ELS 1102 BASIC STUDY & ENGLISH COMMUNICATION SKILLS

CHANNELS OF COMMUNICATION
Channel is the medium that carries the message from the source to the target audience. All channels can
be classified as written, face to face to face, electronic and non-verbal.
Choice of Communication Medium
You need to consider several aspects in choosing a medium for a particular message. The main aspects
are:
a) The type of audience you want to reach.
b) The speed with which the message should be conveyed: The pressure of time and the distance between
the sender and the receiver influence the choice of the medium. Some media are faster and can travel
distances rapidly, like the telephone, the fax and the e-mail; these media also have the advantage of being
person to person.
c) Need for confidentiality of the message is an important consideration. The choice will certainly be
influenced by requirement of secrecy; all media do not ensure the same secrecy of the message. Messages
like warning memo, report on a customer's credit standing, demand for overdue payment, and so on, are
confidential. They cannot be sent by media like telegram or telex or fax even if they are urgent.
d) Need for accuracy in transmission is not the same for all messages. If the content to be transmitted is
mainly data, you make the choice for accuracy and speed in transmitting.
e) Need for reliability of the medium is an important factor. Sending a message by hand delivery is more
reliable than ordinary mail; registered post is more reliable than ordinary mail.
f) Cost of the medium and its relative importance and urgency.
g) Availability of a particular medium to the sender and to the receiver is obviously an affecting factor.
You can use only those media which both you and the intended receiver can access. You may have a fax
machine but if the receiver does not have one and has no arrangements for receiving a fax message, you
cannot use that medium.
h) Feedback capacity of the medium: For some messages, you need immediate feedback; you have to use
a medium which will enable you to get it at once, like the telephone.
i) Availability of hard copy for record.
j) Formality of the medium must be suitable to content of the message. A letter of congratulation is more
formal and has a different effect from conveying the same message orally.
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k) Intensity and complexity of the message is a major factor. Many messages in an organisation have an
emotional content, which influences the choice considerably; the emotional content is not carried equally
by all media.

CLASSIFICATION/TYPES OF COMMUNICATION
ORGANISATIONAL COMMUNICATION
We define organizational communication as the ways in which groups of people both maintain structure
and order through their symbolic interactions and allow individual actors the freedom to accomplish their
goals. This definition recognizes that communication is the primary tool to influence organizations and
gain access to organizational resources.
(a) Internal vs external communication
Internal communication occurs within the organisation while external communication is between an
organisation and other organisations, customers or individuals who are external to the particular
organisation. Internal communication networks are patterns of relationships through which information
flows in an organization. Stohl (1995) describes communication networks as capturing “the tapestry of
relationships—the complex web of affiliations among individuals and organizations as they are woven
through the collaborative threads of communication” (p. 18). Communication networks emerge in
organizations based on formal and informal communication (Stohl & Stohl, 2005).
External communication must pass through the registry section which keeps record of such
communication. It involves communication with individuals and organisations outside our organisation.
Research on interorganizational and intraorganizational.

Formal Vs Informal Communication

Formal communication consists of messages that follow prescribed channels of communication
throughout the organization. The most common way of depicting formal communication networks is with
organizational charts Organizational charts provide clear guidelines as to who is responsible for a given
task and which employees are responsible for others’ performance. Organizational charts demonstrate that
communication can flow in several directions: downward, upward, and horizontally.
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1. Downward communication occurs whenever superiors initiate messages to subordinates. Ideally,

