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Children's Guide to Arctic Birds-ROMAN.indd 1 15-05-13 3:01 PM
Sivuniksattinni aulattijiulaaqtunut nunami.

Published by Inhabit Media Inc.


www.inhabitmedia.com

Inhabit Media Inc. (Iqaluit), P.O. Box 11125, Iqaluit, Nunavut, X0A 1H0
(Toronto), 146A Orchard View Blvd., Toronto, Ontario, M4R 1C3

Design and layout copyright © 2015 Inhabit Media Inc.


Text copyright © 2014 Mia Pelletier
Illustrations by Danny Christopher copyright © 2014 Inhabit Media Inc.

Editors: Neil Christopher and Kelly Ward


Designer: Danny Christopher
Inuktitut translator: Jeela Palluq-Cloutier

ISBN: 978-1-77227-026-6

All rights reserved. The use of any part of this publication reproduced, transmitted in any form or
by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, or stored in a retriev-
able system, without written consent of the publisher, is an infringement of copyright law.

We acknowledge the financial support of the Government of Canada through the Department of
Canadian Heritage Canada Book Fund.

We acknowledge the support of the Canada Council for the Arts for our publishing program.

Printed in Canada

Children's Guide to Arctic Birds-ROMAN.indd 2 15-05-13 3:01 PM


Ilulingit

1 Pigiarut

2 Tingmiat Uukturaqtauningit

4 Sulut, Siggut, Isigajaallu

8 Akpa

10 Imiqqutaila

12 Saurraq

14 Mitiq Amauligjuaq

16 Aggiarjuk

18 Qugjuk

20 Kiggavik

22 Ukpigjuaq

24 Tulugaq

26 Aqiggiq

28 Qaqsauq

30 Qaulluqtaaq

32 Uqalimaakkannigaksat

32 Ilisarijaujut

Children's Guide to Arctic Birds-ROMAN.indd 3 15-05-13 3:02 PM


Aggiarjuk (aujaq)

Children's Guide to Arctic Birds-ROMAN.indd 4 15-05-13 3:02 PM


Pigiarut

U kiuqtaqtumi upirngaqtillugu, silami isaruqsurvaluktunik tusaannaqsiqattaqtuq.


Ungasiktualungnit Aavurikamit, nigirmi Amiarikamit, tariullu akianit, tingmiat
nakituinnaq nunarjuarminngaaqtut ukiuqtaqturmuaqpaktut. Suuq ungasiktualungmit
tikippakpat? Ukiuqtaqturmi aujakkut nunanga nirijaksaqattiarmat, tingmiat
amisummarialuullutik tikippaktut nirijaksaqsiuqtut irniuriaqtuqtullu.
Silalu siraarvalukłuni qikturijjanut qupirrunullu, imarmi iqaluqattialiqłuni,
imaqsullu qupirruksaqauliqłutik, nunalu piruqtuqattialiqłuni. Ukiuqtaqtumi
Siqinniinaliqpaktut ulluugaluaqpat unnuangugaluaqpallu, tingmiallu qangalimaaq
niqiksaqsiurunnaqłutik. Piarangit pirukauqturiaqaqpaktut, angillillutik
sanngilirlutiglu utimut qangatakutaagiaqarniaramik apilauqtinnagu.
Ukiuqtaqturmiunut nirjutinut suurlu tiriganianut, tulukkanut, siksingnullu,
akunialuk ukiungutillugu niglasualuktillugulu annaumalauqtut tunngasuktittivakput
ukiuqtaqturmi nirijaksaqattiakkanniliraangamik. Tingmiat nangminiq, manningminik
piaranginniglu kaaktunut nirjutinut pijauttailinasuaqłutik ajjigiinngittunik
takujauttailijjutiqaqpakput.
Qanualuk takujauttailinasugunnaqpit napaaqtuqanngittumi?
Takujauttailijunnaqputit annuraarlutit nunaup ajjipalunginnik
nunakkullu paarngurlutit—ilangit tingmiat miqqungit sulungillu
nunaup ajjipalungannik taqsaqaqpaktut Takujauttailinasuarutinginnik
taijaq qukaaqturmik. Ilaannikkut kisutuinnarmik ijiqsijunnaqtutit quttiktumut
takujauniangimmat—ilangit tingmiat manninginnik pijauttailitittinasuaqpaktut
innaaruni irniuqłutik. Ijiqsijunnarmijutit ujarasugjut akunninginni uvvaluunniit
iviksukkani—ilangit tingmiat ivavviliuqpaktut nanijaksaungittunik. Ammaluunniit
takujaksaunngittuliurunnaqtutit amiarlugu ujaqqanik ajjiqaliqtillugu—sigjarmiutat
tingmiat taimaak nunatut taqsaqaramik takujaksaunngittunnaqpaktut.
Ilinniarutta nani tingmiat irniusuungungmangaata, kisunik nirivangmangaata,
qanuq nilliavangmangaata, takunasulirunnaqtugut nunaup kisuralaangit
qanuittuungmangaata. Suluksuqtunik tusaaluta, uvvaluunniit iviksukkanit tasiup
kigliani qaqsaurmik nanisiluta ivajumik, uvattinnik puigulaukagunnaqtugut, iqqarlutalu
uumajuqtalingmi nunaqaqataunittinnik.

Children's Guide to Arctic Birds-ROMAN.indd 1 15-05-13 3:02 PM


bird_siloue

Tingmianut Uukturarutaujut

Takininga
Tingmiat sigguanit papiata takilaanganut uukturaqtaujuq.

Isarungit
Tingmiap isarungata isuanit igluanut isuanut
uukturaqtauninga.

Ukiulimaaq ukiuqtaqturmiippaktut
Tingmiat qanninnguaqtaqaqpat makpigap qulaani, nalunaiqsijuq
taanna tingmiaq ukiuqtaqturmiippangningani ukiulimaaq.

Tikippaktut aullaqpaktut
Tingmiat una saqqijaaqpat makpigap qulaani, nalunaiqsijuq taanna
tingmiaq ukiuqtaqtumut tikippangninganik. Ukiukkut nunaup
asianiippaktuq aujakkut ukiuqtaqtumut ivajaqtuqpaktuq.

Tingmiat uuminga nalunaikkutaliit ilanginni ukiulimaaq


ukiuqtaqturmiippaktut, ilangit ukiukkut aullaqpakłutik.

Children's Guide to Arctic Birds-ROMAN.indd 2 15-05-13 3:02 PM


bird_silouette_roman_Hienemann.pdf 1 15-03-20 1:50 PM

Sa u rraq

Tulugaq
A q i ggiq

Q u g j uk

Kig g avik Qaulluq aq


ta

Im q
iq
q ut a i a
l

Ukpigjuaq
A g giarju k

Akpa

Mitiq
A jua q
m a ulig

Q aqsauq

Tingmiat angiliriingningit
Tingmiannguat nalunaiqsijjutaujut qanuq
angiliriiktigingmangaata.

Children's Guide to Arctic Birds-ROMAN.indd 3 15-05-13 3:02 PM


Sulut, Siggut, Isigajaallu

Ukpigjuaq papinganit

Qaulluqtaaq
isarunganit

Tulugaq
qangattautingit Mitiq amauligjuaq
ullungit

Sulut
Qanuq tingmiat ajjiunngilat? Asingittauq uumajut isaruqarmijut, suurlu
tarralikitaat, kigutilit miqquittut, iguttalluunniit. Asingit uumajut suurlu
ulikapaaliit, pamiukutaaliit amma pigliqtajuut naaraajiit manniqaqpangmijut.
Kisiani tingmiat uumajulimaanik suluqaqtutuattiangujut. Sulunginnut
uqquujunnaqłutik, angujaunasuliraangamiglu qangattarlutik qimaajunnaqłutik.
Suluminullu aippaksaqtaarasuutiqarunnaqłutik. Tingmiat sulungit taqsangit
asijjirunnaqłutik silaup asijjiqpallianinga maliglugu qukaagutinginnik. Sulungillu
asijjirunnarillutik isaulauqtillugit. Isaullutik sulut piujunniiqsimajut katagaqłutik
nutaanik sulutaaqpaktut.

Children's Guide to Arctic Birds-ROMAN.indd 4 15-05-13 3:02 PM


Tulugaq

Qugjuk

Qaulluqtaaq

Qaqsauq
Kiggavik

Siggut
Siggut ajjigiinngittuuvaktut tauttungitanginingillu. Siggungata qanuilinganinganut
qaujijunnaqtugut kisunik nirivangmangaata. Piruqtuksanik nirivaktut, kumangnik
nirivaktut, iqaluktuqpaktut ajjigiinngittunik sigguqauqtuinnait. Sigguata
qanuilinganinganut nirijaksaqsiurutigivaktangit. Takijut sangungaujaqtut sigjani
marani kumaksiurutauvaktut, ilangillu tisijut siggungi tangijut aippaksaqtaara
suutiqarunnaqłutik. Nalauttaarunnaqpit ukua tingmiat kisutuqpangmangaata
siggungata qanuilinganinga maliglugu?

Children's Guide to Arctic Birds-ROMAN.indd 5 15-05-13 3:02 PM


Kiggavik

Qugjuk

Saurraq

Tulugaq

Isigajaat
Amisunik ilittijunnarmijutit qanuq nirijaksaqsiusuungungmangaata isigajaangitigut.
Ilangit tingmiat, suurlu ukpigjuat, angunasukpaktut. Isigajaangit sanngijuullutik
kukiqquqtullutiglu tigusijjutiksanginnik. Ilangit niukutaaliit sigjarni imaqsuni
pisugunnautingit nirijaksaqsiuqtillugit. Isigajaat akunningittigut uviniliit
imakkuurunnaqłutik aqqaumajunnaqłutiglu, imaup qaangani naluutigillugit
ingirrajunnaqłutik aqqaumalutiglu iqalugasugunnaqłutik.

Children's Guide to Arctic Birds-ROMAN.indd 6 15-05-13 3:02 PM


Ukiuqtaqturmi
tingmiat

Children's Guide to Arctic Birds-ROMAN.indd 7 15-05-13 3:03 PM


Akpa Takininga: 36-48 cm
Isarungit: 76 cm

Taakkua tingmiat qirniqtaujut qakurniqaqłutik, suurlu qirniqtumik nasaliksimajut.


Isigajaangit qirniqtut akunningittigut uviniqaqłutik, siggungillu qirniqłutik
Tuattukulungmik qakurniqaqłutik. Isarungit mikittukuluujaaqtut timikallanginnut,
akpallu sukkajumik isaruqsuriaqaqłutik tingminasuliraangamik. Angutiviat
arnaviallu ajjigiiktut, atunilu 45 cm-nik anginiqaqłutik.

Naniippakpat: Akpat irniuqpaktut katinngajualuullutik nipiqquqtujualuullutik


innaaruni, tiriganianut nanurnullu inuqtaujunik, kisiani naujanut
tikitaksaullutik. Innaarut ataani taqsariktunik aupajaaqtunik ujaqqanik takuguvit
taima innaaruq irniurviuvakpuq akpanut.

Nirivaktangit: Akpat ungasiktummaringmut tingillutik iqalugasugviksiuqpaktut.


Tariurmi ajunngittummarialuit. Isaruqtik atuqługit aqqaumallutik uugarnik
asinginniglu uumajunik nirijaksaqsiuqpaktut, aqqaumajunnaqłutiglu 200 m-nik
ammut!

Tusaanasuglugit: Akpat nipiqquqtujummarialuit, “Aauuq, aauuq”-palattijut


innaaruit qanigijangitiguuqtunut.

Ivavvingit: Akpat ivavviliuqpanngittut. Atausirmik manningmik irnivaktut


innaaruup qaanganumiaq. Atuni akpa irnivaktuq tavvanittainnaq
irnivvigilauqtaminik arraagutamaattiaq.

Manninga: Akpa atausirmik angijumik, tungujuujaqtumik, taqsarinngittumik


manniqaqpaktuq kajurmik taqsagalaaktumik. Akpat manningit igluani
nuvuqaujaqłutik igluanilu angmalurniqsaullutik aksakaalirutik
utimugiarunnarutinginnik innaarurmit katanngillutik. Arnaviat angutiviallu
nikittaaqłutik ivavaktut, angutiviat unnuakkut ivagajungniqsaullutik.

Akpaaraq:Akpat ukiivaktut tariurmi niglinaqtumi uangnanganit Atlaantik amma


uangnanganit Pasivik imavinginni.

Ukiukkut: Atuni akpat manningit ajjiunngiarjungniqaqtuinnaujut,


ajjigiiktuqtaqanngittut. Akpat manningminik irnijaminik qanuittuuninganik
puigujjaiqpaktut asinginnut manningnuarnirutik nanijunnarniaramijjuk.

