CHAPTER 1: SAFETY DEVICES

What is the Fuse?

 An electrical fuse is a safety device that operates to provide protection against the
overflow of current in an electrical circuit.
 An important component of an electrical fuse is a metal wire or strip that melts
when excess current flows through it.
 It helps to protect the device by stopping or interrupting the current.
 Fuse is always connected in series with that electrical equipment (i.e.
Bulb,Fan,Refrigerator,Washing machine etc) that we want to protect frim over
current .

Working Principle of an Electrical Fuse

To understand the working principle behind an electrical fuse, two critical concepts
should be kept in mind

1. Current flows in a loop

2. Heating effect of current
Principle of Electrical Fuse
 The fuse wire in an electrical fuse is selected in such a way that it does not face
any damage when the normally stipulated amount of current flows through the
circuit.
o Under normal conditions, the fuse wire is a part of the circuitry, contributing
to a complete loop for charges to flow through it.
o However, when an excessive amount of current flows through the fuse wire,
the heating effect of the current causes the fuse wire to melt.
o This is because the fuse wire is chosen such that it has a low melting point.
o This causes the loop to break thereby stopping the flow of charges in the
circuit.
Function of Fuse
A fuse is a device that provides overcurrent protection to the functional electrical
circuit. Here, we have listed a few major functions of the fuse.

 Acts as a barrier between the electric circuit and the human body
 Prevents device failure due to faulty circuit operation
 Fuse prevents short-circuits
 Prevents overload and blackouts
 Prevents damage that is caused due to mismatched loads
The markings on the fuse carry information such as the Ampere rating, voltage rating,
and interruption rating.

Types of Fuses
Different types of fuses are available in the market, and they are classified on the
basis of different aspects. But mainly, fuses can be divided into two categories based
on the input supply as follows:

AC fuses
 DC fuses
Given below is a flowchart of further classification of fuse:
What is circuit breaker?
A circuit breaker is defined as, switching device which interrupts the faulty current and
performs the function of a switch thus protecting the electrical system from damage.
Construction of fuse

Working of fuse

There are two essential contacts in a circuit breaker, and they are:

 Fixed contacts
 Moving contacts
When the circuit is closed, which is a normal condition, the contacts touch each other
and carry the current under this condition. Under a closed-circuit breaker, current-
carrying contacts are known as electrodes that engage each other due to the pressure
of a spring.
The switching and maintenance of the system are taken care of by either opening or
closing the arms of the circuit breaker. The circuit breaker is opened by applying
pressure to the trigger. When there is a faulty current flowing through any part of the
system, the trip coil of the breaker gets energized thereby moving away from each
other, thus opening the circuit.

Types of Circuit Breakers

A) Earth leakage circuit breaker( ELCB)

An Earth-leakage circuit breaker (ELCB) is a safety device used in electrical
installations (both residential and commercial) with high Earth impedance to
prevent electric shocks. It detects small stray voltages on the metal enclosures of
electrical equipment, and interrupts the circuit if a dangerous voltage is detected.
ELCBs help detect current leaks and insulation failures in the electrical circuits that
would cause electrical shocks to anyone coming into contact with the circuit.

B) Miniature circuit breaker

A Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB) is an automatically operated electrical switch
used to protect low voltage electrical circuits from damage caused by excess
current from an overload or short circuit. MCBs are typically rated up to a current
up to 125 A, do not have adjustable trip characteristics, and can be thermal or
thermal-magnetic in operation.
Fuse vs MCB
Nowadays miniature circuit breakers (MCBs) are much more commonly used in low
voltage electrical networks instead of fuses. The MCB has many advantages
compared to a fuse:
1. It automatically switches off the electrical circuit during the abnormal conditions of
the network (both overload and fault conditions). The MCB is much more reliable in
the detection of such conditions, is it is more sensitive to change in current.
2. As the switch operating knob comes at its off position during tripping, the faulty
zone of the electrical circuit can easily be identified. But in case of a fuse, the fuse
wire should be checked by opening fuse grip or cut out from fuse base, for confirming
the blow of fuse wire. Thus, is it much detect if an MCB has been operated compared
to a fuse.
3. Quick restoration of supply cannot be possible in case of fuse, as fuses have to be
rewirable or replaced for restoring the supply. But in the case of an MCB, quick
restoration is possible by (literally) flipping a switch.
4. The handling of an MCB is more electrically safe than a fuse.
5. MCBs can be controlled remotely, whereas fuses cannot.

3: What is Isolators
The isolator can be defined as; it is one type of mechanical switch used to isolate a
fraction of the electrical circuit when it is required. Isolator switches are used for
opening an electrical circuit in the no-load condition. It is not proposed to be opened
while current flows through the line. Generally, these are employed on circuit breaker
both the ends thus the circuit breaker repair can be done easily without any risk.
Electrical Isolator is used to separate any type of electrical component from the
system while the system is offline/ online. Isolator doesn’t include any kind of system
for avoiding arching throughout disconnection. As in an electrical substation, an
electrical isolator switch is mainly used for disconnecting a power transformer once it
is in a no-load situation otherwise a little load is there. In full load condition, isolators
don’t operate.