downward communication should include such things as job instructions, job rationale, policy and
procedures, performance feedback, and motivational appeals. When abused, it can lead to dictatorship.
2. Messages flowing from subordinates to superiors are labelled upward communication. Obviously,
effective decision making depends on timely, accurate, and complete information traveling upward from
subordinates.
3. Messages between members of an organization with equal power are labelled horizontal
communication. Horizontal communication is important to organizational success when used to
coordinate tasks, solve problems, share information, and resolve conflict. Horizontal communication
receives much more attention in participatory organizational structures in which employees have more
opportunity to formally participate in decision making (such as quality circles or autonomous work
teams).
Informal/grapevine communication has no definite route of communication for sharing information.
Information converges a long way by passing from one person to another leaving no indication from
which point it started. This is similar to the vines of grapes. This kind of communication is in the form of
(a) office gossip involving telling a number of persons in one’s group,
(b) single standard office stories to a trusted colleague who in turn tells another trusted colleague, and so
on.
(c) Probability; an employee may also become indifferent about whom he should pass the information to.
He/she may pass the information to anybody around him who may be interested to listen.
(d) Cluster: in this case the person who has the information passes it to selected individuals who also pass
it on to selected individuals. In every organisation, some people have good liaison with other persons.
Informal communication is generally considered to be any interaction that does not generally follow the
formal structure of the organization but emerges out of natural social interaction among organization
members. Whereas formal communication consists of messages the organization recognizes as official,
informal messages do not follow official lines. The concept of emergent organizational networks
represents the informal, naturally occurring patterns of communication relationships in organizations
(Susskind, Schwartz, Richards, & Johnson, 2005).
Moreover, effective workplace communicators understand the nature of both formal and informal
communication.
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Managers who take time to develop and listen to sources of informal information are better equipped to
understand employees’ attitudes and concerns. When entering an organization, such as when you start
your first job, asking other employees about communication practices is smart because you not only
discover formal procedures but also make contact for informal sources of information.
Intrapersonal Vs Interpersonal Communication
Intrapersonal Communication
Intrapersonal communication is the communication that occurs within your own mind. Intrapersonal
communication occurs, when you evaluate or examine the interaction that occurs between yourself and
others, but it is not limited to such situations. This form of communication occurs before and during other
forms of communication as well. For instance, you might argue with yourself during a conversation in
which someone asks you to do something you don’t really want to do: Before you accept or decline, you
mull over the alternatives in your mind. Intrapersonal communication also includes such activities as
solving problems internally, resolving internal conflict, planning for the future, and evaluating yourself
and your relationships with others.
Interpersonal Communications
Interpersonal communication is the process of using messages to generate meaning between at least two
people in a situation that allows mutual opportunities for both speaking and listening. Like intrapersonal
communication, interpersonal communication occurs for a variety of reasons: to solve problems, to
resolve conflicts, to share information, to improve perceptions of oneself, or to fulfil social needs, such as
the need to belong or to be loved. Through our interpersonal communication, we are able to establish
relationships with others that include friendships and romantic relationships. Dyadic and small-group
communications are two subsets of interpersonal communication. Dyadic communication is simply two-
person communication, such as interviews with an employer or a teacher; talks with a parent, spouse, or
child; and interactions among strangers, acquaintances, and friends. Small-group communication is the
process of using messages to generate meaning in a small group of people (Brilhart & Galanes, 1998).
Small-group communication occurs in families, work groups, support groups, religious groups, and study
groups.

FORMS/MODES OF COMMUNICATION: VERBAL AND NONVERBAL

The communication process can take any of the four forms—verbal and nonverbal.
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Both forms usually operate together in the majority of messages you send and receive.
Spoken or oral and written are both forms of verbal communication while nonverbal consists of visual and
audio-visual.
The forms of Verbal communication are:
1. Oral
2. Written
3. Visual
4. Audio visual
Types of verbal communication
1. Face to face communication: involves the speaker and the listener interacting face to face such as in
dyadic, small group or public speaking.
2. Telephone conversation: involve two people interacting by use of telephone though it is possible for a
small group by means of teleconferencing.
3. The radio: makes it possible to speak to a large number of people at the same time.
Written communication:
Written communication involves the transmission of messages through written symbols, primarily using
language. It is a formal and lasting mode of communication that allows individuals to convey information
clearly and can be preserved for future reference. Written communication is widely used in both personal
and professional contexts. There are several types of written communication. Formal written
communication includes business letters, which are used for formal correspondence between
organizations or individuals; emails, which are widely used in professional settings for fast, official
communication; reports, which provide detailed information or analysis on specific topics; memos, short
formal notes used within organizations; proposals, which outline plans or requests for action; and
contracts, which are legal documents that bind agreements between parties. Informal written
communication includes text messages, often used for quick, personal communication; social media
posts, informal updates shared on platforms like Twitter or Facebook; and personal letters, traditional
correspondence between friends or family. Academic and professional written communication
involves research papers, in-depth studies on specific topics; essays, structured discussions or arguments
on subjects; theses and dissertations, extensive research documents for academic degrees; presentations,
written content for meetings or lectures; and case studies, documents analyzing specific scenarios in
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business, medicine, or education. Creative written communication includes novels and short stories,
which focus on storytelling; poetry, literary works using figurative language to evoke emotions; scripts,
dialogue and action cues for films or theater; and blogs, informal articles or reflections shared on digital
platforms. Each form of written communication serves different purposes, from conveying formal
information to expressing personal or creative ideas.