Children's Guide to Arctic Birds-ROMAN.indd 8 15-05-13 3:03 PM


Tingmiat miksaanut tusagaksaq:
Atuni akpat manningit
ajjiunngiarjungniqaqtuinnaujut,
ajjigiiktuqtaqanngittut.
Akpat manningminik
irnijaminik qanuittuuninganik
puigujjaiqpaktut
asinginnut manningnuarnirutik
9 nanijunnarniaramijjuk.

Children's Guide to Arctic Birds-ROMAN.indd 9 15-05-13 3:03 PM


Imiqqutailaq Takininga: 33-36 cm
Isarungit: 76-85 cm

Taanna tunua siarnaulluni naanga qakuqtuulluni imarmiutanik nirivaktuq


papiqquqtujuq, isarungik tuałłutik, qirniqtumik niaqulik. Isigajaangik akunningittigut
uviniqaqłutik, nuvvuriktumik siggulik isigajaangik siggualu aupaqłutik. Angutiviat
arnaviallu ajjigiiktut, nuliajaariiglu inuusilimaarmini katinngavakłutik.

Naniippakpat: Imiqqutailat irniuqpaktut nunainnarmi sigjaqpasiluanngittumi


amisualuullutik. Takujaksauvaktut amisuullutik sigjat qulaani qangatajut imarmut
savvuqpaktut nirijaksaqsiuqłutik. Isarungittigut siqiniq takujaksaujuq
qaujigialaaqpat.

Nirivaktangit: Imiqqutailat isarunginnik sanirarminuuqtittivaktuk ammut


naukkiutillutik imaanut iqalugasukpangmata asinginniglu imaani uumajuralaanik
imaviup qaangata atittianganiittunik. Taimaak taijauvaktut “naukkiutijut.”

Tusaanasuglugit: Imiqqutailat nipiqquqtujualuullutik nilliavaktut “kik, kik, kik”


uvvaluunniit aviujipalungnaqtunik “kii-jaa”-lallutik.

Ivavvingit: Imiqqutailat ivavvingit mikittukuluit nunainnarmi


itiqsaliangusimajuniisuut ilaannilu ivigalaqaqpakłutik avatingittigut.
Imiqqutailat qanigiiktunik ivavviqaqpaktut, qaglijuqaliraangallu imiqqutailat
tuluriaksaaliqpaktut, siggungit ulurianaqłutik nipiqquqtujualuullutiglu
qimaatittinasukpaktut.

Manninga: Imiqqutailat atausirmik pingasunigluunniit manniktaarunnaqtut,


kajurlangnik, Kisiani marruungnik manniingnik irnigajungniqsaujut.
Mannit nunainnamiippaktut, kisiani Taqsangitta qukaangninginnut
takukautigijaksauttianngittut.

Imiqqutailaaraq: Qiniqtunik taqsallaajut imiqqutailaarat tukiqpaktut


ivajaullutik pinasuarusirnut pingasunut angmaluqtukallaujaaqłutik,
miqqugikłutik aulatinnagillu takujaksaunngikasattiaqtut, miqqungit
nunauqquujituinnarunnarmata. Tingijunnaqsilaunnginninginnit amainnut
angutivianut arnavianullu imarminngaaqtunik nirititauvaktut.

Ukiukkut: Imiqqutailat tingmialimaattianik ungasingniqpaattiamut tingmivaktut.


Nunarjuap ataanit Aanaatikmit upirngaakkut ukiuqtaqtuliaqpaktut ukiaksaakkullu
ukiuqtaqtumi niglaqpallialiraangat taununga nunarjuap ataanut utiqpakłutik.

Ivavvit miksaanut: Pikiułłuni suurlu ijiqtausimajumik nanisijuujaarnaqtuq.


Ivavvit anginingit qanuilinganingillu ajjigiikpanngittut, mannillu taqsarikłutik
taqsaqaukuluujaqłutik. Ivavviksiaruvit takuniatuinnalaukaglugu. Ilingnik apirilutit:
Kisumik sanasimava, qanurlu takuksaunngitigiaqsimava? Mannit aktuqtaililugit,
ivavvingmiikutaaluanngillutillu imiqqutailaq tuluriaqsaliłłarniarmat. Ivajautinnagit
mannit nigliliqsaraittut, naujarnut tiriganianullu nanijaksaugillutik.
10

Children's Guide to Arctic Birds-ROMAN.indd 10 15-05-13 3:03 PM


Tingmiat miksaanut
tusagaksaq: Imiqqutailat
quksallaktitaujaraangata
atauttikkualuk tingmikpaktut
qulaanilu qangatavakłutik,
atauttikkullu mippakkillutik.

Children's Guide to Arctic Birds-ROMAN.indd 11 15-05-13 3:03 PM


Saurraq Takininga: 18-20 cm
Isarungit 40-45 cm

Arnaviat saurrat anginiqsauraarjukpaktut angutivianik. Niaqunga qirniqłuni,


qaulluqtuungnik uluaqaqłuni, sagvinga naangalu taqsaringniqsaulluni
angutiviamik. Saurrat qungasiqquqtujut, naittunik siarnanik isigajaaqaqłutik
katinnganngittunik, siggungillu quqsuqłutik qirniqtumik nuvuqaqłutik. 21 cm-
palungnik anginiqaqtut.

Naniippakpat: Saurrat ivavaktut imaqsuni ukiuqtaqtumi sigjaqpasiktunik.


Imiqqutailat qanigijanginni ivavviqaqpaktut, imiqqutailat
tuluriaqsaakkauninginnut pinasuktunik qimaatittivangninginnut.

Nirivaktangit: Saurrat nirivaktut qupirrunik qitirullingniglu, tininnirmiutanik


sigjaqtigut pisukłutik. Ikkattunillu sukkalillutik uijjaaqpaktut imarmiittunik
puttallaktittinasukłutik niriniaqtamingnik.

Tusaanasuglugit: Saurrat nilliavaktut qataittunik “siit” amma takijunik “si-uit”


Amma uvinngiaqtuni “uit”.

Ivavvingit: Saurrat nunami itiqsaliuqpaktut avalusimajunik ijjurnik, ivinik


tingaujaniglu, takujaksaugajunngittut iviksukkani imarmut qanittunik.

Manninga: Saurrat pingasunik tisamanigluunniit manniqaqpaktut


tungujuangajunik kajurnik taqsallaajunik. Arnaviaq irnijariiraangami ivavvini
qimakpaktanga angutiviaq ivanialiqłuni.

Saurraaraq: Saurraarat tukiqpaktut nirumikłutik, kajuangallutik 18 – 24


Aniguraangata ulluit, ilangillu tukituaramik ivavvingminit pisusivaktut
nirijaksaqsiuliqłutik.

Ukiukkut: Saurrat isarungit miqqungillu siarnauliqpaktut qaulluqłutiglu


ukiukkut aullaqpakłutiglu Aatlantik imavingannut nigianut Amialika ammalu
nigianut Aavurikaup.

12

Children's Guide to Arctic Birds-ROMAN.indd 12 15-05-13 3:03 PM


Tingmiat miksaanut tusagaksaq:
Aullaliraangata saurrat
qaujijauqattaqsimajut arvingnut qanitiglugit,
arvit niritillugit imarmiutanik iqqarmit
saqqitanik nirivalliavaktut.

13

Children's Guide to Arctic Birds-ROMAN.indd 13 15-05-13 3:03 PM


Mitiq Amauligjuaq Takininga: 50-71 cm
Isarungit: 80-110 cm

Amauligjuaq ijjujunik sululiit uqquujjutinginnik imarmi sikulingmi


niglinaqtumiippakkamik. Arnaviat angutiviallu ajjigiinngittiaqtut
tauttungitigut, piluaqtumi upirngaakkut. Arnaviat siarnanik kajuniglu
sulungit taqsaqaqłutik, angutiviat taqsaringniqsaullutik. Angutiviaq
qirniqtumik niaquqaqłuni, tungujuangajumik sigguqaqłuni niaqungagullu
uujaujauniqaqłuni. Sagvinga qaulluttiaqłuni naanga papingalu qirniqłutik.
Tamarmik arnaviat angutiviallu angijunik tungujuqtunik siarnangajunik
akunningittigut uvinilingnik isigajaaqaqtut.

Naniippakpat: Amauligjuat katinngallutik ivavaktut ukiuqtaqtumi


sigjaqpasingmi. Tariup akurnganni qikiqtani irniuqpaktut tiriganianut
nanurnullu inurnarniqsaungmata qikiqtat.

Nirivaktangit: Amauligjuat katinngallutik ivavaktut ukiuqtaqtumi


sigjaqpasingmi. tariup akurnganni qikiqtani irniuqpaktut tiriganianut
nanurnullu inurnarniqsaungmata qikiqtat.

Tusaanasuglugit: Angutiviat amauligjuat nilliavaktut, “a-uu-u”-lallutik


imarmi puktatillugit, arnaviallu nillikallaktaaqpakłutik mitiararminiitillugit.
Amauligjuat attarnaqtumiinnasugiliraangamik nilliavangmijut “ku-kuukuu”-
mik nilliallutik.

Ivavvingit: Amauligjuat ivavviliuqpaktut nunainnarmi itiqsaliuraarjukłutik,


Itiqsalu qaaliqługu ijjurnik imarmingaaqtunigluunniit, ammalu nirumiktunik
ullurnik qaaliqługut arnaviap sagvingminit ullurnik piijaqtanginnik.
Arnaviat taqsangit nunaup taqsanginnik ajjiqakasattiarninginnut ivajut
takujaksauttianngimmariktut.

Manninga: Arnaviat 2-nik 7-nigluunniit angijunik tungujuangajunik


manniqaqpaktut.

Mitirat: Nirumiktut, quqsuangajut mitirat tukiqpaktut ullut 25 aniguraangata.


Panituaraangatalu arnaviap tariuliarutivaktangit.

Ukiukkut: Amauligjuat ukiukkut sinaap qanigijanganniippaktut, ukiuqtaqtup


tariunganni. Ilangit amauligjuat ukiukkut aukkarnirniippaktut.

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Tingmiat miksaanut tusagaksaq:
Imaani, mitirat katinngavaktut
qallunaatuut (uiviitullu)
taijaujuni kurasinik ilaanni 100
ungatinginniilirunnaqpaktut mitirat.
Arnaviat irnisimanngittut mitirarnik
katinngajunik pairijiuliqpaktut.

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Aggiarjuk Takininga: 39-47 cm
Isarungit: 65-82 cm

Nilliagajuktuq aggiarjuk qallunaatut attiqtausimajjutigijanga, takijunik,


qirniqtunik angutiviat niaqungitta tunuani miqqukutaaqarninginnut. Aggiarjut
amisuiqłutik miqqungit asijjiqpaktut ukiurmi, ukiukkut taqsarittialauqłutik
aujakkut taqsariluarunniiqpakłutik. Tunungit isarungillu qirnaangallutik,
qaulluqtunik naaqaqłutik, naittunik siliktunik sigguqaqłutik, taqsarikłutiglu
uluangik. Niungit isigajaaralungillu akunniliit uviningnik tungujurlakłutik
siarnaangallutik.

Naniippakpat: Aggiarjut katinngallutik ivavaktut tasirut tasiillu qanigijanginni


sigjaqpasiktumi. Imiqqutailat qanigijanginni ivavaktut, imiqqutailat qaglijunik
tuluriaqsakkauninginnut.

Nirivaktangit: Aggiarjut mitirnik itiniqpaanut aqqaumajunnaqtut,


Itiniqammariktumik 60 m-nik! Nirijaksaqsiuqpaktut qupirruksanik,
imarmiutanik,
uugarnik, uvilulingniglu.

Tusaanasuglugit: Arnaviat quksallakkaangamik naittunik nillikallaktaaliqpaktut,


angutiviat nipiqquqtullutik nilliavaktut “apap-au-uuilip” aggiarjut
nilliagajuktummariujut.

Ivavvingit: Aggiarjut ivavaktut nunainnarmi itiqsaliuraarjukłutik qaaqaqłutik


nunaminngaaqtunik ullurniglu. Ivavviit sigjaqpasigajuktut nuvuattiani
qikiqtanilu.

Manninga: Aggiarjut manniqarunnaqtut 6-nik 9-nigluunniit kajurlaullutik


tungujuangallutik.

Aggiarjut: Nirumiktut kajut mitirat tukiqpaktutullut 25 – 28 aniguraangata


panituaramiglu pisusivakłutik nirijaksaqsiuliqłutik.

Ukiukkut: Aggiarjut innaarulingni ikpiarjungni tariurmi tasirjuanilu


Ukiukkut najugaqaqpaktut.

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Tingmiat miksaanut tusagaksaq:
Aggiarjut ilaanni manningminik asimi
ivavvinganuaqsivaktut ilangillu aggiarjut
ivalauqłutik piruqsailiqpaktut nangminik
mitiraminik asimilu mitiranginnik.

