The 1960s as a turning point

 Important to recognise that all the other turning points are important, and not just in their
own right but they are inter linked.
 We can best explore that, almost fully explore that in relation to the second world war. Also
in the 1950s and Brown. May not be as important as the 1960s. The 1960s does something
that the Brown decision doesn’t, the federal government actively implements changes. The
enforcement of change is actually very important to actually gauge how important those
changes are.
 Very easy to get caught up in the story of the 1960s – Selma, Birmingham, martin luther king
jr.
 Do not get caught up in that, ask how important is the 1960s in relation to other turning
points and think about the development of African-American civil rights.
 1964 Civil Rights Act, 1965 Voting Rights Act (other acts that are introduced 1968 civil rights
act that focuses on residential segregation ordinances)
 Are all laws passed by congress that relate to African-Americans.
 That is not the only way that the scope of rights are expanded.
 Also Supreme Court, 1969 Alexander vs Holmes County, Mississippi.
 Also the Presidency and the establishment of things like the Office of Economic Opportunity
(O.E.C) and also the federal concept of restitution.
 Lyndon Johnson introduces this compensatory approach in the form of affirmative action.
 The federal government is comprised of Presidency, Congress and Supreme Court.
 Need to have a sense of the scope of initiatives and changes that are introduced by the
federal government. When you compare this to Franklin Roosevelt and the New Deal.
 What is interesting is that the federal government has thrown itself behind the movement
for change. Deliberately seeking to bring about change.
 Not just enough to say that is what it is seeking to do but need to say how well it does this
and how better it does than before.
 Consider the 1965 Voting Rights Act – it is an idea that you can compare and develop very
fully. Looked at Smith vs Alwright, it addresses the white primary. When you look at the
number of African-Americans registering to vote, it does go up, and it rises not
insignificantly, in some upper south states it rises into the 30%. That is quite dramatic
(relative to the situation after 1890). The important thing to think about is how many vote
and in other states like Alabama or Georgia it is significantly below. There is huge variation
and so the reach of change is patchy, uneven and based on local areas. Individual states
continue to have a strong bearing on registration and participation. 30% is still quite low by
any democratic standard.
 One of the effects that this has. Many southern states prior to Brown were introducing
equalisation programmes, particularly in the field of education. Governor Burns of South
Carolina.
 The problem is that they are separate but not equal. If you can equalise those things then
you remove a possible legal challenge. This interpretation is a veil that actually hides the fct
that there is no intention to actually do this. The inequalities expose a weakness and a
vulnerability to challenge and you are actually genuinely trying to meet the law and what it
prescribes for you.
 The rise in the growing numbers of African-American voters leads to more equalisation
programmes and so responds to a growing African-American electorate.
 Klamran, what the supreme court judges were surprised at was th extent of peaceful,
incremental change that had already happened. That’s change compared to how things use
dto be and they are struck by the change in Southern attitudes. Brown and the response to
brown has been seen as a reversal, a decline. The momentum that was being built up
peacefully, Brown represents a challenge to the whole system and so whites double down
on African-American civil rights.
 1957/1960 two civil rights act (most important in 1957). 1957 focuses on voting rights and
the administration of voting. That is the first piece passed since 1985 and the man who
claims credit for it is Lyndon B Johnson who comes from Texas. What’s really interesting
about this act is that yes it is important but because Lyndon Johnson, a Southerner can
persuade other southerners that they should pass it, but it will be symbolically important.
They can rip the guts out of its enforcement but it demonstrates that the senate will be
prepared to pass some civil rights legislation.
 If you compare this with 1965 act and what that contains in terms of enforcement
provisions.
 Carol Anderson One person no vote description of 57 compared to 65, “thrust the federal
government to protect the rights of African-Americans to vote”
 Voting Rights act of 1965 does is that it creates a superviserly role for the federal
government and now requires state legistators to adhere to national standardsand
introduces enforcement standards. Where the number of African-Americans registers to
vote is quite clearly out of sync with the numbers that are able, then it has the ability to
replace state with federal and can take over the role of reglistering.
 No state wants this to happen and so it would compel them to allow some African-
americans to register to vote.
 In states like alabama, Mississippi and Georgia and compare 1964 to 1966 there is a huge
leap.
 To get that closure motion, the leader of the Democrats in the Senate, and the leader of the
Republican minority decided that he would vote with the Northern Democrats. “No army
can defeat an idea whose time has come.”
 Key is that not so much that there is enough votes to override, and this allows them to bring
this motion in that forces change and it has teeth. 1964 Civil Rights act was being enforced
by politicians, beaurocrats etc… who had risen to power under segregation and while there
wss no voting rights act would continue to be elected by white voters. The voting rights act
now changes that, once they have the right to vote, the policemen who want to get re-
elected as a sherrif locally need to be more proactive in getting votes from African-
Americans. They can vote locally and bring pressure to bear.
 Once African-Americans are voting in politicians, they might start to elect African-american
politicians, which will create body of black caucus, made up of afircan-american senators nd
congressmen and they woll become advocate sof change and defenders o fexitsting change.
 Federal African American judges and to posts in the justice department and so cases hear
pursued and investigated will be more senstivtie to those issues that preoccupy African-
Americans. Thurgood Marshall on the Supreme Court.
 Can compare it before and look at how it was enforced and the result of greater African-
american participation on a local and national evel and how that contributes to the further
development of African-american civil rights.
 Just one theme explored. Has the voting rights act been withdrawn? Has to be voted on
every 4 or 5 years and a perception that it continues to be needed. It remains in place by
1992 and so the rights protected have not been reversed and this tells it significant that
 whilst there will be backsteps, but there, if America cinsiders itself to be a democracy and
boter participation is a coner stone fo democracy, the fact that the voting rights act
continues to be on tehs tatue book which suggests that yes there might be retreats but that
is not one. When we go further back, and look at the voting rights act.
 This reflects that the 1960s is most important that extends rights that though cut back in
other areas, remained.
 The 1960s are not on their own just important for African-American rights, there are a whole
raft of other groups that see an extension of their rights, there are also gay, female African
americans and so passing right for African-americans would mean ess in there were not for
women and so you are engabcng the rights for african-american women.
 The whole concept of rights is extended, not the new deal but war on poverty, medicare,
“the great society legislation” lydon johnson, extend opportunity to all, through that African-
american rights are also going to rise like a boat in the harbour will risea and because he
federal govenrmnet is intervening to protect poor, amongst whom frican americans are
disproportionately affected, and so will benefit. The real driver is that the federal
governmegt does this and creates federal agencies to deliver these changes in a scope that
was not limited to these changes.
 May be a case that these don’t survive neo-conservatism of regan and federal gov will
reduce support for these economic and coail rpgramems and in that sense African-
americans will see thei rights diminished but overall their rights have been expanded.
 African-american employment, new jobs, middle class, how many unemployed, how many
university degree how many employed in professional walks of life. Think about these
concrete measures of change such that it isn’t just nominal but has been achieved.