SPOKEN VS WRITTEN COMMUNICATION

Oral communication is more natural and immediate; we speak to communicate in natural and informal
situations. We also speak in formal and official situations such as making a presentation or taking an
interview when the target audience is present. Written communication has to be used when the other
person is not present and is not available on the telephone. Long and complex messages are best conveyed
in writing.
Attributes/Features of Spoken and Written Communication
Oral and written communications have different attributes which have to be taken into account in
choosing which one to use in a particular situation.
(i) Speed: Oral communication is fast with immediate feedback. Written communication is slower in
preparation, in conveyance and in reception; it takes more time to draft, type, dispatch, and to receive and
read a letter than it takes to speak, and to hear, listen to, and understand an oral message. Feedback is also
slower in written communication.
(ii) Record: Written communication serves as a record and can be used for future reference. It is a
documentary proof, and can be used as legal evidence. Oral communication may be taped for later '
reference, but the Authenticity of the voice can be questioned; moreover, tapes can be edited and the
message distorted. Written records and documents are more reliable and acceptable.
(iii) Precision and accuracy: Written communication is more precise and accurate than oral. Choice of
precise words is possible in written communication because the writer has the time to look for suitable
words and phrases, and to revise the draft, if necessary. Accuracy is necessary in written communication
because the receiver is not present to ask for clarification. In oral communication, it is not always possible
to be so precise in the choice of words. There is also no time to seek and consider words while speaking;
however, the receiver can seek clarification on the spot. Besides, oral communication has the support of
vocal ' tone and gestures and expressions which enrich the meaning of the words.
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(iv) Length: A written message is usually shorter than an oral communication. There are standard formats
for opening and closing which can keep the message short. The situation of oral communication requires
some preliminary and closing remarks, while for written messages there are standard formats for opening
and closing which can keep the message short.
(v) Expense: Written communication requires stationery, preparation, and transmission, all of which cost
money. Oral communication can also cost a great deal since it requires simultaneous presence and
attention of the two parties, and getting together costs money. Costs will depend on the availability of the
required person(s) at the particular place.
(vi) Body Language: Oral communication is supported by the speaker's body language and paralanguage.
The speaker can control the style of delivery, giving meaning to words and sentences by voice inflexion
and facial expressions and gestures. Written communication is separated from the writer's bodily presence
and is more in the control of the reader. The reader can give to the words the sound, inflexion and stress
as he chooses; and this may be affected by the reader's mood and state of mind at the time of reading.
(vii) Feedback: Oral communication allows immediate feedback; the listener's face gives some feedback
and the speaker can modify the message on the spot. Clarifications can be sought and given at once. A
conversation can be brought to a satisfactory conclusion by continuous exchange of ideas and views. In
written communication the feedback is delayed; the reader's facial expressions cannot be seen by the
writer; the reader's response is known to the writer only when the reader replies. The reader may give a
cautious and guarded reply without letting the other see the really felt reaction.
(viii) Formality: Spoken language tends to be less formal than written language. When a language is
spoken, there are abbreviations and dropping of some sounds, as in can't, won't, don't, I'll, we'll. The
vocabulary used in written English is also more formal than in spoken English. The vocabulary used in
written English is also more formal than in spoken English. Spoken English requires learning correct
pronunciation English spelling does not always indicate how the word is pronounced. We have to learn
correct pronunciation so that we can communicate with people in other parts of the world.

NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION
Nonverbal communication is all communication that is not spoken or written. Nonverbal communication
has a great impact and influence on the receiver’s decoding or interpretation of any message.
Types of nonverbal communication
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1. Body Movement (body language)

The study of body movement is known as kinesics and it deals with all the ways people use their bodies to
communicate or enhance their verbal communication. Body movement includes posture, gestures, facial
expressions, and eye contact .
Posture—the way you position and move your body—can communicate a great deal about you. For
example, leaning toward or leaning away from someone in conversation can convey your degree of
interest, attentiveness, or involvement. Turning your back or standing to leave can convey a lack of
interest or signal the end to the conversation.
Gestures are any movement of the hands, fingers, or arms. Open arms can signify honesty and openness.
Facial expressions are the arrangement of facial muscles to communicate messages. They include the
mouth, cheeks, eyes, eyelids, eyebrows, forehead, nose, and chin. The face is probably the most observed
part of the body when we communicate with others, and this is not without reason. Our face usually
communicates our internal, emotional experience.
Eye contact can also communicate several different types of messages. Direct eye contact in our culture
can communicate involvement, intimidation, and intimacy. A diverted or downcast gaze communicates a
different message. Our eyes can also communicate dominance and submission. We can “stare someone
down” with a prolonged gaze that is not returned by the other person, or we can avoid or break eye
contact when talking with a superior, such as a boss or supervisor.
2. Paralanguage
Paralanguage is how we speak. Paralanguage includes pitch, volume, rate, and quality. Pitch refers to the
highness or lowness of our voice. The pitch of our voice is primarily determined by the physical length
and thickness of our vocal chords, but it can rise if we are frightened, anxious, or excited, and it can lower
if we are attempting to sound more powerful or authoritative.
Volume refers to the relative softness or loudness of our voice. We often speak in a characteristic volume;
some individuals talk loudly, whereas others talk in almost a whisper. We can also adjust our volume to
meet the requirements of the communication setting we are in. In a noisy, crowded room we raise our
volume and speak above the other voices, whereas during a movie or quiet dinner we lower our voice.
Rate is how fast or slow we speak. People tend to have their own personal rate of speech. Some speak
fast, others slow. We tend to increase our rate of speech when we’re excited, frightened, or nervous, and
we tend to decrease our rate of speech when we’re uncertain, thoughtful, and sad.
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Quality refers to the overall sound of our voice. Each human voice has a distinctive tone. The quality of
one’s voice may be characterized as soothing, harsh, strident, or calm. We each have a distinctive quality
to the way we sound. Can you recall your mother’s voice? Your father’s voice? Your best friend’s voice?
Often, when answering the telephone, we immediately recognize the caller by his or her voice quality.
3. Personal Presentation
Our clothing is one of the most obvious and public displays of who we are and what we want to
communicate to others. The primary consideration is popularity, attractiveness, and status. We can create
a variety of public images simply by the clothing we wear.
Our grooming can also reflect and communicate messages to the world. The length and style of our hair,
bathing routines, makeup, cologne and perfume, finger and toenail painting (even for men these days),
and many other grooming habits communicate a great deal about who we are and how we want to be
perceived.
Touching is the most intimate form of nonverbal communication behaviour. Touching behaviour, or
haptics, as it is called by social scientists, includes all behaviour that involves the skin. Primarily,
touching behaviour deals with our hands and how we use them to communicate.
4. Sign language
Sign language is a form of non-verbal communication commonly used for the hearing impaired. It
involves the use of hands to make symbolic gestures which have specific meanings. Sign language is
taught in formal learning institutions for communication with the hearing impaired such as the use of
braille. Communicating using sign language for the visually impaired may take the form of:
 Finger spelling
 Signing Exact English (SEE)
 Kenya Sign Language (KSL)

NB: find out what the three concepts entail.