Children's Guide to Arctic Birds-ROMAN.indd 17 15-05-13 3:04 PM


Qugjuk Takininga: 120-150 cm
Isarungit 168-211 cm

Qugjuk aputititut qaulluqtu (qugjuujuq), siggunga, niungit isigajaangillu


qirniqłutik. Takijumik qungasiqaqłuni quqsurniqaqłunilu sigguata ijingiktalu
akunningani. Angutiviat arnaviallu ajjigiiktut, inuusilimaaminullu
katimavakłutik. Qugjut takiniqalirunnaqtut 1.5 m-nik isarualungillu 2
m-ngulirunnaqłutik.

Naniippakpat: Qugjut ivavaktut tasirut tasiit imaqsullu qanigijanginni.


Tautugialaaqputit imakkut ullaqquujillutik tinginasukpangmata isarungillu
angijualuullutik piujualuullutik.

Nirivaktangit: Qugjut nirivaktut piruqtunik imaqsuni imarnillu ikkattuni.


Qungasikutaangit imaup iqqanganut tikittijunnaqtut piruqtut airanginnik,
piruqtuksanik piruqtuniglu nirillutik. Nirivangmijut qupirrunik siunnaniglu.

Tusaanasuglugit: Qugjut nipiqattiaqtunik numaasugvaluktunik nilliavaktut


“kuluu” ammalu inngirvalulirunnaqłutik “uu-huu”-lalutik ammalu
nipiqquqtujunik nillikallaktaallutik haaklavaluktunik. Atauttimiitillugit nipingit
tusaqsauttialiqpaktut.

Ivavvingit: Qugjuup ivavvinga angijualuk, puqtulluni piruqtunut sanasimalluni


qaanganilu ulluqagalaakłuni. Tamarmik angutiviat arnaviallu ikajuqtigiikłutik
ivavviliuqpaktut, tasirut tasiillu qanigijangani quttiktumi takujunnarniaramik
ungasiktuugaluarnik angunasuktunik. Qugjut ivavaktut qugjunik asinginnik
qanigijaqaratik, ivavvituatik sapummillunijjuk.

Manninga: Qugjut 3-nik 6-nigluunniit manniktaaqpaktut qaulluqtunik


quqsuangajunik.

Qugjuarat: Nirumiktut, siarnat qugjuarat, qallunaatut taijaujut “sainat”−nik


Tukiqpaktut ullut 32 aniguraangata qautuaqpallu ivavvingminik qimailutik
imaanuarunnaqtut nirijaksaqsiulirlutik angajuqqaatik aipparillugik.

Ukiukkut: Qugjut qallunaat nunangannut ukiijaqtuqpaktut katinngajualuullutik


ikkattuni ikpiarjungniippakłutik Aatlaantik ammalu Pasivik sigjanginni
uangnanganit Amialika iilaannilu nunami tasirjuarniippakłutik kuugjuanillu.

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Tingmiat miksaanut tusagaksaq:
Qugjut taijauvalauqsimajut
“uvinngiaqtiuniraqtaullutik”
isarurjuaraalungit qaulluqtut
uvinngiaqpalattivangmata
tingmitillugit.

Children's Guide to Arctic Birds-ROMAN.indd 19 15-05-13 3:04 PM


Kiggavik Takininga: 48-64 cm
Isarungit: 110-130 cm

Sukkajualuk, sanngijualuk uumajurniaqti qirniqtunik ijilik avataagut


guulumik, angijunik nuvulingnik isarulik, siliktumiglu takijumik papiqaqłuni.
Takuksauluanngituugaluarnik “uminik” takujunnaqputit siggungatta sinaani
siggunga ipiktualuk nuvuqaqłuni, isigangillu quqsuqłutik kukiqaqłutiglu.
Qujjuujunnaqtut taqsarigunnaqłutiglu kisiani tamaikasak qugjullutik
siarnaujut.

Naniippakpat: Taakkua uumajurniaqtiit nunainnarmiippaktut, qaqqani


innaarurnillu. Quttiktuni ujaqqani mittimavaktut anurajaaqtumik ukiuqtaqtup
silangannik piuksaramik.

Nirivaktangit: Kiggavit attiktumi tingmivaktut angunasuktatik


qaujinnginaariaqługu, tingmianik akunialuk maligunnaqtut taqatittinasukłutik,
tingmillutigluunniit angugiarunnaqtut. Aqiggirnik nirigajuktut, kisianittauq
kangurnik, mitirnik asinginniglu tingmianik, ukalirnik mikittuniglu uumajunik
nirivaktut.

Tusaanasuglugit: Kiggavit nipiqquqtujunik nilliqpaktut “kaa, kaa, kaa”


uvvaluunniit “kak, kak, kak” attarnaqtumiinnasugiliraangamik.

Ivavvingit: Kiggavit nangminiq ivavviliuqpanngittut asingitta tingmiat


suurlu tulukkat ivavvivininginnik ivavviqaqpaktut. Ivavaktut innaaruni,
tavvungattainnarlu nunamut ivajaqturunnaqłutik ukiugasagjuanut, suurlu
ukiut 100 uvvaluunniit 1000-nut.

Manninga: Kiggavit 2-nik 7-nigluunniit qaullupaluktunik aupaqtunik-kajurlanik


taqsallaajunik manniqaqpaktut.

Kiggaviarat: Nirumiktut, quqsuangajut kiggaviarat tukiqpaktut ullut 34


uvvaluunniit 37 aniguraangata ivavvingminilu nirititauliqpakłutik.

Ukiukkut: Ilangit kiggavit ukiulimaaq ukiuqtaqtumiippaktut, ilangit qallunaat


nunangannut aullaqpakłutik. Ukiukkut kiggavit nunami aqiggirnik
niqiqaqpaktut,
ammalu tariurmut tariurmiutanik tingmianik niqiksaqsiuriaqpakłutik.

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Tingmiat miksaanut
tusagaksaq: Kiggavit
kiggavilimaanik
suurlu kiggaviarjuk,
anginiqpaangujut.

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Ukpigjuaq Takininga: 52-71 cm
Isarungit 130-150 cm

Qaulluqtuq, niaqunga angmaluqłuni, taqsariktunik quqsuqtunik


ijiqaqłuni, angijuniglu isaruqaqłuni. Timinga niungiglu siliktut
miqqurikłutik, isigangillu sanngijummarialuit takijunik qirniqtunik
kukiqaqłutik. Angutit qugjuinnaullutik ilaannilu
kajugalaakpakłutik. Arnat angutinik anginiqsammariujut.

Naniippakpat: Aputauliqtillugu ukiuqtaqtumi, qaujinasulaaqputit


ukpigjuat mumiusialunginnik ajjiunngittunik. Qangattaqłuni
avinngarmik kingmiaqłuni, auqsaaqłuni, arnarmullu
qaglivakłuni upinnarasukłuni. Ukpigjuallu nipiqaratik attiktukkut
qangatalaukaktaqpaktut ungasinngittumut.

Nirivaktangit: Ukpigjuat avinngaqtuqpaktut, kisianittauq aqiggirnik, ukalirnik,


siksinik, mitirnik kangurniglu angunasukpangmijut. Iqisulikuluit miqqut siutingikta
qanigijangani tusaattiaqtualuujjutigijangit. Ukpigjuat ujarasugjut qaanganiippaktut
niaqutik avammut aangaijaqługit qiniqpaktut tusaanasukłutiglu angutaksamingnik.
Ukpigjuat angutamingnik iluittuullugu iisivaktut, kinguniagullu iiqqaujangata miqqungit,
sulungit sauningillu iluittuullugit uriaqpaktangit.

Tusaanasuglugit: Ukpigjuat qatitujumik tuqłungminit nilliqpaktut tusagaksaullutiglu 10 km-


nik ungasingniqaqtunik nunainnarmi. Ukpigjuat nillirunnarmijut his-lutik, nillikallaktaalutik
ammalu siggutik umittarlugu nilliqtippaglugit attarnaqtumiinnasugigutik. Kisianili
taimanngapaluk nipaittuuvaktut.

Ivavvingit: Ivavviliuqpaktut, arnat ukpigjuat nunami itiqsaliuqłutik suruijaqługu


naarminut, naani itiqsaliurutigillugu. Ivavvit quttiktumiippaktut ukpigjuat ungasiktumut
takujunnarniaramik ivanirminik. Angutiup arnaq ivajuq nirijaksaqsiurutivaktanga.

Manninga: Ukpigjuaq manniqarunnaqtuq 3-nik 12-nigluunniit takijunik, qaulluqtunik,


angmalullarinngittunik atungaujatituuqtunik.

Ukpaaraq: Qaulluqtunik, nirumiktunik uppaaraqaqpaktut, tukiqpaktutillu 30 – 33 luunniit


aniguraangata. Ukpaarat avinngarnik asinginniglu angutaujunik nirititauvaktut.
Anaanaup niriniaqtanginnik sigguminut aggurutillugit tamuajaksanginnik nirititauvaktut.

Ukiukkut: Ilangit ukpigjuat ukiulimaaq ukiuqtaqturmiippaktut, nunami sikumilu


angunasukpakłutik. Nirijaksakiglijaraangata qallunaat nunangannut aullaqpaktut ilangit
Amialikat nunangannuaqpakłutik.

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Tingmiat miksaanut tusagaksaq:
Ilaannikkut ukpigjuat qiturngariit
asianut nunamut nuuttariaqaqpaktut
avinngaqsiuqłutik. Ukpaarat
tingijunnaqsilaunginninginni, ungasiktumut
pisugunnaqtut angajuqqaatik maliglugik.
Kuungnik itiluaqtunik ikaariaqaliraangamik
isarutik suurlu paurutigillugit ikaaqpaktut!

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Tulugaq Takininga: 33-36 cm
Isarungit 76-85 cm

Angijut, qaujimminit qirniqtuullutik, siggungit uqumaittut qanutuinnaq


aturunnaqtangit, qilliqtunik ijiqaqłutik. Papiqquqtujut, tuattunik isaruqaqłutik
takijunik sululingnik, siggungitta ataagut miqquriktut umialuujaaqtunik.
Tulukkat nuliariit inuusilimaarminut katinngavaktut.

Naniippakpat: Tulukkat tingmivaktut nunaup sigjallu qulinganugut, anurimut


ingirrajuujaaqłutik. Uajat napavvinginni mittimavaktut, ammalu
nilliaruluujaqpakłutik nunalingni igluit qaangani mittimallutik.

Nirivaktangit: Tulukkat kisutuinnattiarnik nirivaktut! Kumangnik, qupirrunik,


manningnik, aktakunik, igunaliqtunik, imarmiutat, tingmiat, manninginnik,
tingmiararniglu, mikittunik uumajunik, piruqtuvinirnik, iqalungnik, uvilulingnik,
piruqtuksaniglu. Tulukkat uvilurnik makpiqsivaktut kataillugit ujaqqanut
malikpakłutiglu asinginnik uumajunik amiakkurlukuturniaramik.

Tusaanasuglugit: Tulukkat qanuruluujaaluk nilliavaktut, nillikutaakłutik


kuuqpakłutik, iglaqpalukpakłutik; “qaa”-lavakłutik ajjigiinngittuniglut
uqarminut nilliqpakłutik uvinngiarvalugunnaqłutiglu. Tulukkat nilliusingit
ajjigiikpanngittut nanirmiutauningit maliglugit. Tulukkat nunarjuarmi
ajjigiinngittunik nilliajjusiqaqpaktut uqarusiqaqpakłutiglu … ajunngikkarjuaq!

Ivavvingit: Tulukkat angijualungnik salumaittunik uqpiganik atuqłutik


ivavviliuqpaktut, qaaqaqłutik nirumiktunik piruqtuvinirnik, uumajut
miqqunginnik, ammalu naagvaaqsimajanginnik – suurlu qallunaaqtanik,
akłunaanik, auktajuuniglu - arraagutamaat ilajaullutik atuqtaukkanniqpaktut
ivavvingik. Napaaqtuqannginninganut, ukiuqtaqtumi tulukkat ivavviqaqpaktut
innaaruni, agguranngittumiinnasukłutik. Innaarut ataani katagaunikunik
uqpigarnik qinirlutit - nanisiguvit, qummut qiviarlutit takutuinnariaqaqtutit
tulugap ivavvinganik!

Manninga: Tulugaq manniqarunnaqtuq 4-nik 5-nigluunniit tungujuangajunik


kajurnik taqsallaajunik.

Tulukkaarat: Tulugaarat tukiqpaktut ullut 18 25-luunniit aniguraangata.


Miqquqaratik tukiqpaktut ijingik uitanatik miqqugalaaqaarjutuinnaqłutik.
Tulukkaarat siggungiktigut qaullurniqaqpaktut innaruqpalliallutik
qirniqsivaktut. Tamarmik angut arnarlu tulukkaaraminik kamavaktut
nirijaksaqaqtittivakłutiglu.

