Mr. P. M. More. (M.C.A.,M.Phil., SET,M.B.A., Ph.

D(Pursuing)
Assistant Professor
Karmaveer Bhaurao Patil College, Urun Islampur

UNIT I
Introduction to R

Installing R on Windows OS:-

To install R on Windows OS:

1. Go to the CRAN website.

2. Click on "Download R for Windows".

3. Click on "install R for the first time" link to download the R executable (.exe) file.

4. Run the R executable file to start installation, and allow the app to make changes to your
device.

5. Select the installation language.

6. Follow the installation instructions.

7. Click on "Finish" to exit the installation setup.

 Mr. P. M. More. (M.C.A.,M.Phil., SET,M.B.A., Ph.D(Pursuing)
Assistant Professor
Karmaveer Bhaurao Patil College, Urun Islampur

R has now been successfully installed on your Windows OS. Open the R GUI to start writing R
codes.

Installing RStudio Desktop:-

To install RStudio Desktop on your computer, do the following:

1. Go to the RStudio website.

2. Click on "DOWNLOAD" in the top-right corner.
3. Click on "DOWNLOAD" under the "RStudio Open Source License".
4. Download RStudio Desktop recommended for your computer.
5. Run the RStudio Executable file (.exe) for Windows OS or the Apple Image Disk file
(.dmg) for macOS X.
 Mr. P. M. More. (M.C.A.,M.Phil., SET,M.B.A., Ph.D(Pursuing)
Assistant Professor
Karmaveer Bhaurao Patil College, Urun Islampur

RStudio is now successfully installed on your computer. The RStudio Desktop IDE interface is
shown in the figure below:

Features of R Programming Language: -

 Mr. P. M. More. (M.C.A.,M.Phil., SET,M.B.A., Ph.D(Pursuing)
Assistant Professor
Karmaveer Bhaurao Patil College, Urun Islampur

 R Packages: One of the major features of R is it has a wide availability of libraries.

R has CRAN(Comprehensive R Archive Network), which is a repository holding
more than 10, 0000 packages.
 Distributed Computing: Distributed computing is a model in which components of
a software system are shared among multiple computers to improve efficiency and
performance. Two new packages ddR and multidplyr used for distributed
programming in R were released in November 2015.

Statistical Features of R:-

 Basic Statistics: The most common basic statistics terms are the mean, mode, and
median. These are all known as “Measures of Central Tendency.” So using the R
language we can measure central tendency very easily.
 Static graphics: R is rich with facilities for creating and developing interesting
static graphics. R contains functionality for many plot types including graphic
maps, mosaic plots, biplots, and the list goes on.
 Probability distributions: Probability distributions play a vital role in statistics and
by using R we can easily handle various types of probability distributions such as
Binomial Distribution, Normal Distribution, Chi-squared Distribution, and many
more.
 Data analysis: It provides a large, coherent, and integrated collection of tools for
data analysis.

R - Variables

A variable provides us with named storage that our programs can manipulate. A variable in R
can store an atomic vector, group of atomic vectors or a combination of many Robjects. A valid
variable name consists of letters, numbers and the dot or underline characters. The variable name
starts with a letter or the dot not followed by a number.

Variable Name Validity Reason

var_name2. valid Has letters, numbers, dot and underscore

var_name% Invalid Has the character '%'. Only dot(.) and underscore allowed.

2var_name invalid Starts with a number

.var_name, Can start with a dot(.) but the dot(.)should not be followed by a
valid
var.name number.

.2var_name invalid The starting dot is followed by a number making it invalid.

_var_name invalid Starts with _ which is not valid

 Mr. P. M. More. (M.C.A.,M.Phil., SET,M.B.A., Ph.D(Pursuing)
Assistant Professor
Karmaveer Bhaurao Patil College, Urun Islampur

Variable Assignment

The variables can be assigned values using leftward, rightward and equal to operator. The values
of the variables can be printed using print() or cat() function. The cat() function combines
multiple items into a continuous print output.

Live Demo
# Assignment using equal operator.
var.1 = c(0,1,2,3)

# Assignment using leftward operator.

var.2 <- c("learn","R")

# Assignment using rightward operator.

c(TRUE,1) -> var.3

print(var.1)
cat ("var.1 is ", var.1 ,"\n")
cat ("var.2 is ", var.2 ,"\n")
cat ("var.3 is ", var.3 ,"\n")

When we execute the above code, it produces the following result −

[1] 0 1 2 3
var.1 is 0 1 2 3
var.2 is learn R
var.3 is 1 1

Constants in R: -

Constants are those entities whose values aren't meant to be changed anywhere throughout the
code. In R, we can declare constants using the <- symbol. For example,

x <- "Welcome to Programiz!"

print(x)

Output
 Mr. P. M. More. (M.C.A.,M.Phil., SET,M.B.A., Ph.D(Pursuing)
Assistant Professor
Karmaveer Bhaurao Patil College, Urun Islampur

[1] "Welcome to Programiz!"

Here, "Welcome to Programiz!" is a string constant.

Note:- Constants are also known as scalars.

Types of R Constants:-

In R, we have the following types of constants.

 The five types of R constants - numeric, integer, complex, logical, string.

 In addition to these, there are 4 specific types of R constants - Null, NA, Inf, NaN.