Importance of nonverbal communication
(a) Non-verbal methods have almost instant effect because of quicker grasp by the receiver. Speed in
conveyance and response makes non-verbal methods extremely useful in critical situations like traffic
signs and signals.
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(b) Visual non-verbal methods aid verbal communication; Non-verbal cues can strengthen spoken words.
For instance, gestures like pointing or illustrating with hands can make abstract concepts more concrete.
A nod while speaking affirms the verbal message, making it more convincing. Visual methods help
reduce ambiguity in verbal communication. A speaker's facial expressions and tone of voice can convey
whether a statement is serious, sarcastic, or humorous. This clarity is especially useful when discussing
complex or emotional topics.
(c) Response to visuals and plain sounds is more powerful than to language. A cry of agony arouses
stronger response than a sad story; a film is more effective than a written story. TV news is more
interesting than on radio.
(d) It is the best method to convey information to illiterate people. Visual non-verbal methods are highly
effective for conveying information to illiterate people because they bypass the need for written language,
relying instead on universally recognizable images, gestures, and symbols. Containers of poisons are
marked with a skull and cross-bones as a warning; illiterate drivers manage with the non-verbal traffic
signals. Films are used to explain processes to people who may not follow oral explanations easily. Non-
verbal communication can overcome the barrier of language.
(e) Sign language helps the hearing impaired to communicate, learn and be able to work like any other
physically normal persons.
e) Message reinforcement or complementation of verbal messages, for example, a warm welcome and a
firm handshake.
f) avoids negation of the verbal message.
g) can serve the purpose of message substitution, i.e. using nonverbal without verbal communication such
as pointing.
h) Message accentuation/intensification i.e. smiling as you say, “It is nice to meet you.”
i) Message regulation, i.e. lowering the voice to mark the end of a turn or eye contact to nominate the next
speaker.

VISUAL, AND AUDIO-VISUALCOMMUNICATION COMMUNICATION

1. Visual communication aids
It includes pictures, posters, graphs, diagrams, charts and billboards etc. Organization make extensive use
of pictures such a blue prints progress charts, maps, visual aids in training programmes, scale models of
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products and similar devices. The use of such means of communication is increasing in training and
education as well as in organisational communication. Pictures can provide powerful visual images as
suggested by the proverb "A picture is worth a thousand words". In fact, many companies have designed
their advertisement copies in which only pictures are used; however, pictures should be combined with
well-chosen words and action to tell the complete message.
2. Audio-visual communication aids
Audio-visual communication involves use of telecast films on the cinema, slides on a projector screen,
computer, television and video. It is the latest medium of communication. It is a combination of sight and
sound. Audio-visual communication is suitable for publicity, mass propaganda and mass education. Large
business firms frequently make use of this technique to educate their workers and to popularise their
products. The working of a new product can be effectively demonstrated through audio visuals. Audio
communication is suitable mostly tor mass publicity and mass educations.
Importance of audio, visual and audiovisual communication aids
(i) Ability to record information for future reference
(ii) The computer and internet has enhanced search, processing and storage of information and generally
enhanced speed and efficiency in communication.
(iii) Audio visual communication tends to have longer memorability due to use of multiple channels
which makes it suitable for teaching, learning and advertisement.
(iv) The internet services through mobile phone and computer has improved social networking through
Facebook, What’s up, and Twitter.
(v) Faster feedback due to speed in communication such as mobile phone.
(vi) Audio, visual and audio visual communication is a source of entertainment, through music, video
pictures, and social chat with friends on Facebook, Twitter and Whatsapp.
Weaknesses of visual and audio visual
(i) The mobile phone has enhanced coordination of crime while IT has enhanced cyber-crime such as
money laundering.
(ii) The initial cost of buying and installing such communication devices and the operating cost is
generally high for most people.
(iii) Communication process may be hindered due to failure in network reception such as in internet, radio
and television.
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(iv) Illiteracy may hinder the use of communication gadgets since it need a good operating knowledge
such the use of computer.
(v) The use of audio-visual communication has reduced the need for face to face interaction. People now
prefer to use the social media and calling which hinder close social interaction.
(vi) There is a possibility of information leak when someone taps your communication. This is common
in mobile telephony. Young people may also get content meant for adults.
(vii) Graphs, charts and posters take time to construct.
(viii) Lack of feedback in the use of mass media such as radio and television.
Barriers to audio, visual, and audio-visual communication
(i) The recipient must have communication gadget with compatible features as the sender to be able to
receive the message.
(ii) The initial cost of buying and installing such communication devices and the operating cost is
generally high for most people.
(iii) Network and airwave failure may hinder communication process over telephone, internet, radio and
television.
(iv) Illiteracy may hinder the use of communication gadgets since it need a good operating knowledge
such the use of computer.
(v) Breakdown of communication gadgets; computers, cameras, slide projectors, video and radio gadget
may break down when they are needed for use.
(vi) Lack of electric power may hinder use of electronic communication gadgets such as computers,
projectors, slide projectors and television.
(vii) Language barrier: most mass media broadcast in official languages which many people may not
understand.
Ways of overcoming the barriers to visual and audio-visual communication
(i) In a business organisation, the management should always ensure the audio, visual and audio-visual
channels are always working properly.
(ii) The management should always ensure that networks and airwave receptions are adequate for proper
communication.
(iii) Always ensure that there is electricity or battery power and a proper back-up before beginning to use
audio, visual and audio-visual communication gadgets.
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(iv) Your choice of medium should be dictated by the literacy level, physical location and technological
capacity of the receiver.
(v) The choice of language should always depend on the linguistic knowledge and competence of your
receiver.
(vi) Mass media should broadcast in a variety of languages; the availability of channels broadcasting in
local languages ensures this.

BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATI0N

Commination is not always successful. Several things can prevent the message from reaching ' the
intended recipient or from "having the desired effect on the recipient.
1. Physical Barriers
Obstacles that prevent a message from reaching the intended recipient may be outside and beyond the
control of the persons concerned. Some can be controlled by the management; some cannot be controlled
because they are in the environment.
(a) Defects in the Medium
Defects in the devices used for transmitting messages are external, and usually not within the control of
the parties engaged in communication. The telephone, the postal system, the courier service, or electronic
media may fail. Messages can get delayed, distorted and even lost while being transmitted. A partial
failure of the mechanical equipment is more harmful than a total failure because a partial failure may
carry an incomplete or distorted message. A fax message can be wrongly delivered as a wrong number
can get dialled on the telephone. The printout may not be clear at all. It is advisable to call up and check
that the fax has been received.
(b) Noise
Noise is any disturbance which occurs in the transmission process. In face-to face communication which
is carried by air vibration, the air may be disturbed by noise such as traffic, factory work, or people
talking. In a factory, oral communication is very difficult because of the noise of the machines.
Organisations that can afford sound-proof rooms can overcome this barrier to some extent.
(c) Information Overload
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When there is too much information, some of it is blocked in transit and may not reach the intended
audience. Advertising and sales information is an example of overload; so much communication about
products floats through so many media that a good deal of it-does not reach the potential buyer.
2. Semantic and Language Barriers
Semantic means pertaining to or arising from the different meanings of words or other symbols. First of
all, many words have multiple meanings. Just look into a good dictionary and see how many meanings
you can find for some commonly used words like "charge", "spring", "check", "suit", "ring". The meaning
that comes to your mind first depends on your occupation ("charge" may mean electrical charge to a
engineering student, but fee/rent to a commerce student).
Words like "minute" and "wind" are pronounced in two different ways to mean two entirely different
things. Some words like "present", "transfer", "record" are used as verb and as noun with a difference in
stress in speaking, but no difference in spelling. A person may be present at a function and receive a
present (stress on pre-), and present (stress on -sent) some thoughts on the budget. Similar sounding
words like "access" and "excess", "flour" and "flower", "cite", "site" and "sight" can cause
misunderstanding in speech. Many people confuse "week" and "weak," "steal' and "steel" in writing.
Emotional and cultural attitudes towards something can evoke different responses in people; for example,
"dog" will evoke responses according to a person's past experience with the animal as well as cultural
attitudes towards the animal.
Phrases can be tricky; 'a red and a blue carpet' signifies two carpets: one red and one blue. 'A red and blue
carpet' is one carpet in two colours. Sentences can convey entirely different meanings depending on how
they are spoken. Consider the sentence, "What can I do for you?" It means something different with every
shift of emphasis from one word to another in oral communication.
Technical terms can also b a barrier to communication when used with an audience who are not members
of that profession. Often, these words have other meanings in ordinary language, and are differently
understood by people who do not belong to that occupational group. Consider the new meanings given to
ordinary words by computer technology such as "mouse".
More importantly, semantic barriers arise because words mean different things to different persons. It is'
said, "meaning is in people, not in words." Age, profession, education, cultural background and many
other factors influence the meaning we give to words.
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A dialect for example would identify a person geographically and identically certain slang would reveal
the cultural or group orientation of the persons speaking it. The same are then barriers, if spoken in
situations and with people, who may not be able to relate to them.
3. Organisational Barriers
Editing and filtering: A great deal of loss of information occurs as a message moves from senior
management to lower levels. Each person through whom it passes edits it, filters it, and simplifies it for
the understanding and needs of the next person who is to receive it. Loss or distortion of information as it