Ukiukkut: Tulukkat ukiulimaaq ukiuqtaqturmiippaktut, niglasuktumi


qangataraqpakłutik pinngualukpakłutiglu Inuit angirramingni
uqquujumiitillugit.

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Tingmiat miksaanut tusagaksaq:
Tulukkat nanilimaapaluttiaq
nunarjuap quttingniqsauningani
nanijaksaujut, kisianili
ukiuqtaqturmiut tingmiani
ajjiunngittut. Ukiuqtaqturmi
nunalingni takujaksaujut,
tauvigjualiraluaqtilluguluunniit.

Children's Guide to Arctic Birds-ROMAN.indd 25 15-05-13 3:04 PM


Aqiggiq Takininga: 34-36 cm
Isarungit: 54-60 cm

Tingmiakallak nunamiutaq mikittumik niaqulik mikittumik siggulik niungit


isigangillu miqquqaqłutik. Angutiviat ijimikta qulaagut aupaqtuliit naangillu
qaulluqłutik, arnaviat naangit miqquiqsimallutik kajuullutik. Aqiggit
pingasuirlutik miqqungit asijjirunnaqtut silaup uqquusilirninga niglalirningalu
maliglugu. Arnaviat kajurnik qirniqtunik qaulluqtuniglu miqquqaqpaktut
nuqqangatillugu takujaksaunngikasattiaqłuni nunamik ajjiqaliluarnikumut.

Naniippakpat: Aqiggit aujakkut quttiktumi sivitujumiippaktut qaiqsugaani.

Nirivaktangit: Aqiggit sigguralaarminut nirivaktut uqaujarnik, piruqtunik


piruqpallialiqtunik, ukpigarnik piruliqtunik, paurngarnik, ukpigarnik,
piruqtuksanik kumangniglu.

Tusaanasuglugit: Aqiggit quksallangnaqtunik nilliqpaktut “ka-ka-ka”-lallutik


kapattaraangamik tingikaallakłutik. Angutiviallu qannguijuujaqłutik
nilliavangmijut
“kuu-aa”−lallutik arnavianik qiniqtillugit. Aqiggit nilliaruluujaqpangmijut
katinngallutik nirijaksaqsiuqtillugit, suurlu uqamajaqatigiiktut.

Ivavvingit: Aqiggit ivavaktut nunainnarmi itiqsaliuqłutik qaaqaqłutik


miqqunik, uqaujanik, tingaujanik, ivinik, ijjurnigluunniit.

Manninga: Aqiggit manniqaqpaktut 8-nik 10-nigluunniit kajurnik taqsallaallutik


Taqsaringniqsanik kajurnik.

Aqiggiarat: Nirumiktut kajuullutik tukiqpaktut ullut 20 24 aniguraangata.


Aqiggiarat nirivaktut qupirrunik nunaniglu tamainnullu angajuqqaangingnut
kamagijaullutik.

Ukiukkut: Aqiggit ukiulimaaq ukiuqtaqturmiippaktut, miqqungit


qakuqsittiaqłutik apummi takujaksaunianngimmata. Aput piijaqługu
piruqtuviniqtuqpaktut, nirijaksaqsiuqpakłutiglu tuktut umingmallu
nirivvigijavininginnik. Ukiukkut, angutiviat arnaviallu aviksimaliqpaktut, aqiggit
katinngajut angutivianginnaullutik, arnavianginnallu katinngallutik.

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Tingmiat miksaanut tusagaksaq: Tingmiat ukiuqtaqturmiinginnaqpaktut,
suurlu aqiggit ukpigjuallu, ukiuqtaqturmiutaujunnariaqaqtut. Miqqungit
sulungillu qakuqsillutik apummi takujaksaunianngimmata, angunasuktunut
takujaksauttailillutik angunasuktamingnullu takujaksauttailillutik. Ijjujunik
timingit ulluqaqpaktut uqquujjutigillunijjuk. Aqiggit isigajaangit miqqulit
suurlu isigaujarivait aputikkut pisuktillugit aputinullu immingnik saullutik
uqquunasuaqłutik.

Children's Guide to Arctic Birds-ROMAN.indd 27 15-05-13 3:04 PM


Qaqsauq Takininga: 53-69 cm
Isarungit: 106-116 cm

Qaqsaut nunarjuarmi qaqsaulimaanik mikinniqpaangujut. Siarnamik


niaquqaqłutik auppariktunik ijiqaqłutik, taqsariktumiglu aupaqtumik
qungasiqaqłutik. Tununga qirniqłuni naanga qaulluqłuni, siggukutaanga
qummungatippakługu, qungasingatalu tunuagut qirniqłuni qaulluqtunik
taqsaqauqłuni. Niungit isigajaaraalungillu tunuvasikłutik, nunami
pisuggaqłutik kisiani aqqaumakkammariullutik imaani. Asingilli imakkut
ullaktuujaarlutik tingivaktillugit, qaqsaut nunamit tingijunnaqtut.

Naniippakpat: Qaqsaut ukiuqtaqturmi sigjaqpasingmi, imaqsuni, tasillu


kiglinginni ivavaktut. Qinirlutit nunami asijjiqsimajunik qangattariaqłutik
sanavaktanginnik. Tunungit qattiujaqłutik qungasingillu attiksisimallugit
tingivaktut.

Nirivaktangit: Aqqaumallutik niqiksaqsiuqpaktut iqalungnik, sauniqanngittunik


imarmiutarnik, siunnanik, uvilulingniglu, isigajaatik atuqługit itijumut
aqqaumajunnaqpaktut. Qaqsaut ivavvitik ungasigijaalunganut
nirijaksaqsiuqpaktut
imavingmut anginiqsanulluunniit tasirnut.

Tusaanasuglugit: Qaqsaut qiavalattivaktut, aippariik immingnut


nillialiraangamik, qataittuniglu nilliqpakłutik “aauua, aauua”, uvvaluunniit
kanguqtut “kakkak kak”-lallutik ivavvigijami tasingata sinaaguuliraangamik.
Asingilli taimaippaktinnagit arnavit angutiviatitut nilliavaktut, immingnullu
nilliaqattautivakłutik tasirminiitillugit.

Ivavvingit: Qaqsaut ivavvingit mararujuuvaktut qaaqaqłutik ijjurnik


ivinigluunniit tasiup kigliani uvvaluunniit ikkattumi imarmiutanik piruqtunik
ivavviliarisimalluni. Angutiviaq arnaviarlu ikajuqtigiikpaktuut ivavviliuqłutik,
tasiup kiglikuluani imaanut qimaakauqturunnarniaramik.

Manninga: Qaqsaut marruungnik tungujuangajunik qajurnik


taqsallaajunik manniqaqpaktut.

Piarangit: Nirumiktut piarat tukiqpaktut ullui 26 28 aniguraangata


qautuinnaqtillugulu imaanuarunnaqpakłutik!

Ukiukkut: Qaqsaut ukiukkut uqqualisimanasukpaktut tasivingni, ammalu


uangnangani Amialika amma Miaksikumi.

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Tingmiat miksaanut tusagaksaq: Tamaikasak
tingmiat uqittummaringnik sauniqaqpaktut
qangatajunnarniaramik kisianili qaqsaut sauningit
uqinngittuuvut. Sauningit uqinginninginnut
aqqaumajunnattiarniqsauniarmata imarmi
nirijaksaqsiuqtillugit.

Children's Guide to Arctic Birds-ROMAN.indd 29 15-05-13 3:04 PM


Qaulluqtaaq Takininga: 16-18 cm
Isarungit: 32-38 cm

Qaulluqtaat ukiuqtaqtumiingniqpauvakput qupanualimaanik. Angutiviap


niaqunga qaulluqłuni, qirniqtumik sigguralaaqaqłuni, qaullukkariktunik
isarukutaaqaqłuni qirniqtunik nuvulingnik. Arnaviaq kajuulluni, taqsallaajumik
niaquqaqłuni, kajurnik suluqaqłuni angutiviat qirniqtuutillugit. Niungit
tamainnut arnavianut angutivianullu siarnakkarikłutik.

Naniippakpat: Aputauliqtillugu, qaulluqtaat aunniqtiguukataliqpaktut.


Ujarasugjuni mittimavakłutik nunatiguuliqpakłutiglu qupirrunik
piruqtuksaniglu
nirijaksaqsiuqłutik. Qiniqattarit qaulluqtunik isarukulungnik qaulluqtaat
tingmitillugit. Qaulluqtaat taimanna atiqaqtitauvut amisut sukkalijukulungnik
tingmitillugit qaullugallatuungmata.

Nirivaktangit: Qaulluqtaat nirivaktut aujakkut kumangnik qupirruniglu,


ammalu Nunami piruqtuksanik. Angutiviat maliglugit ivavvinganunngaujjijut
aasivangmik kingmiarluni!

Tusaanasuglugit: Qaulluqtaat tusarniqtukuluit, “Tui-turii-tui-turiui” Nilliavaktut;


qatitujunnaqłutiglu, “Hutitivitvitviuhutitivitvitviihutiti” Uvinngiarvalukłutik;
Sukkalijuniglu siraarvalugunnaqłutik. Angutiviat quttiktukkut Tingmilutik
nilliajunnaqtut mittaqtuqpallialiramik.

Ivavvingit: Sukangaluanngittunik paniqsimajunik ivingnik ivavviqaqpaktut,


qaaqaqłutik nirumiktunik qunirunik, aqiggit qunirunginnik, nunanillu
nirummaakkutinik. Uqquuluanngittunik, siqinirmit tarrisimajunik
ujaqqat akunninginni ivavviqaqpaktut Ivavvitiglu ulluqattiaqti&&unijjuk
uqquujumiinniarmata manningit. Arnaviat ivavviliuqpaktut, angutivianullu
nirititauvakłuni ivatillugu.

Manninga: Qaulluqtaat manniqarunnaqtut marruungnik


tisamaujunngigaqtunigluunniit tungujuqtunik siarnaujarnigluunniit kajurnik
aqsallaajunik.

Aittauqtunngiat: Nirumiktut siarnat aittauqtunngiat tukiqpaktut ullut


12 13-luunniit aniguraangata tamainnullu angajuqqaangingnut kamagijaullutik
nirititauvakłutik qupirrunik.

Ukiukkut: Qaulluqtaat ukiukkut Kanatami qallunaat nunanganni, Amialikkat


nunanganni Alaaskaulu ilanganni sigjanganniippaktut nunainnarmillu.

30

Children's Guide to Arctic Birds-ROMAN.indd 30 15-05-13 3:05 PM


Other documents randomly have
different content
mysteries of the gods, should keep at home certain sacred
emblems and wrap them in a linen cloth, the purest covering
for divine objects? For wool, the excretion of a sluggish body,
taken from sheep, was deemed a profane attire even
according to the early tenets of Orpheus and Pythagoras. But
flax, that cleanest and best production of the field, is used,
not only for the inner and outer clothing of the most holy
priests of the Egyptians, but also for covering sacred objects.
—Yates’s Translation.
Indutus was the putting on of the inner, amictus of the outer
garment.
Vestibus lineis utuntur Ægyptii sacerdotes non solum
extrinsecus, sed et intrinsecus.—Hieron. in Ezek. 44. folio 257.
The Egyptian priests use linen garments, not only without,
but also within.
Plutarch says[469], that the priests of Isis wore linen on account of
its purity, and he remarks how absurd and inconsistent would have
been their conduct, if they had carefully plucked the hairs from their
own bodies, and yet clothed themselves in wool, which is the hair of
sheep. He also mentions the opinion of some who thought that flax
was used for clothing, because the color of its blossom resembles
the etherial blue which surrounds the world; and he states, that the
priests of Isis were also buried in their sacred vestments. According
to Strabo, Panopolis was an ancient seat of the linen
manufacture[470].

[469] L. xvii. § 41. p. 586. ed. Siebenkees.


[470] De Iside et Osiride, prope init. Opp. ed. H. Stephani, Par.
1572, tom. i p. 627, 628.

Celsius in his Hierobotanicon (vol. ii. p. 287-291.), and Forster in his


treatise De Bysso Antiquorum (p. 65-68.) have quoted other
passages from ancient authors, which concur to show the
abundance and excellence of the flax grown anciently in Lower
Egypt, and more particularly in the vicinity of Pelusium, the general
employment of it among the inhabitants for clothing, and the
exclusive use of linen cloth for the garments of the priesthood and
for other sacred purposes, and especially for the worship of Isis and
Osiris. From the same authorities we learn, that the Egyptian flax
and the cloth woven from it were shipped in great quantities to all
the ports of the Mediterranean[471].

[471] “Solomon had horses brought out of Egypt, and linen yarn”
(‫)טקוח‬: 1 Kings x. 28. 2 Chron. i. 16.

