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Children's Guide to Arctic Birds-ROMAN.indd 1 15-05-13 3:01 PM
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1 Pigiarut
2 Tingmiat Uukturaqtauningit
8 Akpa
10 Imiqqutaila
12 Saurraq
14 Mitiq Amauligjuaq
16 Aggiarjuk
18 Qugjuk
20 Kiggavik
22 Ukpigjuaq
24 Tulugaq
26 Aqiggiq
28 Qaqsauq
30 Qaulluqtaaq
32 Uqalimaakkannigaksat
32 Ilisarijaujut
Tingmianut Uukturarutaujut
Takininga
Tingmiat sigguanit papiata takilaanganut uukturaqtaujuq.
Isarungit
Tingmiap isarungata isuanit igluanut isuanut
uukturaqtauninga.
Ukiulimaaq ukiuqtaqturmiippaktut
Tingmiat qanninnguaqtaqaqpat makpigap qulaani, nalunaiqsijuq
taanna tingmiaq ukiuqtaqturmiippangningani ukiulimaaq.
Tikippaktut aullaqpaktut
Tingmiat una saqqijaaqpat makpigap qulaani, nalunaiqsijuq taanna
tingmiaq ukiuqtaqtumut tikippangninganik. Ukiukkut nunaup
asianiippaktuq aujakkut ukiuqtaqtumut ivajaqtuqpaktuq.
Sa u rraq
Tulugaq
A q i ggiq
Q u g j uk
Im q
iq
q ut a i a
l
Ukpigjuaq
A g giarju k
Akpa
Mitiq
A jua q
m a ulig
Q aqsauq
Tingmiat angiliriingningit
Tingmiannguat nalunaiqsijjutaujut qanuq
angiliriiktigingmangaata.
Ukpigjuaq papinganit
Qaulluqtaaq
isarunganit
Tulugaq
qangattautingit Mitiq amauligjuaq
ullungit
Sulut
Qanuq tingmiat ajjiunngilat? Asingittauq uumajut isaruqarmijut, suurlu
tarralikitaat, kigutilit miqquittut, iguttalluunniit. Asingit uumajut suurlu
ulikapaaliit, pamiukutaaliit amma pigliqtajuut naaraajiit manniqaqpangmijut.
Kisiani tingmiat uumajulimaanik suluqaqtutuattiangujut. Sulunginnut
uqquujunnaqłutik, angujaunasuliraangamiglu qangattarlutik qimaajunnaqłutik.
Suluminullu aippaksaqtaarasuutiqarunnaqłutik. Tingmiat sulungit taqsangit
asijjirunnaqłutik silaup asijjiqpallianinga maliglugu qukaagutinginnik. Sulungillu
asijjirunnarillutik isaulauqtillugit. Isaullutik sulut piujunniiqsimajut katagaqłutik
nutaanik sulutaaqpaktut.
Qugjuk
Qaulluqtaaq
Qaqsauq
Kiggavik
Siggut
Siggut ajjigiinngittuuvaktut tauttungitanginingillu. Siggungata qanuilinganinganut
qaujijunnaqtugut kisunik nirivangmangaata. Piruqtuksanik nirivaktut, kumangnik
nirivaktut, iqaluktuqpaktut ajjigiinngittunik sigguqauqtuinnait. Sigguata
qanuilinganinganut nirijaksaqsiurutigivaktangit. Takijut sangungaujaqtut sigjani
marani kumaksiurutauvaktut, ilangillu tisijut siggungi tangijut aippaksaqtaara
suutiqarunnaqłutik. Nalauttaarunnaqpit ukua tingmiat kisutuqpangmangaata
siggungata qanuilinganinga maliglugu?
Qugjuk
Saurraq
Tulugaq
Isigajaat
Amisunik ilittijunnarmijutit qanuq nirijaksaqsiusuungungmangaata isigajaangitigut.
Ilangit tingmiat, suurlu ukpigjuat, angunasukpaktut. Isigajaangit sanngijuullutik
kukiqquqtullutiglu tigusijjutiksanginnik. Ilangit niukutaaliit sigjarni imaqsuni
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ingirrajunnaqłutik aqqaumalutiglu iqalugasugunnaqłutik.
12
13
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30
[471] “Solomon had horses brought out of Egypt, and linen yarn”
()טקוח: 1 Kings x. 28. 2 Chron. i. 16.
The difference, here pointed out, will explain why linen has greater
lustre than cotton: it is no doubt because in linen the lucid surfaces
are much larger. The same circumstance may also explain the
different effect of linen and cotton upon the health and feelings of
those who wear them (See Part Third, Chap. I.). Every linen thread
presents only the sides of cylinders: that of cotton, on the other
hand, is surrounded by an innumerable multitude of exceedingly
minute edges.
