UNIT III NETWORK LAYER

Switching : Packet Switching – Internet protocol – IPV4 – IP Addressing – Subnetting –

IPV6,ARP,RARP, ICMP, DHCP

1.SWITCHING

The Internet is made of many networks (or links) connected through the connecting devices. In
other words, the Internet is an internetwork, a combination of LANs and WANs.
Packetizing
The first duty of the network layer is definitely packetizing: encapsulating the payload (data
received from upper layer in a network-layer packet at the source and decapsulating the payload
from the network-layer packet at the destination.

Routing and Forwarding

Routing
The network layer is responsible for routing the packet from its source to the destination. A
physical network is a combination of networks (LANs and WANs) and routers that connect
them. This means that there is more than one route from the source to the destination. The
network layer is responsible for finding the best one among these possible routes.

Forwarding
Forwarding can be defined as the action applied by each router when a packet arrives at one of
its interfaces. The decision-making table a router normally uses for applying this action is
sometimes called the forwarding table and sometimes the routing table. When a router receives
a packet from one of its attached networks, it needs to forward the packet to another attached
network (in unicast routing) or to some attached networks (in multicast routing).

2.PACKET SWITCHING

*Highlight the characteristics of datagram network(2)(Nov/Dec 2017)

*Differentiate the packet switching and datagram approach(13)
*Difference between the connection oriented and connection less service(7)
A router, in fact, is a switch that creates a connection between an input port and an output
port. In data communication switching techniques are divided into two broad
categories, circuit switching and packet switching, only packet switching is used at the
network layer because the unit of data at this layer is a packet. Packet-switched network can
use two different approaches to route the packets: the datagram approach and the virtual
circuit approach.
Datagram Approach: Connectionless Service

When the network layer provides a connectionless service, each packet traveling in the
Internet is an independent entity; there is no relationship between packets belonging to the
same message. The switches in this type of network are called routers. A packet belonging to a
message may be followed by a packet belonging to the same message or to a different message.
A packet may be followed by a packet coming from the same or from a different source.Each
packet is routed based on the information contained in its header: source and destination
addresses. The destination address defines where it should go; the source address defines
where it comes from. The router in this case routes the packet based only on the destination
address. The source address may be used to send an error message to the source if the packet
is discarded. Figure below shows the forwarding process in a router in this case. We have used
symbolic addresses such as A and B.

Virtual-Circuit Approach: Connection-Oriented Service

In a connection-oriented service (also called virtual-circuit approach), there is a relationship

between all packetsbelonging to a message. Before all datagrams in a message can be sent, a
virtual connection should be set up todefine the path for the datagrams. After connection
setup, the datagrams can all follow the same path. In this type ofservice, not only must the
packet contain the source and destination addresses, it must also contain a flow label, a virtual
circuit identifier that defines the virtual path the packet should follow. Figure below shows the
concept of connection-oriented service.
Each packet is forwarded based on the label in the packet. To follow the idea of connection-
oriented design to be used in the Internet, we assume that the packet has a label when it
reaches the router. Figure below shows the idea. In this case, the forwarding decision is
based on the value of the label, or virtual circuit identifier, as it is sometimes called. To create
a connection-oriented service, a three-phase process is used: setup, data transfer, and
teardown. In the setup phase, the source and destination addresses of the sender and
receiver are used to make table entries for the connection- oriented service. In the teardown
phase, the source and destination inform the router to delete the corresponding entries.
Data transfer occurs between these two phases.
Setup Phase
In the setup phase, a router creates an entry for a virtual circuit. For example, suppose
source A needs to create a virtual circuit to destination B. Two auxiliary packets need to be
exchanged between the sender and the receiver: the request packet and the
acknowledgment packet.
Request packet
A request packet is sent from the source to the destination. This auxiliary packet carries the
source and destination addresses.
1. Source A sends a request packet to router R1.
2. Router R1 receives the request packet. It knows that a packet going from A to B goes
out through port 3. How the router has obtained this information is a point covered later.
For the moment, assume that it knows the output port. The router creates an entry in its
table for this virtual circuit, but it is only able to fill three of the four columns. The router
assigns the incoming port (1) and chooses an available incoming label (14) and the outgoing
port (3). It does not yet know the outgoing label, which will be found during the
acknowledgment step. The router then forwards the packet through port 3 to router R3.
3. Router R3 receives the setup request packet. The same events happen here as at router
R1; three columns of the table are completed: in this case, incoming port (1), incoming label
(66), and outgoing port (3).
4. Router R4 receives the setup request packet. Again, three columns are completed:
incoming port (1), incoming label (22), and outgoing port (4).
5. Destination B receives the setup packet, and if it is ready to receive packets from A, it
assigns a label to the incoming packets that come from A, in this case 77, as shown in Figure
below. This label lets the destination know that the packets come from A, and not from other
sources.
Acknowledgment Packet
A special packet, called the acknowledgment packet, completes the entries in the switching
tables.
The destination sends an acknowledgment to router R4. The acknowledgment carries the
global source and destination addresses so the router knows which entry in the table is to
be completed. The packet also carries label77, chosen by the destination as the incoming
label for packets from A. Router R4 uses this label to complete the outgoing label column for
this entry. Note that 77 is the incoming label for destination B, but the outgoing label for
router R4. Router R4 sends an acknowledgment to router R3 that contains its incoming label
in the table, chosen in the setup phase. Router R3 uses this as the outgoing label in the table.
Router R3 sends an acknowledgment to router R1 that contains its incoming label in the
table, chosen in the setup phase. Router R1 uses this as the outgoing label in the table.
Finally router R1 sends an acknowledgment to source A that contains its incoming label in
the table, chosen in the setup phase.
The source uses this as the outgoing label for the data packets to be sent to destination B.