In connection with these statements the reader is referred to what


has already been advanced (See Part Second, Chap. I.) on the use of
wool for clothing by the Egyptians; and it may be also observed, that
when we find it stated by ancient authors, that the priests wore
linen only, the term ought not to be so strictly understood as to
exclude the use of cotton, which would probably be considered
equally pure and equally adapted for sacred purposes with linen, and
which was brought in ancient times from India to Egypt; and the
term linum was undoubtedly often employed in so general a sense
as to include cotton.
These testimonies of ancient authors are confirmed in a very
remarkable manner by existing monuments. The paintings in the
Grotto of El Kab represent among other scenes a field of corn and a
crop of flax, the latter distinguished by its inferior height, by its
round capsules, and by being pulled up by the roots instead of being
reaped. The mode of binding the flax in bundles is also exhibited,
and the separation of the “bolls,” or capsules, containing the lin-
seed, from the stalk, by the use of a comb, or “ripple.” (See
Description de l’Egypte: Antiquités; Planches, tome i. pl. 68. and the
Plates to Hamilton’s Ægyptiaca, xxiii.)
In Plate VI. is inserted so much of the painting as relates to our
present subject. Five persons are employed in plucking up the flax
by the roots, viz., four men and one woman. The woman wears a
shift reaching to her ancles, but transparent[472]. The four men wear
shirts which reach to their knees, and are not transparent. Another
man binds the flax into sheaves: a sixth carries it to a distance: and
a seventh separates the seed from the stem by means of a four-
toothed ripple. The back of the ripple rests on the ground; its teeth
being raised to the proper elevation by a prop, as shown in the
drawing. The man sets his foot upon the back to keep the
instrument firm, and, taking hold of a bunch of flax near the root,
draws it through the comb. This method is now employed in Europe.
At the left-hand corner of the Plate lies a bundle of flax stript of its
capsules, and underneath the ripple is the heap of seed which has
been separated from the stem.

[472] This circumstance is adapted to illustrate the mention of


“transparent garments” in Isaiah iii. 23. Lowth’s Translation.

Evidence equally decisive is presented in the innumerable mummies,


the fabrication of successive ages through a period of more than two
thousand years, which are found in the catacombs of Egypt. It is
indeed disputed, whether the cloth in which they are enveloped is
linen or cotton.
It was believed to be linen by all writers previous to Rouelle. More
especially, this opinion was advanced by the learned traveller and
antiquary, Professor John Greaves, in his Pyramidographia, published
A. D. 1646. He speaks of the “linen shroud” of a mummy, which he
opened, and he says, “The ribbands” (or fillets) “by what I observed,
were of linen, which was the habit also of the Egyptian priests.” He
adds, “of these ribbands I have seen some so strong and perfect as
if they had been made but yesterday.”
Rouelle’s dissertation on Mummies is published in the Mémoires de
l’Académie R. des Sciences for the year 1750. He there asserts (p.
150), that the cloth of every mummy which he had an opportunity of
examining, even that of embalmed birds, was cotton.
Dr. Hadley, however, who wrote a few years after Rouelle (Phil.
Transactions for 1764, vol. 54.), seems to adhere to the old opinion.
He calls the cloth of the mummy, which he examined, “linen.” He
says, it was in fillets of different breadths, but the greater part 1½
inches broad. “They were torn longitudinally; those few that had a
selvage, having it on one side only.”
But the opinion of Rouelle received a strong support from Dr. John
Reinhold Forster, to whom it appeared at first almost incredible,
although he afterwards supported it in the most decided manner. He
determined to take the first opportunity of settling the question by
the inspection of mummies, and examined those in the British
Museum, accompanied by Dr. Solander. Both of these learned and
acute inquirers were convinced, that the cloth was cotton, deriving
this opinion from the inspection of all those specimens, which were
sufficiently free from gum, paint, and resins, to enable them to
judge[473]. Larcher informs us, that he remarked the same thing in
these mummies in 1752, when he was accompanied by Dr.
Maty[474]. It is to be observed, however, that neither Larcher,
Rouelle, nor Forster mentions the criterion which he employed to
distinguish linen from cotton. They probably formed their opinion
only from its apparent softness, its want of lustre, or some other
quality, which might belong to linen no less than to cotton, and
which therefore could be no certain mark of distinction.

[473] Forster, De Bysso Antiquorum, London 1776, p. 70, 71.


[474] Herodote, par Larcher. Ed. 2nde, Par. 1802, livre ii. p. 357.

The opinion of Larcher, Rouelle, and Forster appears to have been


generally adopted. In particular we find it embraced by Blumenbach,
who in the Philosophical Transactions for 1794 speaks of the “cotton
bandages” of two of the small mummies, which he opened in
London[475]. In his Beiträge (i. e. Contributions to Natural History,
2nd part, p. 73, Göttingen, 1811) he says, he is more firmly
convinced than ever, that the cloth is universally cotton. He assigns
also his reasons in the following terms. “I ground this my conviction
far less on my own views than on the assurance of such persons as I
have questioned on the subject, and whose judgment in this matter
I deem incomparably superior to my own or to that of any other
scholar, namely, of ladies, dealers in cotton and linen cloth, weavers
and the like.” He also refers to the cultivation of cotton in Egypt,
which he assumes probably on the authority of Forster; and to the
fable of Isis enveloping in “cotton” cloth the collected limbs of her
husband Osiris, who had been torn in pieces by Typhon. The latter
arguments are founded on the supposition, that the ancient term
Byssus meant cotton, and not linen. But the question as to its
meaning must in part be decided, as we shall see hereafter, by
previously settling the present question as to the materials of the
mummy cloth. The opinion of ladies, tradesmen, and manufacturers,
though it may be better than that of the most learned man, if
derived from mere touch and inspection, is quite insufficient to
decide the question. If those whom Blumenbach consulted thought
that the cloth was always cotton, many others of equal experience
and discernment have given an opposite judgment; and the fact is,
that linen cloth, which has been long worn and often washed, as is
the case with a great proportion of the mummy cloth, and which is
either ragged or loose in its texture, cannot be distinguished from
cotton by the unassisted use of the external senses.

[475] On the authority of this paper the mummy-cloth is


supposed to be cotton by Heeren, Ideen, i. 1. p. 128.

Relying, however, on the same evidence of ocular inspection,


another distinguished author, who travelled in Egypt and published
his remarks about the same time, says, “As to the circumstance of
cotton cloths having been exclusively used in the above process, an
inspection of the mummies is sufficient evidence of the fact[476].”

[476] Ægyptiaca, by William Hamilton, Esq. F. R. S. London,


1809. p. 320.

M. Jomard, one of the authors of the great French work on Egypt,


published about 1811, paid great attention to this subject. He
concluded, that both linen and cotton were employed in the
bandages of mummies, grounding his opinion partly on their
appearance and touch, and partly on the testimony of Herodotus,
whom he misinterpreted in the manner, which will hereafter be
mentioned[477].

[477] Description de l’Egypte. Mémoires.—Sur les Hypogées, p.


35.

Another of these authors, M. Costaz, who contributed the memoir on


the grotto of El Kab, asserts that the mummy cloth is found on
examination to be cotton[478].

[478] Ibid. tom. i. p. 60.

An important paper on the same subject appeared in the


Philosophical Transactions for 1825. In this Dr. A. B. Granville
describes a mummy, which he opened. He dwells more particularly
on the circumstances, which have reference to anatomical and
surgical considerations, and expresses very strongly his admiration
of the skill and neatness employed in folding the cloth, so as to
present an example of every kind of bandage used by modern
surgeons, and to exhibit it in the most perfect manner.
The passages which are connected with the present inquiry, will be
quoted at length. Dr. Granville observes (p. 272.),
The principal rollers appear to be made of a very compact,
yet elastic linen, some of them from four to five yards in
length, without any stitch or seam in any part of them. There
were also some large square pieces thrown around the head,
thorax, and abdomen, of a less elastic texture. These pieces
were found to alternate with the complete swathing of the
whole body. They occurred four distinct times; while the
bandaging, with rollers and other fasciæ, was repeated, at
least, twenty times. The numerous bandages, by which the
mummy was thus enveloped, were themselves wholly covered
by a roller 3½ inches wide and 11 yards long, which after
making a few turns around both feet, ascended in graceful
spirals to the head, whence descending again as far as the
breast, it was fixed there. The termination of this outer roller
is remarkable for the loose threads hanging from it in the
shape of a fringe and for certain traces of characters
imprinted on it similar to those described and delineated by
Jomard in the Description de l’Egypte. One or two of these
characters have corroded the linen, leaving the perforated
traces of their form.
Dr. Granville gives a fac-simile of these characters, and in the same
Plate he represents the exact appearance of the external rolls of
cloth on the mummy. He then says (p. 274.),
I have satisfied myself, that both cotton and linen have been
employed in the preparation of our mummy, although
Herodotus mentions only cotton (byssus) as the material used
for the purpose. Most mummies have been described as
wholly enveloped in linen cloth, and some persons are
disposed to doubt the existence of cotton cloth in any, not
excepting in the one now under consideration.
But with respect to the last point, a simple experiment has, I
think, set the question at rest. If the surface of old linen, and
of old cotton cloth be rubbed briskly and for some minutes
with a rounded piece of glass or ivory, after being washed
and freed from all extraneous matter, the former will be found
to have acquired considerable lustre; while the latter will
present no other difference than that of having the threads
flattened by the operation. By means of this test I selected
several pieces of cotton cloth from among the many
bandages of our mummy, which I submitted to the inspection
of an experienced manufacturer, who declared them to be of
that material.
Besides the appeal to the senses of “an experienced manufacturer,”
Dr. Granville here proposes a new test, that of rubbing in the manner
described. But, although cotton cloth in all circumstances has less
lustre than linen, still this cannot be considered a satisfactory
criterion.
The ingenious John Howell of Edinburgh[479] paid some attention to
this question, having a few years since obtained and opened a
valuable mummy. He and the friends, whom he consulted, and who
were weavers and other persons of practical experience, most of
them thought that the cloth was altogether linen: some however
thought that certain specimens of it were cotton.

[479] Author of an Essay on the War Galleys of the Ancients,


Edinburgh 1826, 8vo.

This curious and important question was at length decisively settled


by means of microscopic observations instituted by James Thomson,
Esq. F. R. S. of Clitheroe, one of the most observant and experienced
cotton-manufacturers in Great Britain. He obtained about 400
specimens of mummy cloth, and employed Mr. Bauer of Kew to
examine them with his microscopes. By the same method the
structure and appearance of the ultimate fibres of modern cotton
and flax were ascertained; and were found to be so distinct that
there was no difficulty in deciding upon the ancient specimens, and
it was also found that they were universally linen. About twelve
years after Mr. Thomson had commenced his researches he
published the results of them in the Philosophical Magazine[480], and
he has accompanied them with a Plate exhibiting the obvious
difference between the two classes of objects. The ultimate fibre of
cotton is a transparent tube without joints, flattened so that its
inward surfaces are in contact along its axis, and also twisted spirally
round its axis (See A. Plate VI.): that of flax is a transparent tube
jointed like a cane, and not flattened nor spirally twisted (See B.
Plate VI.). To show the difference two specimens of the fibres of
cotton, and two of the fibres of mummy cloth are exhibited, all of
the specimens being one hundredth of an inch long, and magnified
400 times in each dimension. Any person, even with a microscope of
moderate power, may discern the difference between the two kinds
of fibres, though not so minutely and exactly as in the figures of Mr.
Bauer.
[480] Third Series, vol. v. No. 29, November 1834.

The difference, here pointed out, will explain why linen has greater
lustre than cotton: it is no doubt because in linen the lucid surfaces
are much larger. The same circumstance may also explain the
different effect of linen and cotton upon the health and feelings of
those who wear them (See Part Third, Chap. I.). Every linen thread
presents only the sides of cylinders: that of cotton, on the other
hand, is surrounded by an innumerable multitude of exceedingly
minute edges.
Mr. Pettigrew, in his “History of Egyptian Mummies” (London 1834,
p. 95.), expresses the opinion that the bandages are principally of
cotton, though occasionally of linen. He has since arrived at the
conclusion that they are all of linen: and his opinion appears to be
established on the following evidence, which he gives in a note to
the above mentioned work (p. 91.).
Dr. Ure has been so good as to make known to me that which
I conceive to be the most satisfactory test of the absolute
nature of flax and cotton, and in the course of his microscopic
researches on the structure of textile fibres he has succeeded
in determining their distinctive characters. From a most
precise and accurate examination of these substances he has
been able to draw the following statement:—The filaments of
flax have a glassy lustre when viewed by day-light in a good
microscope, and a cylindrical form, which is very rarely
flattened. Their diameter is about the two-thousandth part of
an inch. They break transversely with a smooth surface, like a
tube of glass cut with a file. A line of light distinguishes their
axis, with a deep shading on one side only, or on both sides,
according to the direction in which the incident rays fall on
the filaments.
The filaments of cotton are almost never true cylinders, but
are more or less flattened and tortuous; so that when viewed
under the microscope they appear in one part like a riband
from the one-thousandth to the twelve-hundredth part of an
inch broad, and in another like a sharp edge or narrow line.
They have a pearly translucency in the middle space, with a
dark narrow border at each side, like a hem. When broken
across, the fracture is fibrous or pointed. Mummy cloth, tried
by these criteria in the microscope, appears to be composed
both in its warp and woof-yarns of flax, and not of cotton. A
great variety of the swathing fillets have been examined with
an excellent achromatic microscope, and they have all
evinced the absence of cotton filaments.
Mr. Wilkinson considers the observations of Dr. Ure, and Mr. Bauer as
decisive of the question[481].