Mr. Pettigrew, in his “History of Egyptian Mummies” (London 1834,
p. 95.), expresses the opinion that the bandages are principally of
cotton, though occasionally of linen. He has since arrived at the
conclusion that they are all of linen: and his opinion appears to be
established on the following evidence, which he gives in a note to
the above mentioned work (p. 91.).
Dr. Ure has been so good as to make known to me that which
I conceive to be the most satisfactory test of the absolute
nature of flax and cotton, and in the course of his microscopic
researches on the structure of textile fibres he has succeeded
in determining their distinctive characters. From a most
precise and accurate examination of these substances he has
been able to draw the following statement:—The filaments of
flax have a glassy lustre when viewed by day-light in a good
microscope, and a cylindrical form, which is very rarely
flattened. Their diameter is about the two-thousandth part of
an inch. They break transversely with a smooth surface, like a
tube of glass cut with a file. A line of light distinguishes their
axis, with a deep shading on one side only, or on both sides,
according to the direction in which the incident rays fall on
the filaments.
The filaments of cotton are almost never true cylinders, but
are more or less flattened and tortuous; so that when viewed
under the microscope they appear in one part like a riband
from the one-thousandth to the twelve-hundredth part of an
inch broad, and in another like a sharp edge or narrow line.
They have a pearly translucency in the middle space, with a
dark narrow border at each side, like a hem. When broken
across, the fracture is fibrous or pointed. Mummy cloth, tried
by these criteria in the microscope, appears to be composed
both in its warp and woof-yarns of flax, and not of cotton. A
great variety of the swathing fillets have been examined with
an excellent achromatic microscope, and they have all
evinced the absence of cotton filaments.
Mr. Wilkinson considers the observations of Dr. Ure, and Mr. Bauer as
decisive of the question[481].
Fine linen, on the other hand, was called Ὀθόνη. This term, as well
as the preceding, was in all probability an Egyptian word, adopted
by the Greeks to denote the commodity, to which the Egyptians
themselves applied it. It seems to correspond, as Salmasius[484],
Celsius[485], Forster[486], and Jablonski[487] have observed, to the
“ אטון מצריסFine linen of Egypt,” in Proverbs vii. 16. For אטון, put
into Greek letters and with Greek terminations, becomes ὀθόνη and
ὀθόνιον. Hesychius states, no doubt correctly, that ὀθόνη was
applied by the Greeks to any fine and thin cloth, though not of
linen[488]. But this was in later times and by a general and
secondary application of the term.
It appears also that in later times ὀθόνη was not restricted to fine
linen. It is used for a sail by Achilles Tatius in describing a storm (l.
iii.), and by the Scholiast on Homer, Il. σ.
Agreeably to the preceding remarks, the ὀθόναι mentioned in the
two passages of the Iliad may be supposed to have been procured
from Egypt. Helen, when she goes to meet the senators of Ilium at
the Scæan Gate, wraps herself in a white sheet of fine linen (Il. γ.
141.). The women, dancing on the shield of Achilles (Il. σ. 595.),
wear thin sheets. These thin sheets must be supposed to have been
worn as shawls, or girt about the bodies of the dancers. Helen would
wear hers so as to veil her whole person agreeably to the
representation of the lady, whom Paulus Silentiarius addresses in the
following line, written evidently with Homer’s Helen before his mind:
You conceal your flowing locks with a snow-white sheet.—
Brunck, Analecta, vol. iii. p. 81.
Perhaps even the sheets, spread for Phœnix to lie upon in the tent
of Achilles, and for Ulysses on his return to Ithica from the country
of the Phæacians[489], though not called by the Egyptian name,
should be supposed to have been made in Egypt. In the time of
Homer (900 B. C.) the use of linen cloth was certainly rare among
the Greeks; the manufacture of it was perhaps as yet unknown to
them.
The term Σινδών (Sindon), was used to denote linen cloth still more
extensively than ὀθόνη, inasmuch as it occurs both in Greek and
Latin authors[490]. According to Julius Pollux this also was a word of
Egyptian origin, and Coptic scholars inform us that it is found in the
modern Shento, which has the same signification[491].
[490] E. g. Martial.
[491] Jablonski, ubi supra, p. cclxxiv.
Serapion was called Sindonites, because he always wore linen
(Palladii Hist. Lausiaca, p. 172). He was an Egyptian, and retained
the custom of his native country.
Although Σινδών originally denoted linen, we find it applied, like
Ὀθόνη, to cotton cloth likewise; and although both of these terms
probably denoted at first those linen cloths only, and especially the
finer kinds of them, which were made in Egypt, yet as the
manufacture of linen extends itself into other countries, and the
exports of India were added to those of Egypt, all varieties either of
linen or cotton cloth, wherever woven, were designated by the
Egyptian names Ὀθόνη and Σινδών.