Types of isolators
In electrical terminology, a pole is the number of circuits that a single switch can
control - so a single-pole switch can control a single circuit, while a double pole (DP)
isolator switch will control two.
Two pole isolators-
A double pole isolator is a switch that controls two separate circuits. It is used
to isolate a circuit for safety reasons during maintenance. For example, a two-pole
isolator is required for fire-alarm control-boxes and for high-power fixed-wiring
appliances such as isolation switches next to electric cookers and electric showers. A
double pole isolator is also used for transformer isolating inverters.
Four pole isolators-
A 4-pole isolator is an electrical switch used for isolating a circuit from its power
supply. It has four poles, or connection points, that enable it to disconnect four
conductors at once. In this kind of electrical isolator, three poles use the isolator and
remaining one pole will be neutral. This type of isolator is used to connect an electrical
component with 230V and rated with a single phase.
 CHAPTER 2: EARTHING

What is earthing?
Have you ever experienced a mild shock when you touch certain appliances while in
operating condition? Sometimes these shocks can be dangerous and can lead to
major hazards. To avoid mishappenings, it is always advisable to have a
proper earthing done to the building. This process of sharing the charges with the
earth is called earthing. Earthing is a simple way for the leakage of current and hence
protects the devices from electrical damage. Grounding is also a safety process that
protects the entire power system from malfunctioning and is mainly used to balance
the load when the electric system overloads.
Earthing is defined as “the process in which the instantaneous discharge of the
electrical energy takes place by transferring charges directly to the earth
through low resistance wire.”
Low resistance earthing wire is chosen to provide the least resistance path for leakage
of fault current.

How is Earthing Done?

To ensure safety, earthing can be done by connecting the electrical appliance to
earthing systems or electrodes placed near the soil or below the ground level.
The electrode or earthing mat equipped with a flat iron riser is installed under the
ground level. It helps to connect all the non-current-carrying metallic parts of the
equipment.
This picture below shows the earthing system incorporated into an electrical system.

When the overload current is passed through the equipment or when the fault occurs
in the system due to the current, the fault current from the equipment flows through
the earthing system. The earth mat conductors aid in raising the voltage value equal
to the resistance of the earth mat multiplied by a ground fault and helps guard the
equipment against overload current or fault current.
In homes, there shall be three types of wires, live, neutral, and earth. Live
and neutral carry electric current from the power station and the earth is connected to
the buried metal plate. Electric appliances like refrigerators, iron boxes, and TV are
connected to the earth wire while operating. Hence, these devices are protected from
the surge or faulty electrical supply. Local earthing is done near the electrical metre
of the house.

Advantages of Earthing

1. Earthing is the safe and the best method of offering safety. We know that the
earth’s potential is zero and is treated as Neutral. Since low equipment is
connected to earth using low resistance wire, balancing is achieved.
2. Metal can be used in electrical installations without looking for its conductivity,
proper earthing ensures that metal does not transfer current.
3. A sudden surge in voltage or overload does not harm the device and person if
proper earthing measures are done.
4. It prevents the risk of fire hazards that could otherwise be caused by the current
leakage.

Types of Earthing
There are three types of earthing, they are:
  Pipe earthing
 Plate earthing
 Strip earthing
Pipe earthing is the best and most efficient way of earthing and is also easily
affordable. Pipe earthing uses 38mm diameter and 2 metres length pipe vertically
embedded in the ground to work as earth electrodes.

In plate earthing, an earthing plate made of copper or G.I. is buried into the ground at
a depth more than 3 metres from the ground level. This earthing plate is embedded
in an alternative layer of coke and salts.

Strip earthing is used in transmission processes. Strip electrodes of cross section not
less than 25mm X 1.6mm of copper or 25 mm X 4mm of G.I. or steel are buried in
horizontal trenches of a minimum depth of 0.5m.
 CHAPTER 3: ELECTROMAGNETISM

What is the magnetic field?

The magnetic field is the area around a magnet in which the effect of magnetism is
felt, or Magnetic Field is the region around a magnetic material within which the force
of magnetism acts. Magnetic field is a vector quantity. Magnetic field is represented
by magnetic field lines. Magnetic field lines are the imaginary lines used to represent
magnetic fields. They describe the direction of the magnetic force on a north
monopole at any given position. The density of the lines indicates the magnitude of
the field. Taking an instance, the magnetic field is stronger and crowded near the
poles of a magnet. As we move away from the poles, it is weak, and the lines become
less dense.

Symbol of magnetic field is B, and its unit of measurement is TESLA.

Properties of magnetic field lines

• Magnetic field lines never cross each other.
• The density of the field lines indicates the strength of the field.
• Magnetic field lines always makes closed loops.
• Magnetic field lines always emerge or start from the north pole and terminate at the
south pole.

What is magnetic flux

Magnetic flux is defined as the number of magnetic field lines passing through a given
closed surface. It provides the measurement of the total magnetic field that passes
through a given surface area. Here, the area under consideration can be of any size
and under any orientation with respect to the direction of the magnetic field.
Magnetic flux is commonly denoted using the Greek letter Phi or Phi suffix B.