[481] Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians, London


1837, vol. iii. p. 115.

With regard to the evidence from mummies it should be further


remarked, that, as they are partly wrapped in old linen (shirts,
napkins, and other articles of clothing and domestic furniture being
found with the long fillets and the entire webs), they prove the
general application of linen in Egypt to all the purposes of ordinary
life.
Even to the present day flax continues to be a most important article
of cultivation and trade in Egypt[482]. The climate and soil are so
favorable, that it there grows to a height, which it never reaches in
Europe. It must no doubt, become coarser in proportion to its size,
and this circumstance may account for the use of it in ancient times
for all those purposes, for which we employ hemp, as for making
nets, ropes, and sail-cloth. The fine linen of the ancient Egyptians
must have been made from flax of lower growth and with thinner
stems; and the mummies testify, that they made cloth of the finest
as well as of the coarsest texture.

[482] Browne’s Travels in Africa, p. 83.


The following remark of Hasselquist respecting the soft and loose
texture of the linen made in Egypt in his time agrees remarkably
with the appearance of that found in mummies. “The Egyptian linen
is not so thick,” says he, “as the European, being softer and of a
looser texture; for which reason it lasts longer and does not wear
out so soon as ours, which frequently wears out the faster on
account of its stiffness.” He also observes, “The common people in
Egypt are clothed in linen only, dyed blue with indigo; but those of
better fortune have a black cloak over their linen shirt.”
The coarse linen of the Ancient Egyptians was called Φώσων. It was
made of thick flax, and was used for towels (σουδάρια, Julius Pollux,
vii. c. 16.), and for sails (Φώσσωνας, Lycophron, v. 26.)[483]. Φώσων
may be translated canvass, or sail-cloth.
[483] Jablonski Glossarium Vocum Ægyptiarum, in Valpy’s edition
of Steph. Thesaur. tom. i. p. ccxcv.

Fine linen, on the other hand, was called Ὀθόνη. This term, as well
as the preceding, was in all probability an Egyptian word, adopted
by the Greeks to denote the commodity, to which the Egyptians
themselves applied it. It seems to correspond, as Salmasius[484],
Celsius[485], Forster[486], and Jablonski[487] have observed, to the
‫“ אטון מצריס‬Fine linen of Egypt,” in Proverbs vii. 16. For ‫אטון‬, put
into Greek letters and with Greek terminations, becomes ὀθόνη and
ὀθόνιον. Hesychius states, no doubt correctly, that ὀθόνη was
applied by the Greeks to any fine and thin cloth, though not of
linen[488]. But this was in later times and by a general and
secondary application of the term.

[484] Salmasius in Achill. Tat. l. viii. c. 13, ὀθόνης χιτών.


[485] Celsii Hierobotanicon, t. ii. p. 90.
[486] Forster, De Bysso, p. 74.
[487] Ubi supra, p. ccxvii.

[488] The ancient Scholia (published by Mai and Butmann) on


Od. η. 107, state that ὀθόναι were made both of flax and of wool.
The silks of India are called Ὀθόναι σηρικὰ.

It appears also that in later times ὀθόνη was not restricted to fine
linen. It is used for a sail by Achilles Tatius in describing a storm (l.
iii.), and by the Scholiast on Homer, Il. σ.
Agreeably to the preceding remarks, the ὀθόναι mentioned in the
two passages of the Iliad may be supposed to have been procured
from Egypt. Helen, when she goes to meet the senators of Ilium at
the Scæan Gate, wraps herself in a white sheet of fine linen (Il. γ.
141.). The women, dancing on the shield of Achilles (Il. σ. 595.),
wear thin sheets. These thin sheets must be supposed to have been
worn as shawls, or girt about the bodies of the dancers. Helen would
wear hers so as to veil her whole person agreeably to the
representation of the lady, whom Paulus Silentiarius addresses in the
following line, written evidently with Homer’s Helen before his mind:
You conceal your flowing locks with a snow-white sheet.—
Brunck, Analecta, vol. iii. p. 81.
Perhaps even the sheets, spread for Phœnix to lie upon in the tent
of Achilles, and for Ulysses on his return to Ithica from the country
of the Phæacians[489], though not called by the Egyptian name,
should be supposed to have been made in Egypt. In the time of
Homer (900 B. C.) the use of linen cloth was certainly rare among
the Greeks; the manufacture of it was perhaps as yet unknown to
them.

[489] Il. ι. 657. Od. ν. 73. 118.

The term Σινδών (Sindon), was used to denote linen cloth still more
extensively than ὀθόνη, inasmuch as it occurs both in Greek and
Latin authors[490]. According to Julius Pollux this also was a word of
Egyptian origin, and Coptic scholars inform us that it is found in the
modern Shento, which has the same signification[491].

[490] E. g. Martial.
[491] Jablonski, ubi supra, p. cclxxiv.
Serapion was called Sindonites, because he always wore linen
(Palladii Hist. Lausiaca, p. 172). He was an Egyptian, and retained
the custom of his native country.
Although Σινδών originally denoted linen, we find it applied, like
Ὀθόνη, to cotton cloth likewise; and although both of these terms
probably denoted at first those linen cloths only, and especially the
finer kinds of them, which were made in Egypt, yet as the
manufacture of linen extends itself into other countries, and the
exports of India were added to those of Egypt, all varieties either of
linen or cotton cloth, wherever woven, were designated by the
Egyptian names Ὀθόνη and Σινδών.
Another term, which is probably of Egyptian origin, and therefore
requires explanation here, is the term Βύσσος or Byssus. Vossius
(Etymol. L. Lat. v. Byssus) thinks it was, as Pollux and Isidore assert,
a fine, white, soft flax, and that the cloth made from it was like the
modern cambric: “Similis fuisse videtur lino isti, quod vulgo
Cameracense appellamus.” Celsius, in his Hierobotanicon (vol. ii. p.
173.), gives the same explanation. This was indeed the general
opinion of learned men, until J. R. Forster advanced the position,
that Byssus was cotton. A careful examination of the question
confirms the correctness of the old opinions, and for the following
reasons.
I. The earliest author, who uses the term, is Æschylus. He represents
Antigone wearing a shawl or sheet of fine flax[492]. In the Bacchæ of
Euripides (l. 776.) the same garment, which was distinctive of the
female sex, is introduced under the same denomination. We cannot
suppose, that dramatic writers would mention in plays addressed to
a general audience clothing of any material with which they were
not familiarly acquainted. But the Greeks in the time of Æschylus
and Euripides knew little or nothing of cotton. They had, however,
been long supplied with fine linen from Egypt and Phœnice; and the
βύσσινον πέπλωμα of Antigone is the same article of female attire
with the ἀργενναὶ ὀθόναι of Helen, described by Homer. Indeed
Æschylus himself in two other passages calls the same garment
linen. In the Coephoræ (l. 25, 26.) the expressions, Λινόφθοροι δ’
ὑφασμάτων λακίδες and Πρόστερνοι στολμοὶ πέπλων, describe the
rents, expressive of sorrow, which were made in the linen veil or
shawl (πέπλος) of an Oriental woman. In the Supplices (l. 120.) the
leader of the chorus says, she often tears her linen, or her Sidonian
veil.
[492] Septem contra Thebas, l. 1041. See also Persæ, l. 129.

II. The next author in point of time, and one of the first in point of
importance, is Herodotus. In his account of the mode of making
mummies, he says (l. ii. c. 86.) the embalmed body was enveloped
in cotton. But the fillets or bandages of the mummies are proved by
microscopic observations to be universally linen; at least all the
specimens have been found to be linen, which have been submitted
to this, the only decisive test.
III. Herodotus also states (vii. 181.), that a man, wounded in an
engagement, had his torn limbs bound σινδόνος βυσσίνης τελαμῶσι.
Now, supposing that the persons concerned had their choice
between linen and cotton, there can be no doubt that they would
choose linen as most suitable for such a purpose. Cotton, when
applied to wounds, irritates them. Julius Pollux mentions (l. iv. c. 20.
181.; l. vii. c. 16. and 25. 72.) these bandages as used in surgery.
The same fillets, which were used to swathe dead bodies, were also
adapted for surgical purposes. Hence a Greek Epigram (Brunck, An.
iii. 169.) represents a surgeon and an undertaker as leaguing to assist
each other in business. The undertaker supplies the surgeon with
bandages stolen from the dead bodies, and the surgeon in return
sends his patients to the undertaker!
IV. Diodorus Siculus (l. i. § 85. tom. i. p. 96.) records a tradition, that
Isis put the limbs of Osiris into a wooden cow, covered with Byssina.
No reason can be imagined, why cotton should have been used for
such a purpose; whereas the use of fine linen to cover the hallowed
remains was in perfect accordance with all the ideas and practices of
the Egyptians.
V. Plutarch, in his Treatise de Iside et Osiride (Opp. ed. Stephani,
1572, vol. iv. p. 653.) says, that the priests enveloped the gilded
bull, which represented Osiris, in a black sheet of Byssus. Now
nothing can appear more probable, than that the Egyptians would
employ for this purpose the same kind of cloth, which they always
applied to sacred uses; and in addition to all the other evidence
before referred to, we find Plutarch in this same treatise expressly
mentioning the linen garments of the priesthood, and stating, that
the priests were entombed in them after death, a fact verified at the
present day by the examination of the bodies of priests found in the
catacombs.
VI. The magnificent ship, constructed for Ptolemy Philopator, which
is described at length in Athenæus, had a sail of the fine linen of
Egypt[493]. It is not probable, that in a vessel, every part of which
was made of the best and most suitable materials, the sail would be
of cotton. Moreover Hermippus describes Egypt as affording the
chief supply of sails for all parts of the world[494]: and Ezekiel
represents the Tyrians as obtaining cloth from Egypt for the sails and
pendants of their ships[495].
[493] Deipnos. l. v. p. 206 C. ed. Casaubon.
[494] Apud. Athenæum, Deipnos. l. i. p. 27 F.
[495] Ez. xxvii. 7. ‫שש ברקמה ממצרים‬.

VII. It is recorded in the Rosetta Inscription (l. 17, 18.), that Ptolemy
Epiphanes remitted two parts of the fine linen cloths, which were
manufactured in the temples for the king’s palace; and (l. 29.) that
he also remitted a tax on those, which were not made for the king’s
palace. Thus in an original and contemporary monument we read,
that Ὀθόνια βύσσινα were at a particular time manufactured in
Egypt. But we have no reason to believe, that cotton was then
manufactured in Egypt at all, whereas linen cloth was made in
immense quantities.
VIII. Philo, who lived at Alexandria, and could not be ignorant upon
the subject, plainly uses Βύσσος to mean flax. He says, the Jewish
High-Priest wore a linen garment, made of the purest Byssus, which
was a symbol of firmness, incorruption, and of the clearest splendor,
since fine linen is most difficult to tear, is made of nothing mortal,
and becomes brighter and more resembling light, the more it is
cleansed by washing[496].

[496] De Somniis, vol. i. p. 653. Mangey.

Here we may notice the tenacity of the cloth found in Egyptian


mummies. A great part of it is quite rotten; and its tender and fragile
state is to be accounted for, not only from its great antiquity and
exposure to moisture, but from the circumstance, that much of it
was old and worn, when first applied to the purpose of swathing
dead bodies. Nevertheless pieces are found of great strength and
durability.
Hans Jac. Amman, who visited the catacombs of Sakara in 1613,
found the bandages so strong, that he was obliged to cut them with
scissors[497]. Professor Greaves[498] and Lord Sandwich found them
as firm as if they were just taken from the loom. Abdollatiph, who
visited Egypt A. D. 1200, mentions that the Arabs employed the
mummy cloth to make garments[499]. Much more recently the same
practice has been attested as coming under his observation by
Seetzen[500]. Caillaud discovered in the mummy, which he opened,
several napkins in such a state of preservation, that he took a fancy
to use one. He had it washed eight times without any perceptible
injury. “With a sort of veneration,” says he, “I unfolded every day
this venerable linen, which had been woven more than 1700 years.”
(Voyage à Meroe et au Fleuve Blanc.)

[497] Blumenbach’s Beiträge, Th. 2. p. 74.


[498] Pyramidographia.
[499] P. 221 of the German translation; p. 198 of Silvestre de
Lacy’s. See App. A.
[500] See his letter to Von Hammer in the Fundgruben des
Orients, 1 St. p. 72. as quoted by Blumenbach, l. c.

