Lagata, Rhealyn Gupit

BEED 2D

Educational Definition/Philosophers Implication/Application

Philosophies

Perennialism •One should teach the things that one deems This philosophy promulgates teacher as

to be of everlasting importance to all people a manager in attaining pleasant and

everywhere. Believe that the most important positive classroom atmosphere where

topics develop a person. Since detailis of fact they solely manipulate the teaching-

change constantly, these cannot be the most learning process by integrating and

important. Therefore, one should teach preserving the tradition of culture, in

principles, not facts. Since people are human, which it is defined as the set of learned

one should teach first about humans, not behaviors, beliefs, attitudes, values that

machines or techniques. Since people are are characteristics of a particular society

people first, and workers second if at all, one or population (Ember, 1999).

should teach liberal topics first, not vocational

Even though the learners are cosidered
topics. The focus is primarily on teaching
to be the first customers of the teaching-
reasoning and wisdom rather than facts, the
learning process but the teachers do not
liberal arts rather than vocational training.
let their experiences and interests to

•The most conservative, traditional, or dictate what they teach for they apply

inflexible of the five philosophies is their own or perceived strategies which

perennialism, a philosophy drawing heavily is believed to be true as a way of feeding

from classical definitions of education. and disciplining the learners’ minds.

Perennialists believe that education, like

In fact, this philosophy contradicts to the
human nature, is a constant. Because the
dynamics of teaching where continuous
distinguishing characteristic of humans is the
interaction is being deprived since the
ability to reason, education should focus on
teachers dominated the process of
developing rationality. Education, for the
information transmission and
perennialist, is a preparation for life, and
formulation of ideas.
students should be taught the world's

permanencies through structured study.

For the perennialist, reality is a world of

reason. Such truths are revealed to us through

study and sometimes through divine acts.

Goodness is to be found in rationality itself.

Perennialists would favor a curriculum of

subjects and doctrine, taught through highly

disciplined drill and behavior control. Schools

for the perennialist exist primarily to reveal

reason by teaching eternal truths. The teacher

interprets and tells. The student is a passive

recipient. Because truth is eternal, all change

in the immediate school environment is largely

superficial.

Secular perennialism

•Suggests something that lasts an indefinitely

long time, recurs again and again, or is self-

renewing. As promoted primarily by Robert

Hutchins and Mortimer Adler, a universal

curriculum based upon the common and

essential nature of all human beings is

recommended.

•Comprises the humanist and scientific

traditions.

•Espouse the idea that education should focus

on the historical development of a continually

developing common base of human

knowledge and art, the timeless value of

classic thought on central human issues by

landmark thinkers, and revolutionary ideas

critical to historical paradigm shifts or changes

in world view. A program of studies which is

highly general, nonspecialized, and

nonvocational is advocated.

Religious Perrenialism

•Perennialism was originally religious in

nature, developed first by Thomas Aquinas in

the thirteenth century in his work De

Magistro.
Essentialism "Gripping and enduring interests frequently The prime scope of this philosophy is the

grow out of initial learning efforts that are not promulgation of conserving moral values

appealing or attractive." which forms or shapes the individual as

a useful citizen in his own community

William Bagley
and preserving intellectual knowledge
•Essentialism refers to the "traditional" or which serves as a powerful weapon in

"Back to the Basics" approach to education. It formulating brilliant ideas in the midst of

is so named because it strives to instill battling the modern world of

students with the "essentials" of academic information that would make a great

knowledge and character development. soceital change and sustainable

Believe that there is a common core of development in this fast- gearing world.

knowledge that needs to be transmitted to

Further, the teachers should emotionally
students in a systematic, disciplined way. 
developed and intellectually matured
•The emphasis in this conservative perspective enough in transmitting indespensable

is on intellectual and moral standards that learning that would feed the learners’

schools should teach. The core of the minds to be more equipped and globally

curriculum is essential knowledge and skills competitive.

