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Finding Roots

The document discusses techniques for finding roots of polynomials. Trick #1 states that if r is an integer root, then r must be a factor of the constant term. Trick #2 states that if b/d is a rational root, b must be a factor of the constant term and d must be a factor of the highest term's coefficient. Trick #3 involves using long division or setting up equations to factor out a known root.

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Jethros Bible
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63 views3 pages

Finding Roots

The document discusses techniques for finding roots of polynomials. Trick #1 states that if r is an integer root, then r must be a factor of the constant term. Trick #2 states that if b/d is a rational root, b must be a factor of the constant term and d must be a factor of the highest term's coefficient. Trick #3 involves using long division or setting up equations to factor out a known root.

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Jethros Bible
Copyright
© Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Roots of Polynomials

Here are some tricks for nding roots of polynomials. These tricks work well on exams and homework assignments, where polynomials tend to have integer coecients and roots that are integers, or at least fractions. Trick # 1 If r or r is an integer root of a polynomial an xn + + a1 x + a0 with integer coecients, then r is a factor of the constant term a0 . To see that this is true, just observe that for any root r an (r)n + + a1 (r) + a0 = 0 = a0 = an (r)n + + a1 (r)

Every term on the right hand side is an integer times a strictly positive power of r. So the right hand side, and hence the left hand side, is some integer times r. Example. P () = 3 2 + 2. The constant term in this polynomial is 2 = 1 2. So the only candidates for integer roots are 1, 2. Trying each in turn P (1) = 2 P (1) = 0 P (2) = 6 P (2) = 10

so the only integer root is 1. Trick # 2 If b/d or b/d is a rational root in lowest terms (i.e. b and d are integers with no common factors) of a polynomial an xn + + a1 x + a0 with integer coecients, then the numerator b is a factor of the constant term a0 and the denominator d is a factor of an . For any root b/d an (b/d)n + + a1 (b/d) + a0 = 0 Multiply through by dn a0 dn = an (b)n + an1 d(b)n1 + + a1 dn1 (b) Every term on the right hand side is an integer times a strictly positive power of b. So the right hand side is some integer times b. The left hand side is dn a0 and d does not contain any factor that is a factor of b. So a0 must be some integer times b. Similarly, every term on the right hand side of an (b)n = an1 d(b)n1 + a1 dn1 (b) + a0 dn is an integer times a strictly positive power of d. So the right hand side is some integer times d. The left hand side is an (b)n and b does not contain any factor that is a factor of d. So an must be some integer times d. 1

Example. P () = 22 3. The constant term in this polynomial is 3 = 1 3 and the coecient of the highest power of is 2 = 1 2. So the only candidates for integer roots are 1, 3 and the only candidates for fractional roots are 1 , 3 . 2 2 P (1) = 2 P 1) = 21 1 3 = 0 2 4 2 So the roots are 1 and 3 . 2 Trick # 3 Long Division Suppose that P (x) is a polynomial of degree p and suppose that you know that r is a root of that polynomial. In other words, suppose you know that P (r) = 0. Then it is always possible to factor (x r) out of P (x). More precisely, it is alway possible to nd a polynomial Q(x) of degree p 1 such that P (x) = (x r)Q(x) In suciently simple cases, you can probably do this factoring by inspection. For example, P (x) = x2 4 has r = 2 as a root because P (2) = 22 4 = 0. In this case, P (x) = (x2)(x+2) so that Q(x) = (x + 2). As another example, P (x) = x2 2x 3 has r = 1 as a root because P (1) = (1)2 2(1) 3 = 1 + 2 3 = 0. In this case, P (x) = (x + 1)(x 3) so that Q(x) = (x 3). Once you have found a root r of a polynomial, even if you cannot factor (x r) out of the polynomial by inspection, you can nd Q(x) by dividing P (x) by x r, using the long division algorithm you learned in public school, but with 10 replaced by x. Example. P (x) = x3 x2 + 2. Because P (1) = (1)3 (1)2 + 2 = 1 1 + 2 = 0, r = 1 is a root of this poly3 2 nomial and x + 1 must be a factor of x3 x2 + 2. So we divide x x +2 . The rst term, x2 , in x+1 the quotient is chosen so that when you multiply it by the denominator, x2 (x + 1) = x3 + x2 , the leading term, x3 , matches the leading term in the numerator, x3 x2 + 2, exactly. x2 x + 1 x3 x 2 + 2 3 2 x +x 2 3 2 When you subtract x (x + 1) = x + x from the numerator x3 x2 + 2 you get the remainder 2x2 + 2. Just like in public school, the 2 is not normally brought down until it is actually needed. x2 x + 1 x3 x 2 + 2 3 2 x +x 2x2 The next term, 2x, in the quotient is chosen so that when you multiply it by the denominator, 2x(x + 1) = 2x2 2x, the leading term 2x2 matches the leading term in the remainder exactly. 2 P (1) = 0 P 3) = 29 2 4
3 2

3=0

P 3 = 18 3 3 = 0 9 P 3) = 24 + 3 3 = 0 2 2

x2 2x x + 1 x3 x 2 + x3 + x 2 2x2 2x2 2x And so on.

x2 2x + 2 x + 1 x3 x 2 + 2 3 2 x +x 2x2 2x2 2x 2x + 2 2x + 2 0 Note that we nally end up with a remainder 0. A nonzero remainder would have signalled a computational error, since we know that the denominator x(1) must divide the numerator x3 x2 + 2 exactly. We conclude that (x + 1)(x2 2x + 2) = x3 x2 + 2 To check this, just multiply out the left hand side explicitly. There is an alternative to long division that involves more writing. In the previous 3 2 example, we know that x x +2 must be a polynomial (since 1 is a root of the numerator) x+1 of degree 2. So x3 x 2 + 2 = ax2 + bx + c x+1 for some, as yet unknown, coecients a, b and c. Cross multiplying and simplifying x3 x2 + 2 = (ax2 + bx + c)(x + 1) = ax3 + (a + b)x2 + (b + c)x + c Matching coecients of the various powers of x on the left and right hand sides coecient of x3 : a=1

coecient of x2 : a + b = 1 coecient of x1 : b + c = 0 coecient of x0 : c=2

tells us directly that a = 1 and c = 2. Subbing a = 1 into a + b = 1 tells us that 1 + b = 1 and hence b = 2. 3

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