IX. According to Josephus the Jewish priests wore drawers of spun


flax, and over the drawers a shirt. He calls a garment made of
Βύσσος a linen garment. It had flowers woven into it, which were of
three different substances[501]. He soon after mentions the same
materials as used for making the curtains of the tabernacle. In all
these instances the figures or ornaments were of splendid colors
upon a ground of white linen. We have no reason to believe, that
either the Egyptians or the Israelites in the time of Moses knew
anything of cotton: so that, if Josephus gives a true account, Βύσσος
must have denoted a kind of flax.
[501] Ant. Jud. iii. 7. 1, 2. p. 112. ed. Hudson.
The shirt of the High Priest of the Jews was probably like that
worn in the worship of Isis, which was of Byssus, but adorned
with flowers, “Byssina, sed floridè depicta.” Apuleius, Met. l. xi.

X. Jerome on Ezekiel xxvii. says, “Byssus grows principally in Egypt”


(Byssus in Ægypto quàm maximè nascitur). Of the celebrity of the
Egyptian flax we have the most abundant proofs; but, if by Byssus
Jerome meant cotton, he here committed a strange mistake; for,
supposing cotton to have grown at all in Egypt, it certainly grew far
more abundantly in other countries, and of this fact he could
scarcely be ignorant.
XI. Martianus Capella plainly distinguishes between that substance
and Byssus[502]. He seems to have considered cotton as an Indian,
Byssus as an Egyptian product. He certainly supposed, that they
were not the same thing.
[502] Etym. L. Lat. v. Byssus.

XII. Isidorus Hispalensis expressly states, that Byssus was a kind of


flax, very white and soft.
Byssus genus est quoddam lini nimium candidi et mollissimi,
quod Græci papatem vocant.—Orig. l. xix. 27.
Byssina (vestis) candida, confecta ex quodam genere lini
grossioris Sunt et qui genus quoddam lini byssum esse
existiment.—Ibid. c. 22.
Forster conjectures (p. 4.) that for genus quoddam lini we should
read genus quoddam lanæ, and conceives tree-wool (as Pollux and
some others call it), i. e. cotton, to be intended. His conjecture
seems probable. The remark of Isidore intimates, that in his time it
had already been a matter of dispute whether Byssus was a kind of
flax or something else.
XIII. Paulinus, Bishop of Nola, testifies to the great strength of the
threads of Byssus.

Cloth made of Byssus indicates firm faith:


For threads of Byssus, it is said, surpass
E’en ropes of broom in firmness and in strength[503].
Ad Cytherium in Max. Biblioth. Patrum, vol. vi. p. 264.

[503] See Part First, Chapters XII. and XIII.

Vossius also quotes the authority of Jerome and Eucherius to prove


the great tenacity of Byssus. But, if Byssus were cotton, it certainly
would not have been celebrated on that account.
The arguments of Dr. J. R. Forster on the other side of the question
will now be considered. See his Liber Singularis de Bysso
Antiquorum, Lon. 1776, p. 11. 50.
I. His first argument is as follows. Julius Pollux says (l. vii. c. 17.),
that Βύσσος was “a kind of flax among the Indians.” The Jewish
rabbis indeed all explain the Hebrew ‫( שש‬Shesh), which in the
Septuagint is always translated Βύσσος, as signifying flax. But they
use the term for flax in so loose and general a way, that they may
very properly be supposed to have included cotton under it. In the
same general sense we must suppose λίνον to be used by Julius
Pollux; and it is clear, that he must have meant cotton, because
cotton grows abundantly in India, whereas flax was never known to
grow in India at all.
In proof of this last assertion Forster refers to Osbeck’s Journal, vol i.
p. 383. He also appeals to a passage of Philostratus (Vita Apollonii, l.
ii. c. 20. p. 70, 71.), which has been quoted in Part Third, p. 328.,
where that author certainly applies the term in question to the
cotton of India.
An answer to this argument, so far as it depends on the testimony of
Julius Pollux, was furnished by Olaus Celsius in his Hierobotanicon,
published in 1747, a work which Forster had better have consulted,
when he was writing a treatise expressly intended to ascertain the
meaning of one of the botanical terms employed in the Scriptures.
The learned and accurate Swede gives on good authority an
emendation of the text of Pollux, which entirely destroys the
argument founded upon it by Forster and those who agree with him.
According to this reading Pollux only asserts that Βύσσος is a kind of
flax, without adding that it grew among the Indians[504]. In a
separate Appendix (E.), will be examined distinctly and fully the
critical evidence for the correct state of the passages of Pollux,
which it may be found necessary to cite. Pollux, in asserting that
Byssus was a kind of flax, coincides with all the other witnesses who
have been produced.
[504] Celsii Hierobot. vol. ii. p. 171.

Forster is also exceedingly incorrect in his mode of reasoning upon


the passage of Pollux, supposing it to be accurate and genuine. He
argues, that Pollux must have meant cotton by “a kind of flax among
the Indians,” because real flax does not grow in India at all; “In
Indiâ verò linum non erat, nec quidem nostrâ ætate linum reperitur
in Indiâ, quod jam Osbeckius in Itinerario ostendit, p. 383. vol. i.
edit. Anglicæ.” The “English edition” of Osbeck’s Voyage is a
translation from the German by Forster himself. In the page referred
to we find the following passage relative to flax, and no other:
—“Flax is so rare a commodity in the East, that many have judged
with great probability that the fine linen of the rich man, Luke xvi.
19, was no more than our common linen.” This sentence implies that
flax grew in the East, though rarely. Whether it grew in India,
Osbeck does not inform us. Dr. Wallich, who travelled in India, states
that flax grows in India, and that he remembered having seen there
a whole field blue with its flowers. It is cultivated principally for its
seed, from which oil is extracted, the stalks being thrown aside as
useless.
With respect to the passage from Philostratus, it is admitted, that he
uses Βύσσος to denote cotton. Besides its proper and original sense,
this word was occasionally used, as λίνον, ὀθόνη, Sindon, Carbasus,
and many others were, in a looser and more general application. But
the use of the term in this manner by a single writer, or even, if they
could be produced, by several writers of so late an age as
Philostratus, would be of little weight in opposition to the evidence,
which has been brought forward to prove, that Βύσσος properly
meant flax only.
II. Forster produces a passage from the Eliaca of Pausanias[505]
from which he argues, that βύσσος was not flax, because Pausanias
here distinguishes it from flax as well as from hemp.
[505] Paus. l. vi. cap. § 4.

But we know, that all plants undergo great changes by cultivation


and in consequence of the varieties of soil and climate. What can be
more striking than the innumerable tulips derived from the original
yellow tulip of Turkey, or all the varieties of pinks and carnations
from a single species? To make all the descriptions of cloth from the
coarsest canvass or sail-cloth to the most beautiful lawn or cambric,
there must have been, as there now are, great differences in the
living plant. The best explanation therefore of the language of
Pausanias seems to be, that he used λίνον to denote the common
kind of flax, and βύσσος to signify a finer variety[506]. In another
passage, where he speaks of the Elean Byssus, his language shows,
that its peculiar excellence consisted both in its fineness and in its
beautiful yellow color; for after expressing the admiration, to which
this substance was entitled, as growing nowhere else in Greece, he
says, that “in fineness it was not inferior to that of the Hebrews, but
was not equally yellow[507].”

[506] Pausanias also distinguishes between λίνον and βύσσος in


his account of the clothing of a reputed statue of Neptune, l. vi. c.
25. § 5. When flax is raised to be manufactured into cambric and
fine lawn, twice as much seed is sown in the same space of
ground. The plants then grow closer together; the stalks are
more delicate and slender; and the fibres of each plant are finer
in proportion.
[507] L. v. 5. § 2.
Others commend Byssus on account of its whiteness. See Philo.
Apoc. xix. 14. Themistius (Orat. p. 57. ed. Paris, 1684. p. 68. ed.
Dindorfii, Lips. 1832.) saw at Antioch “ancient letters wrapt in
white Byssus.” These, he says, were brought from Susa and
Ecbatana.

It may further be remarked in opposition to the idea, that βύσσος


meant cotton in these passages, that there is not the slightest
ground for supposing, that cotton was cultivated either in Elis or in
any other part of Europe so early as the time of Pausanias, nor
indeed until a comparatively recent age.
III. Forster (p. 69-71.) considers the testimony of Herodotus, that
the embalmed bodies of the dead were wrapt in fillets of Byssus, as
decisive in favor of his opinion, because those fillets are found on
examination to be all cotton. It is presumed that the preceding
testimony, proves that so far as they have been examined, in the
only way which can settle the dispute, they are found universally to
be linen.
Of Forster’s celebrated work it may be observed in general, that he
rather from the very beginning assumes his point, than endeavors to
prove it. He continually speaks of it as demonstrated. Nevertheless
the only arguments which can be found in his book, are those
already stated. Little as these arguments amount to in opposition to
the evidence, which has now been brought forward on the other
side of the question, we find that the most learned authors since
Forster’s time, and especially since the same opinion was embraced
by Blumenbach, have generally been content to adopt it. But,
although such eminent names as those of Porson[508], Dr. Thomas
Young[509], Mr. Hamilton[510], Dr. T. M. Harris[511], Mr.
Wellbeloved[512], E. H. Barker[513], Dr. A. Granville[514], Jomard[515],
Wehrs[516], J. H. Voss[517], Heeren[518], Sprengel[519],
Billerbeck[520], Gesenius[521], E. F. K. Rosenmuller[522], and
Roselini[523], stand arrayed against the evidence now produced, i. e.
to prove that βύσσος meant flax and not cotton, as those authors
have supposed. Yet their evidence may be considered as going all
for nothing, because they express not their own opinion formed by
independent inquiry and investigation, but merely the opinion which
they have adopted from Forster and Blumenbach.
[508] In his translation of the Rosetta Inscription, Clarke’s Greek
Marbles, p. 63.
[509] Account of Discoveries in Hieroglyphic Literature, p. 101.
114.
[510] Ægyptiaca, p. 321.
[511] Natural History of the Bible, 2nd edition, p. 447.
[512] Translation of the Bible, Gen. xli. 42.
[513] Classical Recreations.
[514] As quoted at p. 364.
[515] Description des Hypogées, p. 35.
[516] Vom Papier, p. 201.
[517] Virgil’s Ländliche Gedichte, iii. p. 313.
[518] Ideen über die Politik, &c.
[519] Historia Rei Herbariæ, tom. i. c. i. p. 15.
[520] Flora Classica, p. 177.
[521] Thesaurus Philologico-Criticus, v. ‫נוצ‬.
[522] Biblische Alterthumskunde, 4. l. p. 175.
[523] Monumenti dell’ Egitto. Mon. Civili, tomo. i. Pisa, 1834,
capo. iv. § 6.

There is, however, no reason to doubt, that Forster is right in


considering Βύσσος, or Byssus, as an Egyptian word with a Greek or
Latin termination. In the Septuagint version it is always used as
equivalent to the Hebrew ‫( שש‬Shesh or Ses), which according to the
Hebrew Rabbis was a kind of flax, that grew in Egypt only and was
of the finest quality[524]. Another term, used in the Pentateuch for
linen cloth is ‫( בד‬bad), which seems to be nearly the same as ‫ שש‬.
The Egyptian term ‫ שש‬or ‫( בוץ‬buts) is very seldom found in the
Hebrew Scriptures, and not until the intercourse became frequent
between the Jews and other oriental nations. But it is continually
employed by the Arabic, Persic, and Chaldee Translators, as
equivalent to the Hebrew terms ‫ שש‬and ‫ בד‬.
[524] Forster De Bysso, p. 5.

The distinction between Βύσσος and the Egyptian terms formerly


explained is very obvious. Φώσων, Ὀθόνη, and Σινδών denoted linen
cloth; Βύσσος the plant, from which it was made. Hence we so
commonly find the adjective form Βύσσινος or Byssinus, i. e. made
of Byssus, as in Σινδὼν βύσσινη, Ὀθόνη βύσσινη, Ὀθόνια βύσσινα,
Στόλη βύσσινη, &c., and this is agreeable to the remark of the
Patriarch Photius in his 192nd Epistle, Φυτὸν δὲ ἡ βύσσος, “Byssus is
a plant.”
Herodotus (ii. 105.), pointing out resemblances between the
Egyptians and the Colchians, says, they prepare their flax in the
same manner, and in a manner which is practiced by no other
nation. Xenophon directs, that nets should be made of flax from the
Phasis, or from Carthage[525]. Pollux (l. v. cap. 4. § 26.) says, that
the flax for the same purpose should be either from those countries,
or from Egypt or Sardes. Callimachus (Frag. 265.) mentions the flax
of Colchis under the name of “the Colchian halm.” Strabo (l. xi. § 17.
vol. iv. p. 402. Tschuz.) testifies to the celebrity of Colchis for the
growth and manufacture of flax, and says, that the linen of this
country was exported to distant places.
[525] De Venat. ii. 4. Gratius Faliscus, in his directions on the
same subject, recommends the flax from the rich moist plains
about the river Cinyps, not very far from Carthage.
Optima Cinyphiæ, ne quid contere, paludes
Lina dabunt.—Cynegeticon, 34, 35.