moves downward may be caused by misinterpretation, lack of understanding, and neglect of messages by
some of the members of the organisation.
Loss of information also occurs as messages move from subordinates to higher levels of authority.
Messages are filtered at every level. There may be deliberate suppression of information out of self-
interest and jealousy; a supervisor may suppress or change a good suggestion from a subordinate so as to
take the credit personally; a senior officer may prevent information about discontent in the department
from reaching the manager because it reflects on his/her human relations skills.
Deliberate withholding of information from peers who are perceived as rivals becomes a barrier in
horizontal communication. A common barrier to horizontal communication is organisational politics; one
manager may withhold information from another since possession of information usually has benefits and
advantages.
Over-dependence on written communication: Too much dependence on written communication is one of
the reasons for communication gaps. Circulars, bulletins, notices and even letters are not always read
carefully. Many employees are unable to read and understand long messages. Even better educated
persons at higher levels do not always give proper attention to all written communication. Oral
communication has to be used to supplement written communication when the message is important.
4. Cultural Barriers
When we join a group and wish to remain in it, sooner or later we need to adopt the behaviour patterns of
the group. These are the behaviours that the group accepts as signs of belonging. The group rewards such
behaviour through acts of recognition, approval, and inclusion. In groups which are happy to accept you
and where you are happy to conform, there is a mutuality of interests and a high level of win-win contact.
Where, however, there are barriers to your membership of a group, a high level of game-playing replaces
good communication.
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5. Gender Barriers
There are distinct differences between the speech patterns in a man and those in a woman which may
create misunderstanding between genders. Global studies suggest that a woman speaks between 22,000
and 25,000 words a day whereas a man speaks between 7,000 and 10,000. In childhood, girls speak earlier
than boys and at the age of three, have a vocabulary twice that of boys. The reason for this lies in the
wiring of a man's and woman's brains. When a man talks, his speech is located in the left side of the brain
but in no specific area. When a woman talks, the speech is located in both hemispheres and in two
specific locations. Scientifically speaking, a man talks in a linear, logical and compartmentalized way,
which are the features of left-brain thinking; whereas a woman talks more freely, mixing logic and
emotion, features of both sides of the brain. It also explains why women talk for much longer than men
each day.
6. Socio-Psychological Barriers
People have personal feelings, desires, fears and hopes, likes and dislikes, attitudes, views and opinions.
They form a sort of emotional filter around the mind, and influence the way we respond to messages that
we receive and to new experiences. Factors like the time, the place and the circumstances of a particular
communication also influence our understanding and response. Problems of understanding, interpretation
and response to communication arise partly from our socially-learnt attributes and partly from our
personal attributes. These are called socio-psychological barriers.
(a) Self-centred Attitudes: We tend to see and hear everything in the light of our own interests and needs
and desires. We pay attention to messages which are useful to us, and often do not pay enough attention to
those messages which do not interest us.
(b) Group Identification: Our values and opinions are influenced, in some matters, by the group to which
we belong, like family, the larger family of relatives, people of our locality or city, our religion or
language group, gender, age group, nationality, economic group and so on. We tend to reject an idea
which goes against the interests of the group.
(c) Self-Image: our idea about what we are, what we look like and what impression we make. It is quite
difficult to accept any idea which goes against it.
(d) Selective Perception: we see, read or hear selectively according to our own needs, interests and
experience may not perceive some of the aspects and information content of the message.
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(e) Filtering: Filtering is the process of reducing the details or aspects of a message. Each person who
passes on a message reduces or colours a message according to his/her understanding of the situation.
(f) Status Block: A "boss" who is conscious of status finds it difficult to receive any suggestions from
subordinates as they feel that they know everything about how to run the business. They do not agree that