1) Integer Constants:-

Integer constants are the integer values we use in our code. These constants end with the letter L.
For example,

x <- 15L
print(typeof(x))
print(class(x))

Output:

[1] "integer"
[1] "integer"

Here, 15L is a constant which has been assigned to x. You can see that the type and class of the
constant is integer.
 Mr. P. M. More. (M.C.A.,M.Phil., SET,M.B.A., Ph.D(Pursuing)
Assistant Professor
Karmaveer Bhaurao Patil College, Urun Islampur

2. Numeric Constants:-

In R programming, numeric constants can be integers (4), floating-point numbers (0.55), or

exponential numbers (3e-3). For example,

z <- 3e-3

print(z) # 0.003
print(class(z)) # "numeric"

y <- 3.4

print(y) # 3.4
print(class(z)) # "numeric"

Output:

[1] 0.003
[1] "numeric"
[1] 3.4
[1] "numeric"

3. Logical Constants:-

Logical constants in R are either TRUE or FALSE. For example,

x <- TRUE
y <- FALSE
print(x)
print(y)

Output:-

[1] TRUE
[1] FALSE
 Mr. P. M. More. (M.C.A.,M.Phil., SET,M.B.A., Ph.D(Pursuing)
Assistant Professor
Karmaveer Bhaurao Patil College, Urun Islampur

4. String Constants:-

String constants are the string data we use in our code. For example,

message <- "Welcome to Programiz!!"

print(message)

Output:

[1] "Welcome to Programiz!!"

5. Complex Constants:-

A complex constant is data that contains a real and an imaginary part (denoted by the suffix i).
For example,

y <- 3.2e-1i
print(y)
print(typeof(y))

Output:

[1] 0+0.32i
[1] "complex"

Special R Constants:-

R programming also provides 4 special types of constants.

a) NULL - to declare an empty R object. For example,

b) x <- NULL
c) print(x) # NULL
 Mr. P. M. More. (M.C.A.,M.Phil., SET,M.B.A., Ph.D(Pursuing)
Assistant Professor
Karmaveer Bhaurao Patil College, Urun Islampur

print(typeof(x)) # "NULL"

b) Inf/-Inf - represents positive and negative infinity. For example,

a <- 2^2020

print(a) # Inf

# result is too big

# represents negative infinity
b <- -2^2020

print(b) # -Inf

d) NaN (Not a Number) - represents undefined numerical value. For example,

e) print(0/0) # NaN

print(Inf/Inf) # NaN

f) NA - represents value which is not available. For example,

print(NA + 20) # NA

R - Data Types

Generally, while doing programming in any programming language, you need to use various
variables to store various information. Variables are nothing but reserved memory locations to
store values. This means that, when you create a variable, you reserve some space in memory.
 Mr. P. M. More. (M.C.A.,M.Phil., SET,M.B.A., Ph.D(Pursuing)
Assistant Professor
Karmaveer Bhaurao Patil College, Urun Islampur

You may like to store information of various data types like character, wide character, integer,
floating point, double floating point, Boolean etc. Based on the data type of a variable, the
operating system allocates memory and decides what can be stored in the reserved memory.

In contrast to other programming languages like C and java in R, the variables are not declared
as some data type. The variables are assigned with R-Objects and the data type of the R-object
becomes the data type of the variable. There are many types of R-objects. The frequently used
ones are −

 Vectors
 Lists
 Matrices
 Arrays
 Factors
 Data Frames

The simplest of these objects is the vector object and there are six data types of these atomic
vectors, also termed as six classes of vectors. The other R-Objects are built upon the atomic
vectors.

Data Type Example Verify

Live Demo
v <- TRUE
Logical TRUE, FALSE print(class(v))
it produces the following result −
[1] "logical"

Live Demo
v <- 23.5
Numeric 12.3, 5, 999 print(class(v))
it produces the following result −
[1] "numeric"

Live Demo
v <- 2L
Integer 2L, 34L, 0L print(class(v))
it produces the following result −
[1] "integer"
 Mr. P. M. More. (M.C.A.,M.Phil., SET,M.B.A., Ph.D(Pursuing)
Assistant Professor
Karmaveer Bhaurao Patil College, Urun Islampur

Live Demo
v <- 2+5i
Complex 3 + 2i print(class(v))
it produces the following result −
[1] "complex"

Live Demo
v <- "TRUE"
Character 'a' , '"good", "TRUE", '23.4' print(class(v))
it produces the following result −
[1] "character"

Live Demo
v <- charToRaw("Hello")
Raw "Hello" is stored as 48 65 6c 6c 6f print(class(v))
it produces the following result −
[1] "raw"

In R programming, the very basic data types are the R-objects called vectors which hold
elements of different classes as shown above. Please note in R the number of classes is not
confined to only the above six types. For example, we can use many atomic vectors and create an
array whose class will become array.

Vectors

When you want to create vector with more than one element, you should use c() function which
means to combine the elements into a vector.

Live Demo
# Create a vector.
apple <- c('red','green',"yellow")
print(apple)

# Get the class of the vector.

print(class(apple))

When we execute the above code, it produces the following result −

[1] "red" "green" "yellow"

[1] "character"
 Mr. P. M. More. (M.C.A.,M.Phil., SET,M.B.A., Ph.D(Pursuing)
Assistant Professor
Karmaveer Bhaurao Patil College, Urun Islampur

Lists

A list is an R-object which can contain many different types of elements inside it like vectors,
functions and even another list inside it.

