7
4 5 4 5
are the coordinate matrices of x relative to ⌫ and ⌫ 0, then the transition matrix % from ⌫ 0 to ⌫ is the
matrix % such that
[x]⌫ = % [x]⌫0

Theorem 1.11: The Inverse of a Transition Matrix

If % is the transition matrix from a basis ⌫ 0 to a basis ⌫ in R= , then % is invertible and the transition
matrix from ⌫ to ⌫ 0 is given by % 1 .

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Lemma 1.11

et ⌫ = {v1, v2, . . . , v= } and ⌫ 0 = {u1, u2, . . . , u= } be two bases for a vector space + . If

v1 = 2 11 u1 + 2 21 u2 + · · · + 2=1 u=
v2 = 2 12 u1 + 2 22 u2 + · · · + 2=2 u=
..
.
v= = 2 1= u1 + 2 2= u2 + · · · + 2== u=

then the transition matrix from ⌫ to ⌫ 0 is

22 11 2 12 . . . 2 1= 37
6
62 21 2 22 . . . 2 2= 77
6
& = 6 .. 7
6 . 7
6 7
62=1 2=2 . . . 2== 75
4
⇤

Theorem 1.12: Transition Matrix from ⌫ to ⌫ 0

Let ⌫ = {v1, v2, . . . , v= } and ⌫ 0 = {u1, u2, . . . , u= } be two bases for a vector space R= . Then the transition
matrix % 1 from ⌫ to ⌫ 0 can be found by using Gauss-Jordan elimination on the = ⇥ 2= matrix [⌫ 0 | ⌫],as
follows.
[⌫ 0 | ⌫] ! [ = | % 1 ]

Example 1.16. Find the transition matrix from ⌫ to ⌫ 0 for the following bases for R2 .

⌫ = {( 3, 2), (4, 2)} and ⌫ 0 = {( 1, 2), (2, 2)}

Note:
• One bene�t of coordinate representation is that it enables you to represent vectors in an arbitrary =
dimensional space using the same notation used in R= . For instance, the coordinate matrix of a vector in
P3 is a vector in R4 .
The coordinate matrix of ? = 3G 3 2G 2 + 4 relative to standard basis in P3 , ( = {1, G, G 2, G 3 } is

2 4 37
6
6 0 77
[?]( = 66
6 277
6 3 75
4