a junior may have some good ideas and many good ideas are wasted only because they come· from junior
employees who are considered to be too young and inexperienced. Social distance sometimes makes
workers too shy or frightened to speak to their senior bosses.
(g) Resistance to Change: Some people strongly resist new ideas which are against their established
opinions or traditions or social customs. They may avoid new ideas because they feel insecure or afraid of
changes in methods or situations.
(h) Closed Mind: Limited intellectual background, limited reading and narrow interests can cause a
person's mind to be narrow and limits the ability to take in new ideas. Young employees with bright ideas
and fresh approach feel frustrated by the closed mind of the senior people in an organisation.
(i) Poor Communication Skills: Lack of skill in writing and in speaking prevents a person from framing
the message properly. Oral communication can be handicapped by a number of problems; nervousness in
facing an audience may affect a person's clarity in speaking. Even excitement about an achievement or a
new idea may make a person's speech incoherent. Lack of skill in reading and in listening is also
common.
(j) State of Health: Pain or fever certainly makes a person disinclined to engage in communication; but
even if the general state of health is poor, communicating ability is reduced. The mind is not sufficiently
alert; there will be gaps in attention while reading or listening; there is lack of energy to think clearly and
to find the right words. Perception is low when the state of health is poor. Emotions, which play an
important part in successful communication, are easily disturbed.
(k) Experiential barriers
The difficulty in understanding matters not personally experienced. Our past experience may also
negatively influence our perception and understanding related to those experiences.
(l) Perceptual barriers
The problem with communicating with others is that we all see the world differently. The
selectivity/exposure filters that are developed on the basis of experience or lack of it play their part. A bad
experience would perceptually block out unpleasant things. This could be in the shape of avoiding it and
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if that is not possible by altering the behaviours i.e., response types in different ways. Similarly, retention
filters out things that feel good, and gives the tendency to forget those things that are painful.
(m) Emotional barriers
It is comprised mainly of fear, mistrust, and suspicion. The roots of our emotional mistrust of others lie in
our childhood and infancy when we were taught to be careful what we said to others. "Don't speak until
you're spoken to"; "Children should be seen and not heard". As a result, many people hold back from
communicating their thoughts and feelings to others because they feel vulnerable. While some caution
may be wise in certain relationships, excessive fear of what others might think of us can stunt our
development into effective communicators and our ability to form meaningful relationships. Emotions
influence both our speech and our listening. In many cases emotions may stop us from saying many things
and in other instance may make us say things that we never wanted to say.
(n) Hidden agendas
Hidden Agendas serve two functions: (i) Individual’s strategy for poor self-esteem. This is mostly in cases
where the personality is a submissive one. In such cases the communication can turn sly and manipulative
as one does not have the courage to communicate openly. This is particularly the case as one is always
apprehensive of others differing point of view and is fearful of annoying the other person, not being
confident of handling a communication situation if there was one requiring assertive handling. (ii)
Promote ulterior motives and needs. If a person is known to promote one’s ulterior motives and needs
either by being aggressive or by being covertly submissive; sooner or later it would become a major
communication barrier. It generally creates a win-lose situation and does not work in establishing trust,
which is a basic premise for effective and purposeful communication.
(o) Stereotypes
Stereotypes are mental images and expectations. Stereotypes provide a shortcut to form an opinion of
someone. We tend to get opinionated sooner or later and it becomes difficult to change opinions. Opinions
give us a base to relate to others. Humans are very diverse by nature whereas stereotyping them in
categories with specific characteristics is very common and therefore it also becomes one of the most
common barriers to communication.
(p) Defensiveness:
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If we feel threatened by a message, we become defensive and respond in such ways that reduce
understanding. This is a particularly harmful barrier in handling complaints and grievances and in
resolving conflicts.