and academic rigor. Although this educational

Apparently, teachers are called the
philosophy is similar in some ways to
“fountain of information” in such a way
Perennialism, Essentialists accept the idea that
that they teach from the heart and not
this core curriculum may change. Schooling
from the book; imparting more than
should be practical, preparing students to
enough knowledge . Additionally, it
become valuable members of society. It
would be such an impossible thing to
should focus on facts-the objective reality out
hear if a teacher becomes a paragon of
there--and "the basics," training students to
virtue since there is no one possesses
read, write, speak, and compute clearly and
perfection but with that imperfection,
logically. Schools should not try to set or
they gain mastery of basic skills in
influence policies. Students should be taught
enhancing the students’ simple innate
hard work, respect for authority, and
abilities to profound state.
discipline. Teachers are to help students keep

their non-productive instincts in check, such as

aggression or mindlessness.

Progressivism We may, I think, discover certain common “Change is the only constant in this

principles amid the variety of progressive world”, a very common mantra but it is

schools now existing. To imposition from worth living for. In fact, in the book

above is opposed expression and cultivation of English Expressways for secondary (p.

individuality; to external discipline is opposed 45), George Bernard Shaw discussed that
free activity; to learning from texts and there are two kinds of people in the

teachers, learning through experience; to world, the reasonable and unreasonable.

acquisition of' isolated skills and techniques by The reasonable man adapts himself to

drill is opposed acquisition of them as means the world; the unreasonable one persists

of attaining ends which make direct vital in trying to adapt the world to himself.

appeal; to preparation for a more or less Therefore, all progress depends on the

remote future is opposed making the most of unreasonable man.

the opportunities of present life; to statistics

In addition, the teachers used
and materials is opposed acquaintance with a
themselves as bridges over which they
changing world."
invite their students to cross over the

John Dewey  defiance of learning situations and giving

them quintessential range of

•believe that education should focus on the
information that would respond to their
whole child, rather than on the content or the
needs and the destitution of the working
teacher. This educational philosophy stresses
industry. The exposure of the students
that students should test ideas by active
to new technological manoeuvre,
experimentation. Learning is rooted in the
scientific and social developments
questions of learners that arise through
helped them to embrace education as a
experiencing the world. It is active, not
key to change their lives and boost their
passive. The learner is a problem solver and
way of thinking through problem-
thinker who makes meaning through his or her
solving method in achieving progress.
individual experience in the physical and
Moreover, the teachers are probably
cultural context. Effective teachers provide
using one of the learning styles coined
experiences so that students can learn by
by Harvey F. Silver which is the mastery
doing. Curriculum content is derived from
(sensing- thinking) style where the
student interests and questions. The scientific
learners learns best from drill,
method is used by progressivist educators so
demonstration, practice and hands- on
that students can study matter and events
experience. If the students become
systematically and first hand. The emphasis is
mastery learners, they prefers to learn
on process-how one comes to know. The
by seeing tangible results, practicing
Progressive education philosophy was
what they have learned and being active
established in America from the mid 1920s
rather than passive. True indeed,
through the mid 1950s. John Dewey was its
experience is the best teacher and it can
foremost proponent. One of his tenets was
never be found even in the greatest
that the school should improve the way of life
book in the world since we should
of our citizens through experiencing freedom
consider the big difference of
and democracy in schools. Shared decision
imagination from actuality.
making, planning of teachers with students,
 student-selected topics are all aspects. Books

are tools, rather than authority.

Dewey taught that people are social animals

who learn well through active interplay with

others and that our learning increases when

we are engaged in activities that have meaning

for us. Book learning, to Dewey, was no

substitute for actually doing things.

Fundamental to Dewey's epistemology is the

notion that knowledge is acquired and

expanded as we apply our previous

experiences to solving new, meaningful

problems. Education, to Dewey, is a

reconstruction of experience, an opportunity

to apply previous experiences in new ways.