Another term, which is probably of Egyptian origin, and therefore
requires explanation here, is the term Βύσσος or Byssus. Vossius
(Etymol. L. Lat. v. Byssus) thinks it was, as Pollux and Isidore assert,
a fine, white, soft flax, and that the cloth made from it was like the
modern cambric: “Similis fuisse videtur lino isti, quod vulgo
Cameracense appellamus.” Celsius, in his Hierobotanicon (vol. ii. p.
173.), gives the same explanation. This was indeed the general
opinion of learned men, until J. R. Forster advanced the position,
that Byssus was cotton. A careful examination of the question
confirms the correctness of the old opinions, and for the following
reasons.
I. The earliest author, who uses the term, is Æschylus. He represents
Antigone wearing a shawl or sheet of fine flax[492]. In the Bacchæ of
Euripides (l. 776.) the same garment, which was distinctive of the
female sex, is introduced under the same denomination. We cannot
suppose, that dramatic writers would mention in plays addressed to
a general audience clothing of any material with which they were
not familiarly acquainted. But the Greeks in the time of Æschylus
and Euripides knew little or nothing of cotton. They had, however,
been long supplied with fine linen from Egypt and Phœnice; and the
βύσσινον πέπλωμα of Antigone is the same article of female attire
with the ἀργενναὶ ὀθόναι of Helen, described by Homer. Indeed
Æschylus himself in two other passages calls the same garment
linen. In the Coephoræ (l. 25, 26.) the expressions, Λινόφθοροι δ’
ὑφασμάτων λακίδες and Πρόστερνοι στολμοὶ πέπλων, describe the
rents, expressive of sorrow, which were made in the linen veil or
shawl (πέπλος) of an Oriental woman. In the Supplices (l. 120.) the
leader of the chorus says, she often tears her linen, or her Sidonian
veil.
[492] Septem contra Thebas, l. 1041. See also Persæ, l. 129.
II. The next author in point of time, and one of the first in point of
importance, is Herodotus. In his account of the mode of making
mummies, he says (l. ii. c. 86.) the embalmed body was enveloped
in cotton. But the fillets or bandages of the mummies are proved by
microscopic observations to be universally linen; at least all the
specimens have been found to be linen, which have been submitted
to this, the only decisive test.
III. Herodotus also states (vii. 181.), that a man, wounded in an
engagement, had his torn limbs bound σινδόνος βυσσίνης τελαμῶσι.
Now, supposing that the persons concerned had their choice
between linen and cotton, there can be no doubt that they would
choose linen as most suitable for such a purpose. Cotton, when
applied to wounds, irritates them. Julius Pollux mentions (l. iv. c. 20.
181.; l. vii. c. 16. and 25. 72.) these bandages as used in surgery.
The same fillets, which were used to swathe dead bodies, were also
adapted for surgical purposes. Hence a Greek Epigram (Brunck, An.
iii. 169.) represents a surgeon and an undertaker as leaguing to assist
each other in business. The undertaker supplies the surgeon with
bandages stolen from the dead bodies, and the surgeon in return
sends his patients to the undertaker!
IV. Diodorus Siculus (l. i. § 85. tom. i. p. 96.) records a tradition, that
Isis put the limbs of Osiris into a wooden cow, covered with Byssina.
No reason can be imagined, why cotton should have been used for
such a purpose; whereas the use of fine linen to cover the hallowed
remains was in perfect accordance with all the ideas and practices of
the Egyptians.
V. Plutarch, in his Treatise de Iside et Osiride (Opp. ed. Stephani,
1572, vol. iv. p. 653.) says, that the priests enveloped the gilded
bull, which represented Osiris, in a black sheet of Byssus. Now
nothing can appear more probable, than that the Egyptians would
employ for this purpose the same kind of cloth, which they always
applied to sacred uses; and in addition to all the other evidence
before referred to, we find Plutarch in this same treatise expressly
mentioning the linen garments of the priesthood, and stating, that
the priests were entombed in them after death, a fact verified at the
present day by the examination of the bodies of priests found in the
catacombs.
VI. The magnificent ship, constructed for Ptolemy Philopator, which
is described at length in Athenæus, had a sail of the fine linen of
Egypt[493]. It is not probable, that in a vessel, every part of which
was made of the best and most suitable materials, the sail would be
of cotton. Moreover Hermippus describes Egypt as affording the
chief supply of sails for all parts of the world[494]: and Ezekiel
represents the Tyrians as obtaining cloth from Egypt for the sails and
pendants of their ships[495].