Live Demo
# Create a list.
list1 <- list(c(2,5,3),21.3,sin)

# Print the list.

print(list1)

When we execute the above code, it produces the following result −

[[1]]
[1] 2 5 3

[[2]]
[1] 21.3

[[3]]
function (x) .Primitive("sin")

Matrices

A matrix is a two-dimensional rectangular data set. It can be created using a vector input to the
matrix function.

Live Demo
# Create a matrix.
M = matrix( c('a','a','b','c','b','a'), nrow = 2, ncol = 3, byrow = TRUE)
print(M)

When we execute the above code, it produces the following result −

[,1] [,2] [,3]

[1,] "a" "a" "b"
[2,] "c" "b" "a"

Arrays
 Mr. P. M. More. (M.C.A.,M.Phil., SET,M.B.A., Ph.D(Pursuing)
Assistant Professor
Karmaveer Bhaurao Patil College, Urun Islampur

While matrices are confined to two dimensions, arrays can be of any number of dimensions. The
array function takes a dim attribute which creates the required number of dimension. In the
below example we create an array with two elements which are 3x3 matrices each.

Live Demo
# Create an array.
a <- array(c('green','yellow'),dim = c(3,3,2))
print(a)

When we execute the above code, it produces the following result −

,,1

[,1] [,2] [,3]

[1,] "green" "yellow" "green"
[2,] "yellow" "green" "yellow"
[3,] "green" "yellow" "green"

,,2

[,1] [,2] [,3]

[1,] "yellow" "green" "yellow"
[2,] "green" "yellow" "green"
[3,] "yellow" "green" "yellow"

Factors

Factors are the r-objects which are created using a vector. It stores the vector along with the
distinct values of the elements in the vector as labels. The labels are always character irrespective
of whether it is numeric or character or Boolean etc. in the input vector. They are useful in
statistical modeling.

Factors are created using the factor() function. The nlevels functions gives the count of levels.

Live Demo
# Create a vector.
apple_colors <- c('green','green','yellow','red','red','red','green')

# Create a factor object.

 Mr. P. M. More. (M.C.A.,M.Phil., SET,M.B.A., Ph.D(Pursuing)
Assistant Professor
Karmaveer Bhaurao Patil College, Urun Islampur

factor_apple <- factor(apple_colors)

# Print the factor.

print(factor_apple)
print(nlevels(factor_apple))

When we execute the above code, it produces the following result −

[1] green green yellow red red red green

Levels: green red yellow
[1] 3

Data Frames

Data frames are tabular data objects. Unlike a matrix in data frame each column can contain
different modes of data. The first column can be numeric while the second column can be
character and third column can be logical. It is a list of vectors of equal length.

Data Frames are created using the data.frame() function.

Live Demo
# Create the data frame.
BMI <- data.frame(
gender = c("Male", "Male","Female"),
height = c(152, 171.5, 165),
weight = c(81,93, 78),
Age = c(42,38,26)
)
print(BMI)

When we execute the above code, it produces the following result −

gender height weight Age

1 Male 152.0 81 42
2 Male 171.5 93 38
3 Female 165.0 78 26
R - Operators

An operator is a symbol that tells the compiler to perform specific mathematical or logical
manipulations. R language is rich in built-in operators and provides following types of operators.
 Mr. P. M. More. (M.C.A.,M.Phil., SET,M.B.A., Ph.D(Pursuing)
Assistant Professor
Karmaveer Bhaurao Patil College, Urun Islampur

Types of Operators

We have the following types of operators in R programming −

 Arithmetic Operators
 Relational Operators
 Logical Operators
 Assignment Operators
 Miscellaneous Operators

Arithmetic Operators

Following table shows the arithmetic operators supported by R language. The operators act on
each element of the vector.

Operator Description Example

Live Demo
v <- c( 2,5.5,6)
t <- c(8, 3, 4)
+ Adds two vectors print(v+t)
it produces the following result −
[1] 10.0 8.5 10.0

Live Demo
v <- c( 2,5.5,6)
Subtracts second vector from t <- c(8, 3, 4)
− print(v-t)
the first
it produces the following result −
[1] -6.0 2.5 2.0

Live Demo
v <- c( 2,5.5,6)
t <- c(8, 3, 4)
* Multiplies both vectors print(v*t)
it produces the following result −
[1] 16.0 16.5 24.0

Live Demo
Divide the first vector with the
/ v <- c( 2,5.5,6)
second
t <- c(8, 3, 4)
 Mr. P. M. More. (M.C.A.,M.Phil., SET,M.B.A., Ph.D(Pursuing)
Assistant Professor
Karmaveer Bhaurao Patil College, Urun Islampur

print(v/t)
When we execute the above code, it produces the
following result −
[1] 0.250000 1.833333 1.500000

Live Demo
v <- c( 2,5.5,6)
Give the remainder of the first t <- c(8, 3, 4)
%% print(v%%t)
vector with the second
it produces the following result −
[1] 2.0 2.5 2.0

Live Demo
v <- c( 2,5.5,6)
The result of division of first t <- c(8, 3, 4)
%/% print(v%/%t)
vector with second (quotient)
it produces the following result −
[1] 0 1 1

Live Demo
v <- c( 2,5.5,6)
The first vector raised to the t <- c(8, 3, 4)
^ print(v^t)
exponent of second vector
it produces the following result −
[1] 256.000 166.375 1296.000

Relational Operators

Following table shows the relational operators supported by R language. Each element of the
first vector is compared with the corresponding element of the second vector. The result of
comparison is a Boolean value.