Data-Transfer Phase
The second phase is called the data-transfer phase. After all routers have created their
forwarding table for a specific virtual circuit, then the network-layer packets belonging to
one message can be sent one after another. In Figure below, we show the flow of a single
packet, but the process is the same for 1, 2, or 100 packets. The source computer uses the
label 14, which it has received from router R1 in the setup phase. Router R1 forwards the
packet to router R3, but changes the label to 66.Router R3 forwards the packet to router R4,
but changes the label to 22. Finally, router R4 delivers the packet to its final destination with
the label 77. All the packets in the message follow the same
sequence of labels, and the packets arrive in order at the destination.

Teardown Phase
In the teardown phase, source A, after sending all packets to B, sends a special packet called a
teardown packet. Destination B responds with a confirmation packet. All routers delete the
corresponding entries from their tables.

3. IPV4 ADDRESSES
*Draw the IPV4 Packet header format(Nov/Dec 2018)(13)
* Explain in detail about Subnetting and Supernetting(8)
An IPv4 address is a 32-bit address that uniquely and universally defines the connection of a
host or a router to theInternet.
Address Space
A protocol like IPv4 that defines addresses has an address space. An address space is the
total number of addressesused by the protocol. If a protocol uses b bits to define an address,
the address space is 2b because each bit can have two different values (0 or 1). IPv4 uses
32-bit addresses, which means that the address space is 232 or 4,294,967,296 (more than
four billion)

Notation
There are three common notations to show an IPv4 address:
1.Binary notation (base
2),dotted-decimal notation (base 256), and hexadecimal notation (base 16).

In binary notation, an IPv4 address is displayed as 32 bits. To make the address more
readable, one or more spaces are usually inserted between each octet (8 bits). Each
octet is often referred to as a byte. To make the IPv4 address more compact and easier
to read, it is usually written in decimal form with a decimal point (dot) separating the
bytes. This format is referred to as dotted-decimal notation. Note that because each
byte (octet) is only 8 bits,each number in the dtted-decimal notation is between 0 and
255. We sometimes see an IPv4 address in hexadecimal notation. Each hexadecimal
digit is equivalent to four bits.This means that a 32-bit address has 8hexadecimal digits.

Hierarchy in Addressing
A 32-bit IPv4 address is also hierarchical, but divided only into two parts. The first part
of the address, called the prefix, defines the network; the second part of the address,
called the suffix, defines the node (connection of a device to the Internet). The prefix
length is n bits and the suffix length is (32 - n) bits.