It seems still to maintain its ancient pre-eminence: Larcher refers to


Chardin (tom. i. p. 115.), as saying, that the Prince of Mingrelia, a
part of the ancient Colchis, paid in his time an annual tribute of linen
to the Turks.
That flax was extensively cultivated in Babylonia appears from the
testimony of Herodotus, who says (i. 195.), that the Babylonians
wore a linen shirt reaching to the feet; over that a woollen shirt; and
over that a white shawl. Strabo (l. xvi. cap. 1. p. 739. ed. Casaub.)
shows where these linen shirts were chiefly made; for he informs us
that Borsippa, a city of Babylonia, sacred to Apollo and Diana, was a
great place for the manufacture of linen.
The cultivation of flax in the region of the Euphrates may also be
inferred from the use of the linen thorax, as attested by Xenophon
(Cyropedia, vi. 4. 2.).
From Joshua ii. 6. we have evidence, that flax was cultivated in
Palestine near the Jordan. Rahab concealed the two Hebrew spies
(according to the common English version) “with the stalks of flax,
which she had laid in order upon the roof.” According to the
Septuagint translation, “the stalks of flax” were not merely “laid in
order,” but “stacked.” Josephus says, she was drying the bundles.
The Chaldee Paraphrast Onkelos also uses the expression ‫מעוני‬
‫כחנא‬, bundles of flax. Agreeably to these explanations, the history
must be understood as implying, that the stalks of flax, tied into
bundles, as represented in the painting at El Kab[526], were stacked,
probably crossways, upon the flat roof of Ahab’s house, so as to
allow the wind to blow through and dry them.
[526] See Plate VI. p. 358.

Other passages, referring to the use of flax for weaving in Palestine,


are Levit. xiii. 47, 48. 52. 59, where linen garments are four times
mentioned in opposition to woollen.
Proverbs xxi. 13. The virtuous woman, so admirably described in this
chapter, “seeketh wool and flax, and worketh willingly with her
hands.” (See Part First, Chapter I. p. 13.). This proves, that flax was
still an important article of cultivation in Palestine.
In 1 Chron. iv. 21. there is an allusion to a great establishment for
dressing the fine flax, called Butz, or Byssus. It was conducted by
certain families of the tribe of Judah[527].

[527] Hebr. ‫משפחת בית־עבדת הבץ‬, i. e. “the families, or


perhaps the partnerships, of the manufactory of Byssus;” Vulg.
“Cognationes domus operantium byssum.”

Jeremiah (xiii. 1.) mentions ‫אזור פשתים‬, “a linen girdle;” Lumbare


lineum, Vulgate; περίζωμα λινοῦν LXX. ‫ זרז רכתן‬Jonathan; ‫סוזרא‬
‫( רכהנא‬sudarium) Syriac.
Hosea (ii. 5. 9.) mentions wool and flax as the two chief articles of
clothing for the Jews in his time.
Ezekiel (xliv. 17, 18.), in his description of the temple which he saw
in vision, says, the priests on entering the inner court would put on
linen garments, including a turban and drawers of linen[528]. The
use of wool is here prohibited and linen prescribed for those who
were to be engaged in sacred services, on account of its superior
cleanliness and purity. They were not to “gird themselves with
anything that causeth sweat.” On returning to the outer court, so as
to be in contact with the people, they were to put on the common
dress, which was at least in part woollen.
[528] It is remarkable that the Chaldee Paraphrast Jonathan here
uses ‫( בוצ‬byssus) for the Hebrew ‫פשתיס‬.

In the Old Testament we also find flax used for making cords,
Judges xv. xvi.; for the wicks of lamps, Is. xiii. 17.; and for a
measuring line, Ezek. xl. 3[529].
[529] The use of the cord of flax (linea) for measuring, &c. is the
origin of the word line. “Linea genere suo appellata, quia ex lino
fit.” Isidori Hisp. Etymol. l. xix. c. 18. De instrumentis ædificiorum.

According to Herodotus vii. 25, 34, 36, the Phœnicians furnished


Xerxes with ropes of flax for constructing his bridge, while the
Egyptians supplied ropes of Papyrus, which were inferior to the
others in strength.
Whilst ‫פשת‬, derived probably from ‫פשט‬, to strip or peel, is used for
flax in every state, we find another term, ‫נערת‬, used for tow. This
term therefore corresponds to Stuppa in Latin[530]; Etoupe in
French; Στύπη, στυππίον or στιππίον in Greek; ‫סרקהא‬, from ‫סרק‬,
to comb, in Syriac; Werg in modern German.
[530] The origin of Stuppa, the Latin term, was from its use in
stopping chinks (stopfer, German). It was either of hemp or flax.
“Stuppa cannabi est sive lini. Hæc secundum antiquam
orthographiam stuppa (stipa?) dicitur, quod ex eâ rimæ navium
stipentur: unde et stipatores dicuntur, qui in vallibus eam
componunt.” Isid. Hisp. Orig. xix. 27.

Eccles. xl. 4. represents poor persons as clothed in coarse linen,


ὠμολίνον (Lino crudo, Jerome), meaning probably flax dressed and
spun without having been steeped[531].

[531] See Bodæusa Stapel on Theophrasti Hist. Plant. l. viii. p.


944.

In Rev. xv. 6. the seven angels come out of the temple clothed “in
pure and white linen.” This is to be explained by what has been
already said of the use of linen for the temple service among the
Egyptians and the Jews. On three other occasions mentioned in the
New Testament, viz. the case of the young man, who had “a linen
cloth cast about his naked body” (Mark xiv. 51, 52.); the
entombment of Christ (Matt. xxvii. 59. Mark xv. 46. Luke xxiii. 53.
xxiv. 12. John xix. 40. xx. 5, 6, 7.); and the case of the “sheet” let
down in vision from heaven (Acts x. 11. xi. 5.), the sacred writers
employ the equivalent Egyptian terms, Σινδών, and Ὀθόνη or
Ὀθόνιον.
The “Byssus of the Hebrews,” mentioned by Pausanias may have
been so called, because it was imported into Greece by the
Hebrews, not because it grew in Palestine, as many critics have
concluded.
Herodotus (l. c.) observes, that the Greeks called the Colchian flax
Σαρδονικόν. The epithet must be understood as referring to Sardes,
from the vicinity of which city flax was obtained according to the
testimony of Julius Pollux (l. c.). In another passage Herodotus
remarks (v. 87.), that the linen shift worn by the Athenian women,
was originally Carian. The Milesian Sindones, mentioned by
Jonathan, the Chaldee Paraphrast, on Lam. ii. 20, were, no doubt,
made of the flax of this country, although Forster (De Bysso, p. 92.),
on account of the celebrity of the Milesian wool, supposes them to
have been woollen. It is probable, that the Milesian net caps, worn
by ladies, were made of linen thread.
Jerome, describing the change from an austere to a luxurious mode
of life, mentions shirts from Laodicea. Some commentators have
supposed linen shirts to be meant.
According to Julius Pollux (vii. c. 16.) the Athenians and Ionians
wore a linen shirt reaching to the feet. But the use of it among the
Athenians must have come in much later than among the Ionians,
who would adopt the practice in consequence of the cultivation of
flax in their own country as well as in their colonies on the Euxine
Sea, and also in consequence of the general elegance and
refinement of their manners. Indeed it appears probable, that the
linen used by the Athenians was imported.
The only part of Greece, where flax is recorded to have been grown,
was Elis. That it was produced in that country is affirmed by Pliny (l.
xix. c. 4.), and by Pausanias in three passages already quoted.
When Colonel Leake was at Gastūni near the mouth of the Peneus in
Elis, he made the following observations.
For flax (one of the chief things produced there) the land is
once ploughed in the spring, and two or three times in the
ensuing autumn, with a pair of oxen, when the seed is thrown
in and covered with the plough. The plant does not require
and hardly admits of weeding, as it grows very thick. When
ripe, it is pulled up by the roots, and laid in bundles in the
sun. It is then threshed to separate the seed. The bundles are
laid in the river for five days, then dried in the sun, and
pressed in a wooden machine. Contrary to its ancient
reputation, the flax of Gastuni is not very fine. It is chiefly
used in the neighboring islands by the peasants, who weave
it into cloths for their own use[532].

[532] Journal of a Tour in the Morea, vol. i. p. 12.

In one of the Pseudo-Platonic Epistles (No. xiii. p. 363.) mention


occurs of linen shifts for ladies, made in Sicily, which certainly
implies nothing more than that linen was woven in Sicily. The
material for making it may have been imported. In like manner the
linen of Malta was exceedingly admired for its fineness and
softness[533]; but the raw material was in all probability imported.

[533] Diod. Sic. l. v. 12. tom. i. p. 339. ed. Wesseling.

“Flax,” observes Professor Müller, “was grown and manufactured in


Southern Etruria from ancient times, and thus the Tarquinii were
enabled to furnish sail-cloth for the fleet of Scipio: yarn for making
nets was produced on the banks of the Tiber, and fine linen for
clothing in Falerii[534].” This account agrees remarkably with the
views of Micali, and those historians who maintain the Egyptian
origin of the Etrurians.
[534] Etrusker. vol. i. p. 235, 236.

Pliny (xix. 1, 2.) mentions various kinds of flax of superior


excellence, which were produced in the plains of the Po and Ticino;
in the country of the Peligni (in Picenum); and about Cumæ in
Campania[535]. No flax, he says, was whiter or more like wool than
that of the Peligni.
[535] Probably Cumæ is intended by Gratius Faliscus in the
expression “Æoliæ de valle Sibyillæ.”—Cyneg. 35.

In the next chapter Pliny gives an account of the mode of preparing


flax; plucking it up by the roots, tying it into bundles, drying it in the
sun, steeping, drying again, beating it with a mallet on a stone, and
lastly hackling it, or, as he says, “combing it with iron hooks.” This
may be compared with the preceding extract from Colonel Leake’s
Journal, and with chapter 97 of Bartholomæus Anglicus, De
Proprietabus Rerum, which is perhaps partly copied from Pliny and
treats of the manufacture of flax, steeping it in water, &c., and of its
use for clothes, nets, sails, thread, and curtains.
In Spain there was a manufacture of linen at Emporium, which lay
on the Mediterranean not far from the Pyrenees[536]. According to
Pliny (l. c.) remarkably beautiful flax was produced in Hispania
Citerior near Tarraco. He ascribes its splendor to the virtues of the
river-water flowing near Tarraco, in which the flax was steeped and
prepared. Still further southward on the same coast we find Setabis,
the modern Xativa, which is celebrated by various authors for the
beauty of its linen, and especially for linen sudaria, or handkerchiefs:

Setabis et telas Arabum sprevisse superba


Et Pelusiaco filum componere lino.
Silius Ital. iii. 373.
Nam sudaria Setaba ex Hiberis
Miserunt mihi muneri Fabullus
Et Veranius.—Catullus, xx. 14.

Hispanæque alio spectantur Setabis usu.


Gratius Faliscus, l. 41.

[536] Strabo, l. iii. cap. 4. vol. i. p. 428. ed. Siebenkees.

Pliny also mentions a kind of flax, called Zoelicum, from a place in


Gallicia.
Strabo (iv. 2. 2. p. 41. ed. Sieb.) particularly mentions the linen
manufacture of the Cadurci: and from them the Romans obtained
the best ticking for beds, which was on this account called
Cadurcum.
Flax, as we are told by Pliny (xix. 1.), was woven into sail-cloth in all
parts of Gaul; and, in some of the countries beyond the Rhine, the
most beautiful apparel of the ladies was linen. Tacitus states that the
women of Germany wore linen sheets over their other clothing[537].

[537] Fœminæ sæpiùs lineis amictibus velantur.—Germania, xvii.


5. The use of the same term for Flax in so many European
languages, and especially in those of the North of Europe, is an
evidence of the extensive use of this substance in very early
times; e. g. Greek, Λίνον· Latin, Linum; Slavonian, Len;
Lithuanian, Linnai; Lettish, Linni; German, Lein; French, Suio;
Gothic, and Anglo-Saxon, Lin; Welsh, Llin.

Jerome mentions the shirts of the Atrebates as one of the luxuries of


his day, and his notice of them seems to show, that they were
conveyed as an article of merchandize even into Asia.
Whether the manufactures of the Atrebates were equal to the
modern Cambric we cannot say; but, supposing the garments in
question to have been linen, it is remarkable that this manufacture
should have flourished in Artois for 1800 years[538].

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