Relying heavily on the scientific method,

Dewey proposed a five step method for

solving problems:

1. Become aware of the problem;

2. define it;

3. Propose various hypotheses to solve it;

4. Examine the consequences of each

hypothesis in the light of previous

5. Experience; and

Test the most likely solution.

Existentialism "Childhood is not adulthood; childhood is This philosophy supports the ninth

playing and no child ever gets enough play. intelligence as one of the multiple

The Summer hill theory is that when a child intelligencess possessed by humans

has played enough he will start to work and authored by Howard Gardner which is

face difficulties, and I claim that this theory has the existentialist intelligence. It is the

been vindicated in our pupils' ability to do a ability of an individual to question

good job even when it involves a lot of existing things in the world and their

unpleasant work." essence respectively.

A. S. Neill Basically, existentialism allows students

Man is nothing else but what he makes of to express theirselves creatively in a way

himself. Such is the first principle of that they could formulate their own

existentialism.' ' formulas in reaching the pedestal of

success and the plinth of victory rather

Jean Paul Sartre
than copying acts and deeds from a
Existentialism as a Philosophical Term historical model. This is one of the

The existentialist movement in education is avenues in promoting freedom of choice

based on an intellectual attitude that on what field of interest they will engage

philosophers term existentialism. Born in to in preparing theirselves in the future

nineteenth-century Europe, existentialism is battles of real life.

associated with such diverse thinkers as In connection, vocational education is

Soren Kierkegaard (1813-1855), a passionate given high regards as a means of

Christian, and Friedrich Nietzsche (1811 1900) teaching students about themselves and
developing their potentials to compete
who wrote a book entitled The Antichrist and
in the global context in the near future.
coined the phrase God is dead. While the
In fact, this philosophy connects with the
famous existentialists would passionately
idea of Harvey F. Silver about the four
disagree with one another on many basic
learning styles and one of which is the
philosophical issues, what they shared was a
self- expressive (intuitive feeling) style
respect for individualism. In particular, they
where learners learns best from creative
argued that traditional approaches to
and artistic activities, open- ended
philosophy do not adequately respect the
discussions and social values and prefers
unique concerns of each individual.
to learn by being creative and using

Jean Paul Sartre's classic formulation of imagination, planning and organizing

existentialism--that "existence precedes work in their own creative ways,

essence"--means that there exists no searching for altenative solutions to

universal, inborn human nature. We are born problems beyond those normally

and exist, and then we ourselves freely considered and discussing real problems

determine our essence (that is, our innermost and looking for real solutions.

nature). Some philosophers commonly

Therefore,this philosophy builds firm
associated with the existentialist tradition
foundation of relationship between
never fully adopted the "existence precedes
teachers and students where openness
essence" principle. Nevertheless, that principle
and honesty are considered to be the
is fundamental to the educational existentialist
core values. In this manner, students can
movement.
act justly in their respective soceities and

Existentialism as an Educational Philosophy become the agent or catalyst of change.

Just as its namesake sprang from a strong

rejection of traditional philosophy, educational

existentialism sprang from a strong rejection

of the traditional, essentialist approach to

education. Existentialism rejects the existence

of any source of objective, authoritative truth

about metaphysics, epistemology, and ethics.

Instead, individuals are responsible for

determining for themselves what is "true" or

"false," "right" or "wrong," "beautiful" or

"ugly." For the existentialist, there exists no

universal form of human nature; each of us

has the free will to develop as we see fit.

In the existentialist classroom, subject matter

takes second place to helping the students

understand and appreciate themselves as

unique individuals who accept complete

responsibility for their thoughts, feelings, and

actions. The teacher's role is to help students

define their own essence by exposing them to

various paths they may take in life and

creating an environment in which they may

freely choose their own preferred way. Since

feeling is not divorced from reason in decision

making, the existentialist demands the

education of the whole person, not just the

mind.

