Introduction

The term computer is derived from the word compute. The word compute means to calculate.
A computer is an electronic machine that accepts data from the user, processes the data by
performing calculations and operations on it, and generates the desired output results. The
computer performs both simple and complex operations, with speed and accuracy.

Computers also perform arithmetic and logical operations on alphabetic, numeric and other
types of information. This information provided by the user to the computer is data. The information
in one form which is presented to the computer is the input information or input data.
Information in another form is presented by the computer after performing a process on it. This
information is the output information or output data. The set of instructions given to the
computer to perform various operations is called the computer program. The process of
converting the input data into the required output form with the help of the computer program is
called data processing. The computers are therefore also referred to as data processors

Therefore a computer can now be defined as a fast and accurate data processing system that accepts
data, performs various operations on the data, has the capability to store the data and produce the
results on the basis of detailed step by step instructions given to it.

Analogue Vs Digital Computers

A digital computer uses distinct values to represent the data internally. All information is represented
using the digits Os and 1s. The computers that we use at our homes and offices are digital computers.

An Analog computer is another kind of computer that represents data as a variable across a
continuous range of values. The earliest computers were analogue computers. Analogue computers
are used for measuring parameters that vary continuously in real-time, such as temperature, pressure
and voltage. Analogue computers may be more flexible but generally less precise than digital
computers. The slide rule is an example of an analogue computer.

This Class deals only with the digital computer and uses the term computer for them

Characteristics of Computers

Speed, accuracy, diligence, storage capability and versatility are some of the key characteristics
of a computer. A brief overview of these characteristics are —

● Speed: A computer can process data very fast, at the rate of millions of instructions per
second. Some calculations that would have taken hours and days to complete otherwise, can
be completed in a few seconds using the computer. For example, calculation and generation
of salary slips of thousands of employees of an organization, weather forecasting that
requires analysis of a large amount of data related to temperature, pressure and humidity
of various places, etc.
 ● Accuracy: A computer provides a high degree of accuracy. For example, the computer
can accurately give the result of the division of any two numbers up to 10 decimal places.

● Diligence: When used for a longer period of time, the computer does not get tired or fatigued.
It can perform long and complex calculations with the same speed and accuracy from the
start till the end.

● Storage Capability: Large volumes of data and information can be stored in the computer
and also retrieved whenever required. A limited amount of data can be stored, temporarily,
in the primary memory. Secondary storage devices like floppy disks and compact disks can
store a large amount of data permanently.

● Versatility: A computer is versatile in nature. It can perform different types of tasks with the
same ease. At one moment you can use the computer to prepare a letter document and at the
next moment, you may play music or print a document.

Computers have several limitations too. A computer can only perform tasks that it has been
programmed to do. The computer cannot do any work without instructions from the user. It executes
instructions as specified by the user and does not take its own decisions.

History of Computers

Until the development of the first generation computers based on vacuum tubes, there had been
several developments in computing technology related to mechanical computing devices. The
key developments that took place till the first computer was developed are as follows —

● Calculating Machines: ABACUS was the first mechanical calculating device for
counting large numbers. The word ABACUS means calculating board. It consists of bars
in horizontal positions on which sets of beads are inserted. The horizontal bars have 10
beads each, representing units, tens, hundreds, etc. An abacus is shown in Figure 1.1
● Napier’s Bones was a mechanical device built for the purpose of multiplication in 1617
ad. by an English mathematician John Napier.

● Slide Rule was developed by an English mathematician Edmund Gunter in the 16th
century. Using the slide rule, one could perform operations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division. It was used extensively till the late 1970s. Figure 1.2 shows a
slide rule.

● Pascal’s Adding and Subtraction Machine was developed by Blaise Pascal. It could
add and subtract. The machine consisted of wheels, gears and cylinders.
 ● Leibniz’s Multiplication and Dividing Machine was a mechanical device that could
both multiply and divide. The German philosopher and mathematician Gottfried Leibniz
built it around 1673.

● Punch Card System was developed by Jacquard to control the power loom in 1801. He
invented the punched card reader that could recognize the presence of a hole in the
punched card as binary one and the absence of the hole as binary zero. The Os and 1s are
the basis of the modern digital computer. A punched card is shown in Figure 1.3.