Classful Addressing
When the Internet started, an IPv4 address was designed with a fixed-length prefix, but
to accommodate both small and large networks, three fixed-length prefixes were
designed instead of one (n =8, n =16, and n =24). The whole address space was
divided into five classes (class A, B, C, D, and E), as shown in Figure 18.18. This scheme
is referred to as classful addressing.
In class A, the network length is 8 bits, but since the first bit, which is 0, defines the class,
we can have only seven bits as the network identifier.
This means there are only 27 =128 networks in the world that can have a class A address.
In class B, the network length is 16 bits, but since the first two bits, which are(10)2, define
the class, we can have only 14 bits as the network identifier. This means there are only
214 =16,384 networks in the world that can have a class B address. All addresses that
 start with (110)2 belong to class C. In class C, the network
length is 24 bits, but since three bits define the class, we can have only 21 bits as the
network identifier. This means there are 221 = 2,097,152 networks in the world that
can have a class C address. Class D is not divided into prefix andsuffix. It is used for
multicast addresses. All addresses that start with 1111 in binary belong to class E. As in
Class D, Class E is not divided into prefix and suffix and is used as reserve.

Address Depletion
The reason that classful addressing has become obsolete is address depletion. Since the
addresses were not distributed properly, the Internet was faced with the problem of the
addresses being rapidly used up, resulting in no more addresses available for
organizations and individuals that needed to be connected to the Internet. To
understand the problem, let us think about class A. This class can be assigned to only 128
organizations in the world, but each organization needs to have a single network (seen
by the rest of the world) with 16,777,216 nodes (computers in this single network). Since
there may be only a few organizations that are this large, most of the addresses in this
class were wasted (unused). Class B addresses were designed for midsize organizations,
but many of the addresses in this class also remained unused. Class C addresses have a
completely different flaw in design. The number of addresses that can be used in each
network (256) was so small that most companies were not comfortable using a block in
this address class. Class E addresses were almost never used, wasting the whole class.

4.SUBNETTING

To alleviate address depletion, two strategies were proposed and, to some extent,
implemented: subnetting and supernetting. In subnetting, a class A or class B block is
divided into several subnets. Each subnet has a larger prefix length than the original
network. For example, if a network in class A is divided into four subnets, each subnet
has a prefix of nsub = 10. At the same time, if all of the addresses in a network are not
used, subnetting allows the addresses to be divided among several organizations. This
idea did not work because most large organizations were not happy about dividing the
block and giving some of the unused addresses to smaller organizations. While
subnetting was devised to divide a large block into smaller ones, supernetting was
devised to combine several class C blocks into a larger block to be attractive to
organizations that need more than the 256 addresses available in a class C block. This
idea did not work either because it makes the routing of packets more difficult.
Classless Addressing
Subnetting and supernetting in classful addressing did not really solve the address
depletion problem. With the growth of the Internet, it was clear that a larger address
space was needed as a long-term solution. The larger address space, however, requires
that the length of IP addresses also be increased, which means the format of the IP
packets needs to be changed.
In 1996, the Internet authorities announced a new architecture called classless
addressing. In classless addressing, variable-length blocks are used that belong to no
classes. We can have a block of 1 address, 2 addresses, 4 addresses, 128 addresses, and
so on.
In classless addressing, the whole address space is divided into variable length blocks.
The prefix in an address defines the block (network); the suffix defines the node (device).
Theoretically, we can have a block of 20, 21, 22,

…..232 addresses. One of the restrictions, as we discuss later, is that the number of
addresses in a block needs to be a power of 2. An organization can be granted one block of
addresses.
Prefix Length: Slash Notation
The first question that we need to answer in classless addressing is how to find the prefix
length if an address is given. Since the prefix length is not inherent in the address, we need
to separately give the length of the prefix. In this case, the prefix length, n, is added to the
address, separated by a slash. The notation is informally referred to as slash notation and
formally as classless interdomain routing or CIDR (pronounced cider) strategy.
Extracting Information from an Address
Given any address in the block, we normally like to know three pieces of information
about the block to which the address belongs: the number of addresses, the first address
in the block, and the last address. Since the value ofprefix length, n, is given, we can
easily find these three pieces of information.
1. The number of addresses in the block is found as N =232-n.
2. To find the first address, we keep the n leftmost bits and set the (32 - n)
rightmost bits all to 0s.
3. To find the last address, we keep the n leftmost bits and set the (32 - n) rightmost
bits all to 1s.

EXAMPLE:
A classless address is given as 167.199.170.82/27. We can find the
above three pieces of information as follows. The number of addresses
in the network is 232 - n = 25 = 32 addresses.