Although many existentialist educators

provide some curricular structure,

existentialism, more than other educational

philosophies, affords students great latitude in

their choice of subject matter. In an

existentialist curriculum, students are given a

wide variety of options from which to choose.

To the extent that the staff, rather than the

students, influence the curriculum, the

humanities are commonly given tremendous

emphasis. They are explored as a means of

providing students with vicarious experiences

that will help unleash their own creativity and

self- expression. For example, rather than

emphasizing historical events, existentialists

focus upon the actions of historical individuals,

each of whom provides possible models for

the students' own behavior. In contrast to the

humanities, math and the natural sciences

may be de-emphasized, presumably because

their subject matter would be considered

"cold," "dry," "objective," and therefore less

fruitful to self-awareness. Moreover,

vocational education is regarded more as a

means of teaching students about themselves

and their potential than of earning a

livelihood. In teaching art, existentialism

encourages individual creativity and

imagination more than copying and imitating

established models.

Existentialist methods focus on the individual.

Learning is self-paced, self directed, and

includes a great deal of individual contact with

the teacher, who relates to each student

openly and honestly. Although elements of

existentialism occasionally appear in public

schools, this philosophy has found wider

acceptance in private schools and ill

alternative public schools founded in the late

1960s and early 1970s. 

•A.S. Neill is perhaps the most noted influence

when it comes to the existentialism philosophy

being applied in a school environment. Neill

helped to promote existentialism with the

creation of his Summerhill School. Jean Paul

Sarte along with Soren Kierkegaard, and

Friedrich Nietzche helped to strengthen the

popularity of the existentialism movement.

Each of these famous men contributed to the

belief that it was "not just the mind that

needed to be educated, but the whole

person." 

•An existentialism school didn't enforce formal

education. Instead it nurtured the creativity,

and individuality of the student. It was felt that

in time a student would mature by

themselves, and decide what direction was

suitable to pursue. In an existentialist school

children would be given a variety of subjects to

choose from. Vocational courses were to teach

the student about themselves, and not to

prepare them for a future occupation. The

student pursued the subject of their choice,

learning method, and worked at their own

pace. They received one-on-one guidance

from their teacher. Existentialism was an

independent study program rather than a

traditional class.

"Give me a dozen healthy infants, well •Behaviorism is an educational

informed, and my own specified world to bring philosophy that follows the concept of

them up in and I'll guarantee to take anyone at Stimulus-Response theory. This theory is

random and train him to become any type of more concerned with the response

specialist I might select-- doctor, lawyer, artist, generated where stimulus serves as

merchant-chief; and yes, even beggar-man input and response serves as an output

and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, that produces behavioral changes.In

tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his fact, stimulus and response considers

ancestors."  strengthening or reinforcement relevant

becausethis would arouse the learners

•John Watson
disposition to explore and learn
While educational existentialism is based on necessary things in ife. This philosophy

the notion that we possess free will to shape was pioneered by Ivan Pavlov, Edward

our innermost nature, behaviorism is derived Lee and Bhurrus Skinner’s behavior

from the belief that free will is an illusion. theories respectively . They describe

According to a pure behaviorist, human beings about the behaviorism and the points

are shaped entirely by their external specifically for learning activities are
environment. Alter a person's environment, stimulus and responses. This can also be

and you will alter his or her thoughts, feelings, interpreted as cause and

and behavior. Provide positive reinforcement effect.Reinforcement as the way to

whenever students perform a desired reach the goal and repeated actions that

behavior, and soon they will learn to perform will become the habit and then students

the behavior on their own. will reached their goals.