● Babbage’s Analytical Engine An English man Charles Babbage built a mechanical

machine to do complex mathematical calculations, in the year 1823. The machine was
called a different engine. Later, Charles Babbage and Lady Ada Lovelace developed a
general-purpose calculating machine, the analytical engine. Charles Babbage is also
called the father of computers.

● Hollerith’s Punched Card Tabulating Machine was invented by Herman Hollerith.

The machine could read the information from a punched card and process it
electronically

Generations of Computers

The computer has evolved from a large-sized simple calculating machine to a smaller but much

more powerful machine. The evolution of computers to the current state is defined in terms of
the generations of computers. Each generation of computers is designed based on new technological
development, resulting in better, cheaper and smaller computers that are more
powerful, faster and efficient than their predecessors. Currently, there are five generations of
computers. In the following subsections, we will discuss the generations of computers in terms of—

● the technology used by them (hardware and software),

● computing characteristics (speed, i.e., number of instructions executed per second),

● physical appearance, and

● their applications.

First Generation (1940 to 1956): Using Vacuum Tubes

● Hardware Technology The first generation of computers used vacuum tubes (Figure 1.4) for
circuitry and magnetic drums for memory. The input to the computer was through punched
cards and paper tapes. The output was displayed as printouts.

● Software Technology The instructions were written in machine language. Machine language
uses 0s and 1s for coding the instructions. The first generation computers could solve one
problem at a time.
 ● Computing Characteristics The computation time was in milliseconds.

● Physical Appearance These computers were enormous in size and required a large room
for installation.

● Application They were used for scientific applications as they were the fastest computing
device of their time.

● Examples UNIVersal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC), Electronic NumericalIntegrator And

Calculator (ENIAC), and Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer (EDVAC).

Second Generation (1956 to 1963): Using Transistors

● Hardware Technology Transistors (Figure 1.5) replaced the vacuum tubes of the first
generation of computers. Transistors allowed computers to become smaller, faster, cheaper,
energy-efficient and reliable. The second-generation computers used magnetic core
technology for primary memory. They used magnetic tapes and magnetic disks for secondary
storage. The input was still through punched cards and the output using printouts. They used
the concept of a stored program, where instructions were stored in the memory of a
computer.
 ● Software Technology The instructions were written using the assembly language. Assembly
language uses mnemonics like ADD for addition and SUB for subtraction for coding the
instructions. It is easier to write instructions in assembly language, as compared to
writing instructions in machine language. High-level programming languages, such as
early versions of COBOL and FORTRAN were also developed during this period.

● Computing Characteristics The computation time was in microseconds.

● Physical Appearance Transistors are smaller in size compared to vacuum tubes, thus,
the size of the computer was also reduced.

● Application The cost of commercial production of these computers was very high,
though less than the first generation computers. The transistors had to be assembled manually
in second-generation computers.

● Examples PDP-8, IBM 1401 and CDC 1604.

Second-generation computers generated a lot of heat but much less than first-generation
computers. They required less maintenance than the first generation computers.
Third Generation (1964 to 1971): Using Integrated Circuits

● Hardware Technology The third generation computers used the Integrated Circuit (IC) chips.
Figure 1.6 shows IC chips. In an IC chip, multiple transistors are placed on a silicon
chip. Silicon is a type of semiconductor. The use of IC chips increased the speed and the
efficiency of the computer, manifold. The keyboard and monitor were used to interact with
the third generation computer, instead of the punched card and printouts.

● Software Technology The keyboard and the monitor were interfaced through the
operating system. The operating system allowed different applications to run at the same
time. High-level languages were used extensively for programming, instead of machine
language and assembly language.

● Computing Characteristics The computation time was in nanoseconds.

● Physical Appearance The size of these computers was quite small compared to the
second generation computers.

● Application Computers became accessible to mass audiences. Computers were produced

commercially and were smaller and cheaper than their predecessors.

● Examples IBM 370, PDP 11.

