‘Terminology Cheat Sheet Term Explanation Historical Story Causal Mechanism CConstructiviem Diatectics Empiricism Epietemology Existentialism Falibitsm Hermeneutics Materialism ‘Objectivism Positivism Post-positivism Pragmatism Rationalism Relativism ‘Strueturalism Relativism Structuralism "The underlying process that causes ‘something to happen. ‘A philosophy that emphasizes the active ole of individuals in cresting ther understanding of eal ‘A philosophical approach thet involves ‘examining opposing ideas to reach a deeper Understanding, ‘The belief that knowiedge comes primarily from sensory experiance and observation, ‘The study of how we know things. How can We be sure our knowledge Is reliable? ‘A philosophy that emphasizes individual freedom, choice, and the meaninglessness found within ie ‘The belief that all knowledge is uncertain and ‘open to revision “The theory and practice of interpretation, especialy of texts or symbolic actions, ‘Tho bellef that everything inthe universe is Lulimately physical matter and its interactions. ‘Mental statas and conseioueness are seen a8 rogults of material processes. “The belief that knowiedge can be acquired through neutral observation and roason, ‘The study of what exists. What's the fundamental nature of realty? ‘A dominant worldview or overarching framework that shapes research within a feld ‘The study of subjective experience, focusing lon how things appear to our consciousness. ‘A philosophy that believes in an objective fealty discoverable through science. ‘Acitique of positivism that recognizes the limitations of objectivity and the role of values inresearch, ‘A philosophy that emphasizes the practical ‘results of ideas and theories, ‘The belief that knowledge arises primarily from reason and logical deduction ‘The bellet that there's no absolute truth and all knowledge claims are equally valid. ‘The belief that underiying systems or structures shape human behavior and experience: ‘Tho belief that there's no absolute truth and all knowiedge claims are equally val ‘The bellef that underlying systems or structures shape human benavior ana ‘experience. ‘The discovery of peniclin by Alexander Fleming in 1828 showed a causal mechanism where mold Kiled bacteria, ‘revolutionizing medical treatments against infacions, Jean Plagat’s observations on chldeen’s learning processes in the early 20th century ed tothe development of Constructivist theories, emphasizing how individuals construct knowledge through interaction with their envionment ‘The writings of Hegel in the 19th century on historical dialectics highighted how the synthesis of thasis and antithesis leads to progress in ideas and societies, influencing Subsequent thinkers, Sir Isaac Newton's use of empirical observations to formulate the laws of motion and universal gravitation during the 17th ‘century exemplifies emplrcism’s principles in buling scientific knowledge. ‘The debates between Plato and Aristotle on the nature of forms and the sources of knowledge in ancient Greece laid foundational questions in epistemology about the relabilty ‘and source of knowledge. ‘Jean-Paul Sartre's ang Simone de Beauvoir's ‘mid-20th-century exploration of existentialist concepts through thelr novels and philosophical texts spolighted the focus on individual agency and the search for meaning, ‘The shift from Newtonian physics to Einstein's theory of telatvty in the early 20th century exempifiesflibilem, ‘showing how scientific theories are provisional and subject to ‘change with new evidence, Friecrin Schielermacher’s 18tn-century work on hormenoutics, aiming to understand ancionttoxts in thelr Fistorical context, demonstrates the critical role of Interpretation in uncovering meaning, The 19th-contury debates detween materaists, wno, lke Ludwig Buchner, argued for a purely physical basis for life anc Consciousness, ana thelr intelectual opponents highlight the ‘contentious alscussions surrounding the nature of ‘consciousness and its materialist underpinnings. ‘The Enlightenment period, with philosophers ke Immanuel ant advocating reason af the primary source of authorty and knowledge, embosied objectivist ideals in the quest for ruth. ‘The debates in cient Greece between Democritus, who proposed atoms as the fundamental realy, and Plato, who argued forthe existence of abstract forms, underscored early Cntologieal inquires into the nature of realty ‘The transition from the geocentric to th heliocentuic model of the solar system, intisted by Copernicus and later expanded by Gallo, marked a paracigm shift in astronomy and tne natural sciences, Edmund Husserts development of phenomenology inthe early 20th century aimed at understancing consciousness and the ‘essence of experience, forging a new path in philosophy that ‘emphasized the subjective viewpoint. ‘Auguste Comte, in the 19th century, formulated positivism to promote science as the means to understand the natural and Social world, defining a stage-driven progression of human knowledge, Kar Popper's mid-20th-century proposal of flsfabilty as a cterion for scientific theories marked @ move toward post-positvism, acknowledging the tentative nature of Selentific knowledge. \witiam Jemes's ate 19th and easy 20th-century sdvoeacy for pragmatism shifted philosophical focus towards the practical application and consequences of beliefs and ideas. René Descartes’ 17th-century proposition" thing, therefore | {am encapsulates rationalism, emphasizing reason as the foundation of knowledge aver empirical evidence. Being respectful of aiverse perspectives | often take e stonce ‘against extreme relativism in favour of evidence-based ‘approaches to knowledge ‘Analyzing the structural elements of games and how they influence player behaviour and decision-making. The historical debates over the nature of ight - wave vs. particle ~ unt the 20th century, when quantum mechanics Introduced a relate understanding that accommodated dual properties, ilutrate scienttic approaches to relativism. Ferdinand de Saussure's early 20th-century work on linguistics aid the groundwork for structuralsm by positing language as a systom of signs defined by thor relationships.