Behaviorism has its roots in the early 1900s in As teachers, we must know what

the work of the Russian experimental subjects can apply behaviorism theory.

psychologist Basically, teachers give specific stimulus

what they want and the students will

•Ivan Pavlov (1848-1936)
respond. For instance, when the teacher
and the American psychologist want to teach about recreational

activities, he will observe the physical

•John Watson (1878-1958).
condition of students and also their basic
By refining and expanding their studies,
skills. Then, teacher will give learning
Harvard professor
material as stimulus and they will

•B. F. Skinner (1904- 1989) explain about the material related to the

topic. More so, the response is a

has been the driving force behind the spread
behavioral change as a result of learning.
of behaviorism within modern American

culture. Skinner developed the now-famous In cognizance, behaviorism provides an

Skinner box, which he used to train small avenue for teachers to be sensitive to

animals by behavioral techniques. He also any situations of learning and is suitable

invented a World War II guided missile system for teachers in implementing repeated

that employed pecking pigeons to keep a act with a specific award for the

projectile on course, a controversial air crib for students to be motivated in doing

keeping babies in a climatically controlled activities.

environment, and programmed learning.

Underlying Philosophical Basis

Behaviorism asserts that the only reality is the

physical world that we discern through careful,

scientific observation. People and other

animals are seen as complex combinations of

matter that act only in response to internally

or externally generated physical stimuli. We

learn, for instance, to avoid overexposure to

heat through the impulses of pain our nerves

send to our brain. More complex learning,

such as understanding the material in this

chapter, is also determined by stimuli, such as

the educational support you have received

from your professor or parents or the comfort

of the chair in which you sit when you read

this chapter.

Human nature, according to behaviorism, is

neither good nor bad, but merely the product

of one's environment. It is not human nature

but defective environments that are

responsible for harmful things that people do

to themselves and others. To a behaviorist,

there is no such thing as free will or the

autonomously acting person; such ideas are

only myths that may make us feel better but

do not correspond to scientific observation.

Skinner recommends that moral standards

ought to be derived from the scientific

observation of human behavior. We should

identify through experimentation those

environments that best utilize humankind's

potential. In such environments, we would

find the moral code that people ought to

follow. That scientifically developed code

would be much preferable to our present

codes, which are derived from the histories

and cultures of particular groups.

Regarding esthetic appreciation, behaviorists

consider our sense of beauty environmentally

formed. Have you ever wondered why

something believed to be beautiful by another

culture appears ugly to you? Behaviorism says

that the reason lies in the way your

environment has shaped your tastes. A good

example is the effect of the media on your

appreciation of clothing styles. Over a few

 months or years, the media may convince you

to regard as beautiful a style you previously

found unattractive.

Realism Aristotle-  For the realist, the world is as it is, and

the job of schools would be to teach

•placed great emphasis on balancing the
students about the world. Goodness, for
theoretical and practical aspects of subjects
the realist, would be found in the laws of
taught. Subjects he explicitly mentions as
nature and the order of the physical
being important included reading, writing and
world. Truth would be the simple
mathematics; music; physical education;
correspondences of observation. The
literature and history; and a wide range of
realist would favor a school dominated
sciences. He also mentioned the importance of
by subjects of the here-and-now world,
play.
such as math and science. Students
Avicenna-  would be taught factual information for

•‘children can learn better if taught in classes mastery. The teacher would impart

instead of individual tuition from private knowledge of this reality to students or

tutors, and he gave a number of reasons for display such reality for observation and

why this is the case, citing the value of study. Classrooms would be highly
competition and emulation among pupils as ordered and disciplined, like nature, and

well as the usefulness of group discussions and the students would be passive
participants in the study of things.
debates.
Changes in school would be perceived as
•refers to the secondary education stage as
a natural evolution toward a perfection
the period of specialization, when pupils
of order.
should begin to acquire manual skills,

regardless of their social status.

•writes that children after the age of 14 should

be given a choice to choose and specialize in

subjects they have an interest in, whether it

was reading, manual skills, literature,

preaching, medicine, geometry, trade and

commerce, craftsmanship, or any other

subject or profession they would be interested

in pursuing for a future career. He wrote that

this was a transitional stage and that there

needs to be flexibility regarding the age in

which pupils graduate, as the student's

emotional development and chosen subjects

need to be taken into account.