Operator Description Example

Live Demo
Checks if each element of the first vector v <- c(2,5.5,6,9)
> is greater than the corresponding element t <- c(8,2.5,14,9)
of the second vector. print(v>t)
it produces the following result −
 Mr. P. M. More. (M.C.A.,M.Phil., SET,M.B.A., Ph.D(Pursuing)
Assistant Professor
Karmaveer Bhaurao Patil College, Urun Islampur

[1] FALSE TRUE FALSE FALSE

Live Demo
v <- c(2,5.5,6,9)
Checks if each element of the first vector t <- c(8,2.5,14,9)
< is less than the corresponding element of print(v < t)
the second vector.
it produces the following result −
[1] TRUE FALSE TRUE FALSE

Live Demo
v <- c(2,5.5,6,9)
Checks if each element of the first vector t <- c(8,2.5,14,9)
== is equal to the corresponding element of print(v == t)
the second vector.
it produces the following result −
[1] FALSE FALSE FALSE TRUE

Live Demo
v <- c(2,5.5,6,9)
Checks if each element of the first vector t <- c(8,2.5,14,9)
<= is less than or equal to the corresponding print(v<=t)
element of the second vector.
it produces the following result −
[1] TRUE FALSE TRUE TRUE

Live Demo
Checks if each element of the first vector v <- c(2,5.5,6,9)
is greater than or equal to the t <- c(8,2.5,14,9)
>= print(v>=t)
corresponding element of the second
vector. it produces the following result −
[1] FALSE TRUE FALSE TRUE

Live Demo
v <- c(2,5.5,6,9)
Checks if each element of the first vector t <- c(8,2.5,14,9)
!= is unequal to the corresponding element print(v!=t)
of the second vector.
it produces the following result −
[1] TRUE TRUE TRUE FALSE

Logical Operators
 Mr. P. M. More. (M.C.A.,M.Phil., SET,M.B.A., Ph.D(Pursuing)
Assistant Professor
Karmaveer Bhaurao Patil College, Urun Islampur

Following table shows the logical operators supported by R language. It is applicable only to
vectors of type logical, numeric or complex. All numbers greater than 1 are considered as logical
value TRUE.

Each element of the first vector is compared with the corresponding element of the second
vector. The result of comparison is a Boolean value.

Operator Description Example

Live Demo
It is called Element-wise Logical AND operator. v <- c(3,1,TRUE,2+3i)
It combines each element of the first vector with t <- c(4,1,FALSE,2+3i)
& the corresponding element of the second vector print(v&t)
and gives a output TRUE if both the elements are
it produces the following result −
TRUE.
[1] TRUE TRUE FALSE TRUE

Live Demo
It is called Element-wise Logical OR operator. It v <- c(3,0,TRUE,2+2i)
combines each element of the first vector with the t <- c(4,0,FALSE,2+3i)
| corresponding element of the second vector and print(v|t)
gives a output TRUE if one the elements is
it produces the following result −
TRUE.
[1] TRUE FALSE TRUE TRUE

Live Demo
It is called Logical NOT operator. Takes each v <- c(3,0,TRUE,2+2i)
! element of the vector and gives the opposite print(!v)
logical value. it produces the following result −
[1] FALSE TRUE FALSE FALSE

The logical operator && and || considers only the first element of the vectors and give a vector of
single element as output.

Operator Description Exa

Live Demo
v <- c(3,0,TRUE,2+2i)
Called Logical AND operator. Takes first element of both the vectors
&& t <- c(1,3,TRUE,2+3i)
and gives the TRUE only if both are TRUE.
print(v&&t)
it produces the following r
 Mr. P. M. More. (M.C.A.,M.Phil., SET,M.B.A., Ph.D(Pursuing)
Assistant Professor
Karmaveer Bhaurao Patil College, Urun Islampur

[1] TRUE

Live Demo
v <- c(0,0,TRUE,2+2i)
Called Logical OR operator. Takes first element of both the vectors t <- c(0,3,TRUE,2+3i)
|| print(v||t)
and gives the TRUE if one of them is TRUE.
it produces the following r
[1] FALSE

Assignment Operators

These operators are used to assign values to vectors.

Operator Description Example

Live Demo
v1 <- c(3,1,TRUE,2+3i)
v2 <<- c(3,1,TRUE,2+3i)
v3 = c(3,1,TRUE,2+3i)
<−
print(v1)
or
print(v2)
= Called Left Assignment
print(v3)
or
<<− it produces the following result −
[1] 3+0i 1+0i 1+0i 2+3i
[1] 3+0i 1+0i 1+0i 2+3i
[1] 3+0i 1+0i 1+0i 2+3i

Live Demo
c(3,1,TRUE,2+3i) -> v1
c(3,1,TRUE,2+3i) ->> v2
-> print(v1)
or Called Right Assignment print(v2)
->> it produces the following result −
[1] 3+0i 1+0i 1+0i 2+3i
[1] 3+0i 1+0i 1+0i 2+3i

Miscellaneous Operators
 Mr. P. M. More. (M.C.A.,M.Phil., SET,M.B.A., Ph.D(Pursuing)
Assistant Professor
Karmaveer Bhaurao Patil College, Urun Islampur

These operators are used to for specific purpose and not general mathematical or logical
computation.