The third generation computers used less power and generated less heat than the second generation
computers. The cost of the computer was reduced significantly, like individual components of the
computer were not required to be assembled manually. The maintenance cost of the computers was
also less compared to their predecessors.
Fourth Generation (1971 to present): Using Microprocessors

● Hardware Technology They use the Large Scale Integration (LSI) and the Very Large Scale
Integration (VLSI) technology. Thousands of transistors are integrated on a small silicon
chip using LSI technology. VLSI allows hundreds of thousands of components to be
integrated into a small chip. This era is marked by the development of microprocessors.
A microprocessor is a chip containing millions of transistors and components, and, designed
using LSI and VLSI technology. A microprocessor chip is shown in Figure 1.7. This
generation of computers gave rise to Personal Computer (PC). Semiconductor memory
replaced the earlier magnetic core memory, resulting in fast random access to memory.
Secondary storage devices like magnetic disks became smaller in physical size and larger in
capacity. The linking of computers is another key development of this era. The computers
were linked to form networks that led to the emergence of the Internet. This generation also
saw the development of pointing devices like mouse, and handheld devices.

● Software Technology Several new operating systems like the MS-DOS and MSWindows
developed during this time. This generation of computers supported Graphical User Interface
(GUI). GUI is a user-friendly interface that allows users to interact with the computer via
menus and icons. High-level programming languages are used for the writing of programs.
 ● Computing Characteristics The computation time is in picoseconds. Physical
Appearance They are smaller than the computers of the previous generation. Some can
even fit into the palm of the hand.

● Application They became widely available for commercial purposes. Personal computers
became available to the home user.

● Examples The Intel 4004 chip was the first microprocessor. The components of the computer
like the Central Processing Unit (CPU) and memory were located on a single chip. In 1981,
IBM introduced the first computer for home use. In 1984, Apple introduced the
Macintosh.

The microprocessor has resulted in the fourth generation computers being smaller and cheaper than
their predecessors. The fourth-generation computers are also portable and more reliable. They
generate much lesser heat and require less maintenance compared to their predecessors. GUI
and pointing devices facilitate easy use and learning on the computer. Networking has resulted in
resource sharing and communication among different computers.

Fifth Generation (Present and Next): Using Artificial Intelligence

The goal of fifth-generation computing is to develop computers that are capable of learning and self-
organization. The fifth-generation computers use Super Large Scale Integrated (SLSI) chips that are
able to store millions of components on a single chip. These computers have large memory
requirements.

This generation of computers uses parallel processing that allows several instructions to be executed
in parallel, instead of serial execution. Parallel processing results in faster processing speed. The
Intel dual-core microprocessor uses parallel processing.

The fifth-generation computers are based on Artificial Intelligence (AI). They try to simulate the
human way of thinking and reasoning. Artificial Intelligence includes areas like Expert System (ES),
Natural Language Processing (NLP), speech recognition, voice recognition, robotics, etc.
Classification of Computers

The digital computers that are available nowadays vary in their sizes and types. The computers
are broadly classified into four categories (Figure 1.8) based on their size and type—(1)
Microcomputers, (2) Minicomputers, (3) Mainframe computers, and (4) Supercomputer.

Microcomputers

Microcomputers are small, low-cost and single-user digital computers. They consist of a CPU, an
input unit, an output unit, a storage unit and software. Although microcomputers are stand-alone
machines, they can be connected together to create a network of computers that can serve more than
one user. IBM PC based on Pentium microprocessor and Apple Macintosh are some examples of
microcomputers. Microcomputers include desktop computers, notebook computers or laptop,
tablet computer, handheld computer, smartphones and netbook, as shown in Figure

1.9.
Minicomputers

Minicomputers (Figure 1.10) are digital computers, generally used in multi-user systems. They have
high processing speed and high storage capacity than microcomputers. Minicomputers can support
4–200 users simultaneously. The users can access the minicomputer through their PCs or terminal.
They are used for real-time applications in industries, research centres, etc. PDP 11, IBM (8000
series) are some of the widely used minicomputers
Mainframe Computers

Mainframe computers (Figure 1.11) are multi-user, multi-programming and high-performance

computers. They operate at a very high speed, have a very large storage capacity and can handle
the workload of many users. Mainframe computers are large and powerful systems generally
used in centralized databases. The user accesses the mainframe computer via a terminal that may
be a dumb terminal, an intelligent terminal or a PC. A dumb terminal cannot store data or do
processing of its own. It has the input and output device only. An intelligent terminal has the
input and output device, can do processing, but, cannot store data of its own. The dumb and the
intelligent terminal use the processing power and the storage facility of the mainframe computer.
Mainframe computers are used in organizations like banks or companies, where many people require
frequent access to the same data. Some examples of mainframes are CDC 6600 and IBM ES000
series.
Supercomputers