Ibn Tufail- 

•demonstrated the empiricist theory of 'tabula

rasa' as a thought experiment in which he

depicted the development of the mind of a

feral child "from a tabula rasa to that of an

adult, in complete isolation from society" on a

desert island, through experience alone.

John Locke – 

•“The business of education is not, as I think,

to make them perfect in any one of the

sciences, but so to open and dispose their

minds as may best make them capable of any,

when they shall apply themselves to it."

Expressed the belief that education maketh

the man, or, more fundamentally, that the

mind is an "empty cabinet", with the

statement, "I think I may say that of all the

men we meet with, nine parts of ten are what

they are, good or evil, useful or not, by their

education

Jean Jacques Rousseau- 

•held that there was one developmental

process common to all humans. This was an

intrinsic, natural process, of which the primary

behavioral manifestation was curiosity. Said

that a child should grow up without adult

interference and that the child must be guided

to suffer from the experience of the natural

consequences of his own acts or behaviour.

When he experiences the consequences of his

own acts, he advises himself.

Mortimore Jerome Adler- 

•was a proponent of educational

 perennialism.

Harry S. Broudy- 

•based on the tradition of classical realism,

dealing with truth, goodness, and beauty.

However he was also influenced by the

modern philosophy existentialism and

instrumentalism.

In his textbook Building a Philosophy of

Education he has two major ideas that are the

main points to his philosophical outlook: The

first is truth and the second is universal

structures to be found in humanity's struggle

for education and the good life. Broudy also

studied issues on society's demands on school.

He thought education would be a link to unify

the diverse society and urged the society to

put more trust and a commitment to the

schools and a good education.

•fragments of Aristotle's treatise On Education

are still in existence 

•considered human nature, habit and reason

to be equally important forces to be cultivated

in education

Experimentalis Aims of Education For the experimentalist, the world is an

m and ever-changing place. Reality is what is

•Education must teach one how to think so
Pragmatism actually experienced. Truth is what
that one can adjust to an ever-changing
presently functions. Goodness is what is
society. The school must aim at developing
accepted by public test. Unlike the
those experiences that will enable one to lead
perennialist, idealist, and realist, The
a good life. These objectives include:
experimentalist openly accepts change
1. Good health. and continually seeks to discover new

ways to expand and improve society.

2. Vocational skills.
The experimentalist would favor a
3. Interests and hobbies for leisure living.
school with heavy emphasis on social

4. Preparation for parenthood. subjects and experiences. Learning

5. Ability to deal effectively with social would occur through a problem-solving

problems. or inquiry format. Teachers would aid

learners or consult with learners who

Additional specific goals must include an
would be actively involved in discovering
understanding of the importance of
and experiencing the world in which
democracy. Democratic government enables
they live. Such an education program's
each citizen to grow and live through the social
focus on value development would
interaction that takes place with other citizens.
factor in group consequences
Education must help its students become

excellent citizens in the democracy.

•the democratic tradition is a self- correcting

tradition

•the social heritage of the past is not the focus

of educational interest. Rather, the focus is for

the good life now and in the future. The

standard of social good is constantly being

tested and verified through changing

experiences; therefore, education must work

to preserve democracy

•view the curriculum of the education

imparting institution must not exist apart from

the social context. The subject matter of

education is the tool for solving individual

problems and as the individual learner is

improved or reconstructed, society is

improved in similar fashion. Therefore, the

problems of democratic society must form the

basis of the curriculum; and the means to

resolve the problems of democratic

institutions must also be included in the

curriculum. Therefore, there must be

1. A social basis to the curriculum.

2. Opportunity to practice democratic ideals.

3. Democratic planning at every level of

education.
4. Group definition of common social goals.

5. Creative means to develop new skills.

6. Activity-centered and pupil-centered

curriculum. 