Operator Description Example

Colon operator. It Live Demo

creates the series of v <- 2:8
: numbers in print(v)
sequence for a it produces the following result −
vector. [1] 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Live Demo
v1 <- 8
v2 <- 12
This operator is t <- 1:10
used to identify if print(v1 %in% t)
%in%
an element belongs print(v2 %in% t)
to a vector. it produces the following result −
[1] TRUE
[1] FALSE

Live Demo
M = matrix( c(2,6,5,1,10,4), nrow = 2,ncol = 3,byrow = TRUE)
t = M %*% t(M)
This operator is
print(t)
used to multiply a
%*% it produces the following result −
matrix with its
transpose. [,1] [,2]
[1,] 65 82
[2,] 82 117

Accepting Input from User in R: -

Developers often have a need to interact with users, either to get data or to provide some sort
of result. Most programs today use a dialog box as a way of asking the user to provide some
type of input. Like other programming languages in R it’s also possible to take input from the
user. For doing so, there are two methods in R.

1) Using readline () method: -

2) Using scan () method: -
 Mr. P. M. More. (M.C.A.,M.Phil., SET,M.B.A., Ph.D(Pursuing)
Assistant Professor
Karmaveer Bhaurao Patil College, Urun Islampur

1) Using readline () method: -

In R language readline() method takes input in string format. If one inputs an integer then it is
inputted as a string, lets say, one wants to input 255, then it will input as “255”, like a string.
So one needs to convert that inputted value to the format that he needs. In this case,
string “255” is converted to integer 255. To convert the inputted value to the desired data type,
there are some functions in R,

as. integer(n); —> convert to integer

as. numeric(n); —> convert to numeric type (float, double etc)
as.complex(n); —> convert to complex number (i.e 3+2i)
as.Date(n) —> convert to date …, etc

Syntax:

var1 = readline(prompt = “Enter any number : “);

or,
var1 = readline(“Enter any number : “);
Example:-

var = readline (prompt = "Enter any number: ");

var = as. integer(var);

print(var)

Output:-

Enter any number: 255

[1] 255

2) Using scan () method: -

Another way to take user input in R language is using a method, called scan() method. This
method takes input from the console. This method is a very handy method while inputs are
needed to taken quickly for any mathematical calculation or for any dataset. This method reads
 Mr. P. M. More. (M.C.A.,M.Phil., SET,M.B.A., Ph.D(Pursuing)
Assistant Professor
Karmaveer Bhaurao Patil College, Urun Islampur

data in the form of a vector or list. This method also uses to reads input from a file also.

Syntax:-
x = scan()
scan() method is taking input continuously, to terminate the input process, need to
press Enter key 2 times on the console.

Example:-
This is simple method to take input using scan() method, where some integer number is taking
as input and print those values in the next line on the console.

x = scan()
print(x)

Output:-

1: 1 2 3 4 5 6
7: 7 8 9 4 5 6
13:
Read 12 items
[1] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 4 5 6
R Built-in Functions:-

The functions which are already created or defined in the programming framework are known as
a built-in function. R has a rich set of functions that can be used to perform almost every task for
the user. These built-in functions are divided into the following categories based on their
functionality.
 Mr. P. M. More. (M.C.A.,M.Phil., SET,M.B.A., Ph.D(Pursuing)
Assistant Professor
Karmaveer Bhaurao Patil College, Urun Islampur

i) Math Functions:-

R provides the various mathematical functions to perform the mathematical calculation. These
mathematical functions are very helpful to find absolute value, square value and much more
calculations. In R, there are the following functions which are used:

S. No Function Description Example

1. abs(x) It returns the absolute value of input x. x<- -4

print(abs(x))
Output: [1] 4

2. sqrt(x) It returns the square root of input x. x<- 4

print(sqrt(x))
Output: [1] 2

3. ceiling(x) It returns the smallest integer which is larger than x<- 4.5
or equal to x. print(ceiling(x))
Output: [1] 5

4. floor(x) It returns the largest integer, which is smaller than x<- 2.5
or equal to x. print(floor(x))
Output: [1] 2

5. trunc(x) It returns the truncate value of input x. x<- c(1.2,2.5,8.1)

print(trunc(x))
Output: [1] 1 2 8

6. round(x, It returns round value of input x. x<- -4

digits=n) print(abs(x))
Output: 4

7. cos(x), It returns cos(x), sin(x) value of input x. x<- 4

sin(x), print(cos(x))
tan(x) print(sin(x))
print(tan(x))
Output:
[1] -06536436
[2] -0.7568025
[3] 1.157821

8. log(x) It returns natural logarithm of input x. x<- 4

print(log(x))
 Mr. P. M. More. (M.C.A.,M.Phil., SET,M.B.A., Ph.D(Pursuing)
Assistant Professor
Karmaveer Bhaurao Patil College, Urun Islampur

Output: [1] 1.386294

9. log10(x) It returns common logarithm of input x. x<- 4

print(log10(x))
Output: [1] 0.60206

10. exp(x) It returns exponent. x<- 4

print(exp(x))
Output: [1] 54.59815

ii) String Function:-

R provides various string functions to perform tasks. These string functions allow us to extract sub
string from string, search pattern etc. There are the following string functions in R:

S. No Function Description Example

1. substr(x, start=n1,stop=n2) It is used to extract a <- "987654321"

substrings in a character substr(a, 3, 3)
vector. Output:[1] "3"

2. grep(pattern, x , It searches for pattern in x. st1<-

ignore.case=FALSE, c('abcd','bdcd','abcdabcd')
fixed=FALSE) pattern<- '^abc'
print(grep(pattern, st1))
Output: [1] 1 3