Sources of magnetic field

• Natural magnet
• Moving charge (Electric Current)

What is electromagnetism?
Electromagnetism, science of charge and of the forces and fields associated with
charge. Electricity and magnetism were long thought to be separate forces. It was not
until the 19th century that they were finally treated as interrelated phenomena. In 1905
Albert Einstein’s special theory of relativity established beyond a doubt that both are
aspects of one common phenomena.
Electric and magnetic forces can be detected in regions called electric and magnetic
fields. These fields are fundamental in nature and can exist in space far from the
charge or current that generated them. Remarkably, electric fields can produce
magnetic fields and vice versa.

Faraday law of electromagnetism

Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, also known as Faraday’s law, is the basic
law of electromagnetism which helps us predict how a magnetic field would interact
with an electric circuit to produce an electromotive force (EMF). This phenomenon is
known as electromagnetic induction.

Michael Faraday proposed the laws of electromagnetic induction in the year 1831.
Faraday’s law or the law of electromagnetic induction is the observation or results of
the experiments conducted by Faraday. He performed three main experiments to
discover the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction.

Faraday give two laws related t electromagnetism

Faraday first law of electromagnetism

According to this law

“Whenever there will be relative motion between conductor and magnetic field then
an electromotive force is induced. If the conductor circuit is closed, a current is
induced, which is called induced current.”

Faraday second law of electromagnetism

According to this law

The induced emf in a coil is equal to the rate of change of flux linkage.

Lenz’s law states that “The polarity of induced emf is such that it tends to produce a
current which opposes the change in magnetic flux that produced it.” The negative
sign in the formula represents this effect. Thus, the negative sign indicates that the
direction of the induced emf and the change in the direction of magnetic fields have
opposite signs.

Fleming Right hand rule

According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, when a conductor moves

through a magnetic field, an electric current is induced in it. Fleming’s right-hand rule
is used to determine the direction of the induced current. Fleming’s Right Hand Rule
states that if we arrange our thumb, forefinger and middle finger of the right-hand
perpendicular to each other, then the thumb points towards the direction of the motion
of the conductor relative to the magnetic field, the forefinger points towards the
direction of the magnetic field and the middle finger points towards the direction of the
induced current.

Fleming Left hand rule

When a current-carrying conductor is placed in an external magnetic field, the
conductor experiences a force perpendicular to both the field and the current flow’s
direction. Fleming’s left-hand rule is used to find the direction of the force acting on
the current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field. Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule
states that if we arrange our thumb, forefinger and middle finger of the left-hand
perpendicular to each other, then the thumb points towards the direction of the force
experienced by the conductor, the forefinger points towards the direction of the
magnetic field and the middle finger points towards the direction of the electric current.

CHAPTER 4: MOTOR AND GENERATOR

1) What is an Electric Motor?

An electric motor (or electrical motor) is an electric machine that converts electrical
energy into mechanical energy. Most electric motors operate through the interaction
between the motor’s magnetic field and electric current in a wire winding. This
interaction generates a force (as per Faraday’s Law) in the form of torque which is
applied to the motor’s shaft.
Electric motors can be powered by direct current (DC) sources, such as batteries or
rectifiers. Or by alternating current (AC) sources, such as inverters, electric
generators, or a power grid.
Without the motor, we might still be living in Sir Thomas Edison’s era, where
electricity’s primary use was lighting bulbs.

Electric motors are found in cars, trains, power tools, fans, air conditioning, household
appliances, disk drives, and much more. Some electric watches even use small
motors.

Construction of electric motor

A simple motor has the following parts:

 A power supply – mostly DC for a simple motor

 Field Magnet – could be a permanent magnet or an electromagnet
 An Armature or rotor
 Commutator
 Brushes
 Axle

1. Power Source: A simple motor usually has a DC power source. It supplies power
to the motor armature or field coils.
2. Commutator: It is the rotating interface of the armature coil with a stationary
circuit.
3. Field Magnet: The magnetic field helps to produce a torque on the rotating
armature coil by virtue of Fleming’s left-hand rule.
4. Armature Core: Holds the armature coil in place and provides mechanical
support.
5. Armature Coil: It helps the motor to run.
6. Brushes: It is a device that conducts current between stationary wires and moving
parts, most commonly the rotating shaft.

Working principle of motor

The electric motor works on the principle that when a coil is placed in the magnetic
field and the current passes through it then it feel a force whose direction can be found
by Fleming’s Left hand rule.
Working of electric motor
 Now, when the electric current is passed through the rectangular coil ABCD. We
notice that the current between BC and AD arm are parallel to the magnetic field,
whereas the current between AB and CD is perpendicular to the magnetic field.
Therefore the magnetic field will only act upon the AB and CD arms.
 From Fleming’s left-hand rule, in the AB arm, the direction of force is downwards
and the magnetic field is from north to south. Similarly, in the CD arm, the direction
of force is upward.
 Therefore, the forces in the AB and CD arm are in opposite directions, this will
result in the rotation of the rectangular coil ABCD.
 After half rotation, the ring Q will come in contact with the brush X and ring P in
contact with the Y, this will lead to a change in direction of the current.