[493] Deipnos. l. v. p. 206 C. ed. Casaubon.
[494] Apud. Athenæum, Deipnos. l. i. p. 27 F.
[495] Ez. xxvii. 7. שש ברקמה ממצרים.
VII. It is recorded in the Rosetta Inscription (l. 17, 18.), that Ptolemy
Epiphanes remitted two parts of the fine linen cloths, which were
manufactured in the temples for the king’s palace; and (l. 29.) that
he also remitted a tax on those, which were not made for the king’s
palace. Thus in an original and contemporary monument we read,
that Ὀθόνια βύσσινα were at a particular time manufactured in
Egypt. But we have no reason to believe, that cotton was then
manufactured in Egypt at all, whereas linen cloth was made in
immense quantities.
VIII. Philo, who lived at Alexandria, and could not be ignorant upon
the subject, plainly uses Βύσσος to mean flax. He says, the Jewish
High-Priest wore a linen garment, made of the purest Byssus, which
was a symbol of firmness, incorruption, and of the clearest splendor,
since fine linen is most difficult to tear, is made of nothing mortal,
and becomes brighter and more resembling light, the more it is
cleansed by washing[496].
In the Old Testament we also find flax used for making cords,
Judges xv. xvi.; for the wicks of lamps, Is. xiii. 17.; and for a
measuring line, Ezek. xl. 3[529].
[529] The use of the cord of flax (linea) for measuring, &c. is the
origin of the word line. “Linea genere suo appellata, quia ex lino
fit.” Isidori Hisp. Etymol. l. xix. c. 18. De instrumentis ædificiorum.
In Rev. xv. 6. the seven angels come out of the temple clothed “in
pure and white linen.” This is to be explained by what has been
already said of the use of linen for the temple service among the
Egyptians and the Jews. On three other occasions mentioned in the
New Testament, viz. the case of the young man, who had “a linen
cloth cast about his naked body” (Mark xiv. 51, 52.); the
entombment of Christ (Matt. xxvii. 59. Mark xv. 46. Luke xxiii. 53.
xxiv. 12. John xix. 40. xx. 5, 6, 7.); and the case of the “sheet” let
down in vision from heaven (Acts x. 11. xi. 5.), the sacred writers
employ the equivalent Egyptian terms, Σινδών, and Ὀθόνη or
Ὀθόνιον.
The “Byssus of the Hebrews,” mentioned by Pausanias may have
been so called, because it was imported into Greece by the
Hebrews, not because it grew in Palestine, as many critics have
concluded.
Herodotus (l. c.) observes, that the Greeks called the Colchian flax
Σαρδονικόν. The epithet must be understood as referring to Sardes,
from the vicinity of which city flax was obtained according to the
testimony of Julius Pollux (l. c.). In another passage Herodotus
remarks (v. 87.), that the linen shift worn by the Athenian women,
was originally Carian. The Milesian Sindones, mentioned by
Jonathan, the Chaldee Paraphrast, on Lam. ii. 20, were, no doubt,
made of the flax of this country, although Forster (De Bysso, p. 92.),
on account of the celebrity of the Milesian wool, supposes them to
have been woollen. It is probable, that the Milesian net caps, worn
by ladies, were made of linen thread.
Jerome, describing the change from an austere to a luxurious mode
of life, mentions shirts from Laodicea. Some commentators have
supposed linen shirts to be meant.
According to Julius Pollux (vii. c. 16.) the Athenians and Ionians
wore a linen shirt reaching to the feet. But the use of it among the
Athenians must have come in much later than among the Ionians,
who would adopt the practice in consequence of the cultivation of
flax in their own country as well as in their colonies on the Euxine
Sea, and also in consequence of the general elegance and
refinement of their manners. Indeed it appears probable, that the
linen used by the Athenians was imported.
The only part of Greece, where flax is recorded to have been grown,
was Elis. That it was produced in that country is affirmed by Pliny (l.
xix. c. 4.), and by Pausanias in three passages already quoted.
When Colonel Leake was at Gastūni near the mouth of the Peneus in
Elis, he made the following observations.
For flax (one of the chief things produced there) the land is
once ploughed in the spring, and two or three times in the
ensuing autumn, with a pair of oxen, when the seed is thrown
in and covered with the plough. The plant does not require
and hardly admits of weeding, as it grows very thick. When
ripe, it is pulled up by the roots, and laid in bundles in the
sun. It is then threshed to separate the seed. The bundles are
laid in the river for five days, then dried in the sun, and
pressed in a wooden machine. Contrary to its ancient
reputation, the flax of Gastuni is not very fine. It is chiefly
used in the neighboring islands by the peasants, who weave
it into cloths for their own use[532].