3. sub(pattern, replacement, x, It finds pattern in x and st1<- "England is beautiful

ignore.case =FALSE, replaces it with replacement but no the part of EU"
fixed=FALSE) (new) text. sub("England', "UK", st1)
Output: [1] "UK is beautiful
but not a part of EU"

4. paste(..., sep="") It concatenates strings after paste('one',2,'three',4,'five')

using sep string to separate Output:[1] one 2 three 4 five
them.
 Mr. P. M. More. (M.C.A.,M.Phil., SET,M.B.A., Ph.D(Pursuing)
Assistant Professor
Karmaveer Bhaurao Patil College, Urun Islampur

5. strsplit(x, split) It splits the elements of a<-"Split all the character"

character vector x at split print(strsplit(a, ""))
point. Output:[[1]]
[1] "split" "all" "the"
"character"

6. tolower(x) It is used to convert the string st1<- "shuBHAm"

into lower case. print(tolower(st1))
Output: [1] shubham

7. toupper(x) It is used to convert the string st1<- "shuBHAm"

into upper case. print(toupper(st1))
Output: [1] SHUBHAM

iii) Statistical Probability Functions:-

R provides various statistical probability functions to perform statistical task. These statistical
functions are very helpful to find normal density, normal quantile and many more calculation. In
R, there are following functions which are used:

S. Function Description Example

No

1. dnorm(x, m=0, sd=1, It is used to find the height of the a <- seq(-7, 7, by=0.1)
log=False) probability distribution at each b <- dnorm(a, mean=2.5, sd=0.5)
point to a given mean and png(file="dnorm.png")
standard deviation plot(x,y)
dev.off()

2. pnorm(q, m=0, sd=1, it is used to find the probability a <- seq(-7, 7, by=0.2)
lower.tail=TRUE, of a normally distributed random b <- dnorm(a, mean=2.5, sd=2)
log.p=FALSE) numbers which are less than the png(file="pnorm.png")
value of a given number. plot(x,y)
dev.off()

3. qnorm(p, m=0, sd=1) It is used to find a number whose a <- seq(1, 2, by=002)
cumulative value matches with b <- qnorm(a, mean=2.5, sd=0.5)
the probability value. png(file="qnorm.png")
plot(x,y)
 Mr. P. M. More. (M.C.A.,M.Phil., SET,M.B.A., Ph.D(Pursuing)
Assistant Professor
Karmaveer Bhaurao Patil College, Urun Islampur

dev.off()

4. rnorm(n, m=0, sd=1) It is used to generate random y <- rnorm(40)

numbers whose distribution is png(file="rnorm.png")
normal. hist(y, main="Normal
Distribution")
dev.off()

5. dbinom(x, size, prob) It is used to find the probability a<-seq(0, 40, by=1)
density distribution at each b<- dbinom(a, 40, 0.5)
point. png(file="pnorm.png")
plot(x,y)
dev.off()

6. pbinom(q, size, prob) It is used to find the cumulative a <- pbinom(25, 40,0.5)
probability (a single value print(a)
representing the probability) of Output
an event. [1] 0.9596548

7. qbinom(p, size, prob) It is used to find a number whose a <- qbinom(0.25, 40,01/2)
cumulative value matches the print(a)
probability value. Output
[1] 18

8. rbinom(n, size, prob) It is used to generate required a <- rbinom(6, 140,0.4)

number of random values of a print(a)
given probability from a given Output
sample. [1] 55 61 46 56 58 49

9. dpois(x, lamba) it is the probability of x dpois(a=2,

successes in a period when the lambda=3)+dpois(a=3,
expected number of events is lambda=3)+dpois(z=4, labda=4)
lambda (λ) Output
[1] 0.616115

10. ppois(q, lamba) It is a cumulative probability of ppois(q=4, lambda=3,

less than or equal to q successes. lower.tail=TRUE)-ppois(q=1,
lambda=3, lower.tail=TRUE)
Output
[1] 0.6434504
 Mr. P. M. More. (M.C.A.,M.Phil., SET,M.B.A., Ph.D(Pursuing)
Assistant Professor
Karmaveer Bhaurao Patil College, Urun Islampur

11. rpois(n, lamba) It is used to generate random rpois(10, 10)

numbers from the poisson [1] 6 10 11 3 10 7 7 8 14 12
distribution.

12. dunif(x, min=0, max=1) This function provide dunif(x, min=0, max=1,
information about the uniform log=FALSE)
distribution on the interval from
min to max. It gives the density.

13. punif(q, min=0, max=1) It gives the distributed function punif(q, min=0, max=1,
lower.tail=TRUE,
log.p=FALSE)

14. qunif(p, min=0, max=1) It gives the quantile function. qunif(p, min=0, max=1,
lower.tail=TRUE,
log.p=FALSE)

15. runif(x, min=0, max=1) It generates random deviates. runif(x, min=0, max=1)

iv) Other Statistical Function: -

Apart from the functions mentioned above, there are some other useful functions which helps for
statistical purpose. There are the following functions:

S. No Function Description Example

1. mean(x, trim=0, It is used to find the mean for x object a<-c(0:10, 40)
na.rm=FALSE) xm<-mean(a)
print(xm)
Output:[1] 7.916667

2. sd(x) It returns standard deviation of an object. a<-c(0:10, 40)

xm<-sd(a)
print(xm)
Output:[1] 10.58694
 Mr. P. M. More. (M.C.A.,M.Phil., SET,M.B.A., Ph.D(Pursuing)
Assistant Professor
Karmaveer Bhaurao Patil College, Urun Islampur