•learning is always considered to be an

individual matter. Teachers ought not to try to

pour the knowledge they have into the

learners, because such efforts are fruitless.

What each learner learns depends upon his

own personal needs, interests, and problems.

In other words, the content of knowledge is

not an end in itself but a means to an end.

Thus, a learner who is faced by a problem may

be able to reconstruct his environment so as

to solve this felt need. To help him the teacher

must

1. Provide experiences that will excite

motivation. Field trips, films, records, and

guest experts are examples of activities

designed to awaken learner interest in an

important problem.

2. Guide the learner into formulating a specific

definition of the problem. Because each

learner approaches the problem from his own

experiential background, the teaches should

encourage the learners to formulate their own

aims and goals.

3. Plan with the class the individual and group

objectives to be used in solving the problem.

4. Assist the learners in collecting the

information pertaining to the problem.

Essentially, the teacher serves as a guide by

introducing skills, understandings, knowledge,

and appreciations through the use of books,

compositions, letters, resource speakers, films,

 field trips, television, or anything else that may

be appropriate.

5. Evaluate with the class what was learned;

how they learned it; what new information

occurred; what each learner discovered for

himself.

Idealism •Plato's writings contain some of the following Idealism is a philosophy that espouses

ideas: Elementary education would be the refined wisdom of men and women.

confined to the guardian class till the age of Reality is seen as a world within a

18, followed by two years of compulsory person's mind. Truth is to be found in

military training and then by higher education the consistency of ideas. Goodness is an

for those who qualified. While elementary ideal state, something to be strived for.

education made the soul responsive to the Idealism would favor schools teaching

environment, higher education helped the subjects of the mind, such as is found in

soul to search for truth which illuminated it. most public school classrooms. Teachers,

Both boys and girls receive the same kind of for the idealist, would be models of ideal

education. Elementary education consisted of behavior. For idealists, the schools'

music and gymnastics, designed to train and function is to sharpen intellectual

blend gentle and fierce qualities in the processes, to present the wisdom of the

individual and create a harmonious person. ages, and to present models of behavior

that are exemplary. Students in such

schools would have a somewhat passive

role, receiving and memorizing the

reporting of the teacher. Change in the

school program would generally be

considered an intrusion on the orderly

process of educating.

Scholasticism •A fifth metaphysical school of thought

•applied in Roman Catholic schools in the

educational philosophy called "Thomism." It

combines idealist and realist philosophies in a

framework that harmonized the ideas of

Aristotle, the realist, with idealist notions of

truth. Thomas Aquinas, 1255-127, was the

theologian who wrote "Summa Theologica,"

formalizing church doctrine. The Scholasticism

 movement encouraged the logical and

philosophical study of the beliefs of the

church, legitimizing scientific inquiry within a

religious framework.

•combined Logic, Metaphysics and semantics

into one discipline, and is generally recognised

to have developed our understanding of Logic

significantly

•primarily concerned with uncovering

transcendental truths that would lead a

person back to God through a life of moral and

religious choice (Kreeft 15). The vehicle by

which these truths were uncovered was

dialectic.

•two methods of teaching: the "lectio" (the

simple reading of a text by a teacher, who

would expound on certain words and ideas,

but no questions were permitted); and the

"disputatio" (where either the question to be

disputed was announced beforehand, or

students proposed a question to the teacher

without prior preparation, and the teacher

would respond, citing authoritative texts such

as the Bible to prove his position, and the

students would rebut the response, and the

argument would go back and forth, with

someone taking notes to summarize the

argument).

Social Critical pedagogy is an "educational

Reconstruction movement, guided by passion and principle, to

ism and help students develop consciousness of

Pedagogy freedom, recognize authoritarian tendencies,

and connect knowledge to power and the

ability to take constructive action." Based in

Marxist theory, critical pedagogy draws on

radical democracy, anarchism, feminism, and

other movements for social justice