Supercomputers (Figure 1.12) are the fastest and the most expensive machines. They have high
processing speed compared to other computers. The speed of a supercomputer is generally measured
in FLOPS (Floating-point Operations Per Second). Some of the faster supercomputers can perform
trillions of calculations per second. Supercomputers are built by interconnecting thousands of
processors that can work in parallel. Supercomputers are used for highly calculation-intensive
tasks, such as weather forecasting, climate research (global warming), molecular research, biological
research, nuclear research and aircraft design. They are also used in major universities, military
agencies and scientific research laboratories. Some examples of supercomputers are IBM
Roadrunner, IBM Blue gene and Intel ASCI red. PARAM is a series of supercomputers assembled
in India by C-DAC (Center for Development of Advanced Computing), in Pune. PARAM Padma is
the latest machine in this series. The peak computing power of PARAM Padma is 1 Tera FLOP
(TFLOP).
The Components of a Computer System

A computer is an electronic device that accepts data as input, processes the input data by performing
mathematical and logical operations on it, and gives the desired output. The computer system
consists of four parts•(1) Hardware, (2) Software, (3) Data, and (4) Users. The parts of a
computer system are shown in Figure 1.13.

● The hardware consists of the mechanical parts that make up the computer as a machine. The
hardware consists of physical devices of the computer. The devices are required for input,
output, storage and processing of the data. Keyboard, monitor, hard disk drive, floppy disk
drive, printer, processor and motherboard are some of the hardware devices.

● Software is a set of instructions that tells the computer about the tasks to be performed
and how these tasks are to be performed. A program is a set of instructions, written in a
language understood by the computer, to perform a specific task. A set of programs and
documents are collectively called software. The hardware of the computer system cannot
perform any task on its own. The hardware needs to be instructed about the task to be
performed. Software instructs the computer about the task to be performed. The hardware
 carries out these tasks. Different software can be loaded on the same hardware to perform
different kinds of tasks.

● Data are isolated values or raw facts, which by themselves have not much significance. For
example, the data like 29, January, and 1994 just represent values. The data is provided
as input to the computer, which is processed to generate some meaningful information. For
example, 29, January and 1994 are processed by the computer to give the date of birth of
a person.

● Users are people who write computer programs or interact with the computer. They are
also known as skinware, liveware, humanware or peopleware. Programmers, data entry
operators, system analysts and computer hardware engineers fall into this category.

The Input-Process-Output Concept

A computer is an electronic device that (1) accepts data, (2) processes data, (3) genera tes
output, and (4) stores data. The concept of generating output information from the input 4 data
is also referred to as the input-process-output concept.

The input-process-output concept of the computer is explained as follows—

Input The computer accepts input data from the user via an input device like keyboard. The
input data can be characters, word, text, sound, images, document, etc.

Process The computer processes the input data. For this, it performs some actions on the data by
using the instructions or program given by the user of the data. The action could be an arithmetic
or logic calculation, editing, modifying a document, etc. During processing, the data, instructions
and the output are stored temporarily in the computer’s main memory.
Output The output is the result generated after the processing of data. The output may be in the form
of text, sound, image, document, etc. The computer may display the output on a monitor, send
output to the printer for printing, play the output, etc.

Storage The input data, instructions and output are stored permanently in the secondary storage
devices like disk or tape. The stored data can be retrieved later, whenever needed.

Components of Computer Hardware

Components of a Computer Hardware

The computer system hardware comprises of three main components —

1. Input/Output (I/O) Unit,

2. Central Processing Unit (CPU), and

3. Memory Unit.

The I/O unit consists of the input unit and the output unit. CPU performs calculations and processing
on the input data, to generate the output. The memory unit is used to store the data, the instructions
and the output information. Figure 1.14 illustrates the typical interaction among the different
components of the computer.
Input/Output Unit The user interacts with the computer via the I/O unit. The Input unit accepts
data from the user and the Output unit provides the processed data i.e. the information to the
user. The Input unit converts the data that it accepts from the user, into a form that is understandable
by the computer. Similarly, the Output unit provides the output in a form that is understandable by
the user. The input is provided to the computer using input devices like keyboard, trackball and
mouse. Some of the commonly used output devices are monitor and printer.