3. median(x) It returns median. a<-c(0:10, 40)

xm<-meadian(a)
print(xm)
Output: [1] 5.5

4. quantilie(x, probs) It returns quantile where x is the numeric

vector whose quantiles are desired and probs
is a numeric vector with probabilities in [0, 1]

5. range(x) It returns range. a<-c(0:10, 40)

xm<-range(a)
print(xm)
Output:[1] 0 40

6. sum(x) It returns sum. a<-c(0:10, 40)

xm<-sum(a)
print(xm)
Output: [1] 95

7. diff(x, lag=1) It returns differences with lag indicating a<-c(0:10, 40)

which lag to use. xm<-diff(a)
print(xm)
Output:
[1] 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 30

8. min(x) It returns minimum value. a<-c(0:10, 40)

xm<-min(a)
print(xm)
Output: [1] 0

9. max(x) It returns maximum value a<-c(0:10, 40)

xm<-max(a)
print(xm)
Output: [1] 40
 Mr. P. M. More. (M.C.A.,M.Phil., SET,M.B.A., Ph.D(Pursuing)
Assistant Professor
Karmaveer Bhaurao Patil College, Urun Islampur

10. scale(x, Column center or standardize a matrix. a <- matrix(1:9,3,3)

center=TRUE, scale(x)
scale=TRUE) Output:
[,1]
[1,] -0.747776547
[2,] -0.653320562
[3,] -0.558864577
[4,] -0.464408592
[5,] -0.369952608
[6,] -0.275496623
[7,] -0.181040638
[8,] -0.086584653
[9,] 0.007871332
[10,] 0.102327317
[11,] 0.196783302
[12,] 3.030462849
attr(,"scaled:center")
[1] 7.916667
attr(,"scaled:scale")
[1] 10.58694

Vectors: -

A vector is simply a list of items that are of the same type.

To combine the list of items to a vector, use the c() function and separate the items by a comma.

In the example below, we create a vector variable called fruits, that combine strings:

Example 1)
# Vector of strings
fruits <- c("banana", "apple", "orange")

# Print fruits
fruits
Output: -
[1] "banana" "apple" "orange"
 Mr. P. M. More. (M.C.A.,M.Phil., SET,M.B.A., Ph.D(Pursuing)
Assistant Professor
Karmaveer Bhaurao Patil College, Urun Islampur

Example 2)
# Vector of numerical values
numbers <- c(1, 2, 3)

# Print numbers
numbers
Output: -
[1] 1 2 3

Accessing elements of vectors:-

We can access the elements of a vector with the help of vector indexing. Indexing denotes the
position where the value in a vector is stored. Indexing will be performed with the help of integer,
character, or logic.

1) Indexing with integer vector:-

On integer vector, indexing is performed in the same way as we have applied in C, C++, and java.
There is only one difference, i.e., in C, C++, and java the indexing starts from 0, but in R, the
indexing starts from 1. Like other programming languages, we perform indexing by specifying an
integer value in square braces [] next to our vector.

Example:-

1. seq_vec<-seq(1,4,length.out=6)
2. seq_vec
3. seq_vec[2]
 Mr. P. M. More. (M.C.A.,M.Phil., SET,M.B.A., Ph.D(Pursuing)
Assistant Professor
Karmaveer Bhaurao Patil College, Urun Islampur

Output:-

[1] 1.0 1.6 2.2 2.8 3.4 4.0

[1] 1.6
2) Indexing with a character vector:-

In character vector indexing, we assign a unique key to each element of the vector. These keys are
uniquely defined as each element and can be accessed very easily. Let's see an example to
understand how it is performed.

Example:-

1. char_vec<-c("shubham"=22,"arpita"=23,"vaishali"=25)
2. char_vec
3. char_vec["arpita"]

Output:-

shubham arpita vaishali

22 23 25
arpita
23
3) Indexing with a logical vector:-

In logical indexing, it returns the values of those positions whose corresponding position has a
logical vector TRUE. Let see an example to understand how it is performed on vectors.

Example:-

1. a<-c(1,2,3,4,5,6)
2. a[c(TRUE,FALSE,TRUE,TRUE,FALSE,TRUE)]

Output:-

[1] 1 3 4 6
 Mr. P. M. More. (M.C.A.,M.Phil., SET,M.B.A., Ph.D(Pursuing)
Assistant Professor
Karmaveer Bhaurao Patil College, Urun Islampur

Vector Operations:-

In R, there are various operation which is performed on the vector. We can add, subtract, multiply
or divide two or more vectors from each other. In data science, R plays an important role, and
operations are required for data manipulation. There are the following types of operation which
are performed on the vector.

1) Combining vectors:-

The c() function is not only used to create a vector, but also it is also used to combine two vectors.
By combining one or more vectors, it forms a new vector which contains all the elements of each
vector. Let see an example to see how c() function combines the vectors.

Example:-

1. p<-c(1,2,4,5,7,8)
2. q<-c("shubham","arpita","nishka","gunjan","vaishali","sumit")
3. r<-c(p,q)

Output

[1] "1" "2" "4" "5" "7" "8"

[7] "shubham" "arpita" "nishka" "gunjan" "vaishali" "sumit"
 Mr. P. M. More. (M.C.A.,M.Phil., SET,M.B.A., Ph.D(Pursuing)
Assistant Professor
Karmaveer Bhaurao Patil College, Urun Islampur

2) Arithmetic operations:-

We can perform all the arithmetic operation on vectors. The arithmetic operations are performed
member-by-member on vectors. We can add, subtract, multiply, or divide two vectors. Let see an
example to understand how arithmetic operations are performed on vectors.