● Central Processing Unit CPU controls, coordinates and supervises the operations of the
computer. It is responsible for processing of the input data. CPU consists of Arithmetic
Logic Unit (ALU) and Control Unit (CU).

○ ALU performs all the arithmetic and logic operations on the input data.

○ CU controls the overall operations of the computer i.e. it checks the sequence of
execution of instructions, and, controls and coordinates the overall functioning of
the units of computer.

Additionally, CPU also has a set of registers for temporary storage of data, instructions,
addresses and intermediate results of calculation.

● Memory Unit Memory unit stores the data, instructions, intermediate results and output,
temporarily, during the processing of data. This memory is also called the main memory
or primary memory of the computer. The input data that is to be processed is brought
into the main memory before processing. The instructions required for processing of data
and any intermediate results are also stored in the main memory. The output is stored in
memory before being transferred to the output device. CPU can work with the
information stored in the main memory. Another kind of storage unit is also referred to as
the secondary memory of the computer. The data, the programs and the output are stored
permanently in the storage unit of the computer. Magnetic disks, optical disks and magnetic
tapes are examples of secondary memory.
Application of Computer

Education Computers are extensively used, as a tool and as an aid, for imparting education.
Educators use computers to prepare notes and presentations of their lectures. Computers are used to
develop computer-based training packages, to provide distance education using the e-learning
software, and to conduct online examinations.Researchers use computers to get easy access to
conference and journal details and to get global access to the research material.

Entertainment Computers have had a major impact on the entertainment industry. The user can
download and view movies, play games, chat, book tickets for cinema halls, use multimedia for
making movies, incorporate visual and sound effects using computers, etc. The users can also listen
to music, download and share music, create music using computers, etc.

Sports A computer can be used to watch a game, view the scores, improve the game, play games
(like chess, etc.) and create games. They are also used for the purposes of training players.

Advertising Computer is a powerful advertising media. Advertisement can be displayed on different

websites, electronic-mails can be sent and reviews of a product by different customers can be posted.
Computers are also used to create an advertisement using the visual and the sound effects. For the
advertisers, computer is a medium via which the advertisements can be viewed globally. Web
advertising has become a significant factor in the marketing plans of almost all companies. In fact,
the business model of Google is mainly dependent on web advertising for generating revenues.

Medicine Medical researchers and practitioners use computers to access information about the
advances in medical research or to take opinion of doctors globally. The medical history of patients
is stored in the computers. Computers are also an integral part of various kinds of sophisticated
medical equipments like ultrasound machine, CT scan machine, MRI scan machine, etc.
Computers also provide assistance to the medical surgeons during critical surgery operations like
laparoscopic operations, etc.

Science and Engineering Scientists and engineers use computers for performing complex scientific
calculations, for designing and making drawings (CAD/CAM applications) and also for simulating
and testing the designs. Computers are used for storing the complex data, performing
complex calculations and for visualizing 3–dimensional objects. Complex scientific applications like
the launch of the rockets, space exploration, etc., are not possible without the computers.

Government The government uses computers to manage its own operations and also for
e-governance. The websites of the different government departments provide information

to the users. Computers are used for the filing of income tax return, paying taxes, online submission
of water and electricity bills, for the access of land record details, etc. The police department uses
computers to search for criminals using fingerprint matching, etc.

Home Computers have now become an integral part of home equipment. At home, people use
computers to play games, to maintain the home accounts, for communicating with friends and
relatives via Internet, for paying bills, for education and learning, etc. Microprocessors are
embedded in house hold utilities like, washing machines, TVs, food processors, home theatres,
security devices, etc.

The list of applications of computers is so long that it is not possible to discuss all of them here.

In addition to the applications of the computers discussed above, computers have also

proliferated into areas like banks, investments, stock trading, accounting, ticket reservation,

military operations, meteorological predictions, social networking, business organizations, police

department, video conferencing, telepresence, book publishing, web newspapers, and

information sharing.