Example:-

1. a<-c(1,3,5,7)
2. b<-c(2,4,6,8)
3. a+b
4. a-b
5. a/b
6. a%%b

Output:-

[1] 3 7 11 15
[1] -1 -1 -1 -1
[1] 2 12 30 56
[1] 0.5000000 0.7500000 0.8333333 0.8750000
[1] 1 3 5 7
3) Logical Index vector:-

With the help of the logical index vector in R, we can form a new vector from a given vector. This
vector has the same length as the original vector. The vector members are TRUE only when the
corresponding members of the original vector are included in the slice; otherwise, it will be false.
Let see an example to understand how a new vector is formed with the help of logical index vector.

Example:

1. a<-c("Shubham","Arpita","Nishka","Vaishali","Sumit","Gunjan")
2. b<-c(TRUE,FALSE,TRUE,TRUE,FALSE,FALSE)
3. a[b]

Output:

[1] "Shubham" "Nishka" "Vaishali"

 Mr. P. M. More. (M.C.A.,M.Phil., SET,M.B.A., Ph.D(Pursuing)
Assistant Professor
Karmaveer Bhaurao Patil College, Urun Islampur

4) Numeric Index:-

In R, we specify the index between square braces [ ] for indexing a numerical value. If our index
is negative, it will return us all the values except for the index which we have specified. For
example, specifying [-3] will prompt R to convert -3 into its absolute value and then search for the
value which occupies that index.

Example:

1. q<-c("shubham","arpita","nishka","gunjan","vaishali","sumit")
2. q[2]
3. q[-4]
4. q[15]

Output:

[1] "arpita"
[1] "shubham" "arpita" "nishka" "vaishali" "sumit"
[1] NA
5) Duplicate Index:-

An index vector allows duplicate values which means we can access one element twice in one
operation. Let see an example to understand how duplicate index works.

Example:

1. q<-c("shubham","arpita","nishka","gunjan","vaishali","sumit")
2. q[c(2,4,4,3)]

Output:

[1] "arpita" "gunjan" "gunjan" "nishka"

6) Range Indexes:-

Range index is used to slice our vector to form a new vector. For slicing, we used colon(:) operator.
Range indexes are very helpful for the situation involving a large operator. Let see an example to
understand how slicing is done with the help of the colon operator to form a new vector.

Example:

1. q<-c("shubham","arpita","nishka","gunjan","vaishali","sumit")
 Mr. P. M. More. (M.C.A.,M.Phil., SET,M.B.A., Ph.D(Pursuing)
Assistant Professor
Karmaveer Bhaurao Patil College, Urun Islampur

2. b<-q[2:5]
3. b

Output:

[1] "arpita" "nishka" "gunjan" "vaishali"

7) Out-of-order Indexes:-

In R, the index vector can be out-of-order. Below is an example in which a vector slice with the
order of first and second values reversed.

Example:

1. q<-c("shubham","arpita","nishka","gunjan","vaishali","sumit")b<-q[2:5]
2. q[c(2,1,3,4,5,6)]

Output:

[1] "arpita" "shubham" "nishka" "gunjan" "vaishali" "sumit"

8) Named vectors members:-

We first create our vector of characters as:

1. z=c("TensorFlow","PyTorch")
2. z

Output:-

[1] "TensorFlow" "PyTorch"

Vector Arithmetic: -

1) Addition:-
Addition operator takes two vectors as operands, and returns the result of sum of two vectors.
a+b
 Mr. P. M. More. (M.C.A.,M.Phil., SET,M.B.A., Ph.D(Pursuing)
Assistant Professor
Karmaveer Bhaurao Patil College, Urun Islampur

Example: -
In the following program, we create two integer vectors and add them using Addition Operator.
Example: -
a <- c(10, 20, 30, 40, 50)
b <- c(1, 3, 5, 7, 9)
result <- a + b
print(result)

Output: -
[1] 11 23 35 47 59

2) Subtraction:-
Subtraction operator takes two vectors as operands, and returns the result of difference of two
vectors.
a-b

Example:-

a <- c(10, 20, 30, 40, 50)

b <- c(1, 3, 5, 7, 9)
result <- a - b
print(result)

Output:-
[1] 9 17 25 33 41

3) Multiplication: -
Multiplication operator takes two vectors as operands, and returns the result of product of two
vectors.
a*b

Example: -
a <- c(10, 20, 30, 40, 50)
b <- c(1, 3, 5, 7, 9)
result <- a * b
 Mr. P. M. More. (M.C.A.,M.Phil., SET,M.B.A., Ph.D(Pursuing)
Assistant Professor
Karmaveer Bhaurao Patil College, Urun Islampur

print(result)

Output:-
[1] 10 60 150 280 450

4) Division:-
Division operator takes two vectors are operands, and returns the result of division of two
vectors.
a+b

Example: -
In the following program, we create two integer vectors and divide them using Division
Operator.
Example:-
a <- c(10, 20, 30, 40, 50)
b <- c(1, 3, 5, 7, 9)
result <- a / b
print(result)

Output:
[1] 10.000000 6.666667 6.000000 5.714286 5.555556