Address Mask
Another way to find the first and last addresses in the block is to use the address
mask.The address mask is a 32-bit number in which the n leftmost bits are set to 1s and
the rest of the bits (32 -n) are set to 0s. A computer can easily find the address mask
because it is the complement of (2 32 -n -1). The reason for defining a mask in this way
is that it can be used by a computer program to extract the information in a block, using
the three bit-wise operations NOT, AND, and OR.
1. The number of addresses in the block N =NOT (mask) +1.
2. The first address in the block =(Any address in the block) AND (mask).
3. The last address in the block =(Any address in the block) OR [(NOT
(mask)]. The mask in dotted-decimal notation is 256.256.256.224. The
AND, OR, and NOT operations can be applied toindividual bytes using
calculators
Address: 167.199.170.82/27 10100111 11000111 10101010 01010010
First address: 167.199.170.64/27 10100111 11000111 10101010 01000000
Address: 167.199.170.82/27 10100111 11000111 10101010 01011111
Last address: 167.199.170.95/27 10100111 11000111 10101010 01011111
 5.IPv6
PROTOCOL
IPv6 ADDRESSING
*Draw the IPV6 packet header format
The main reason for migration from IPv4 to IPv6 is the small size of the address space
in IPv4. An IPv6 address is128 bits or 16 bytes (octets) long, four times the address
length in IPv4. An IPv6 address is 128 bits or 16 bytes (octets) long, four times the
address length in IPv4.

Abbreviation
Although an IPv6 address, even in hexadecimal format, is very long, many of the digits are
zeros. In this case, we can abbreviate the address. The leading zeros of a section can be omitted.
Using this form of abbreviation, 0074 can be written as 74, 000F as F, and 0000 as
0. Note that 3210 cannot be abbreviated. Further abbreviation, often called zero
compression, can be applied to colon hex notation if there are consecutive sections
consisting of zeros only. We can remove all the zeros and replace them with a double
semicolon.

Address Space
The address space of IPv6 contains 2128 addresses. This address space is 296 times the IPv4
address—definitely no address depletion—as shown, the size of the space is

Address Space Allocation

Like the address space of IPv4, the address space of IPv6 is divided into several blocks of
varying size and each block is allocated for a special purpose. Most of the blocks are still
unassigned and have been set aside for futureuse.
Global Unicast Addresses
The block in the address space that is used for unicast (one-to-one) communication
between two hosts in the Internet is called the global unicast address block. CIDR for
the block is 2000::/3, which means that the three leftmost bits are the same for all
addresses in this block (001). The size of this block is 2125 bits, which is more than
enough for Internet expansion for many years to come. An address in this block is
divided into three parts: global routing prefix (n bits), subnet identifier (m bits), and
interface identifier (q bits)
Auto configuration
One of the interesting features of IPv6 addressing is the autoconfiguration of hosts. As we
discussed in IPv4, the host and routers are originally configured manually by the network
manager. However, the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol, DHCP, can be used to allocate
an IPv4 address to a host that joins the network. In IPv6, DHCP protocol can still be used to
allocate an IPv6 address to a host, but a host can also configure itself.
*Draw the IPV6 Packet Format(8)
The change of the IPv6 address size requires the change in the IPv4 packet format. The
designer of IPv6 decided to implement remedies for other shortcomings now that a change is
inevitable. The following shows other changes implemented in the protocol in addition to
changing address size and format.
● Better header format. IPv6 uses a new header format in which options are separated
from the base header and inserted, when needed, between the base header and the data. This
simplifies and speeds up the routing process because most of the options do not need to be
checked by routers.
● New options. IPv6 has new options to allow for additional functionalities.
● Allowance for extension. IPv6 is designed to allow the extension of the protocol if
required by new technologies or applications.
● Support for resource allocation. In IPv6, the type-of-service field has been removed,
but two new fields, traffic class and flow label, have been added to enable the source to
request special handling of the packet. This mechanism can be used to support traffic such as
real-time audio and video.
● Support for more security. The encryption and authentication options in IPv6
provide confidentiality and integrity of the packet.

Packet Format
Each packet is composed of a base header followed by the payload. The base header occupies
40 bytes, whereas payload can be up to 65,535 bytes of information. The description of fields
follows.

Version. The 4-bit version field defines the version number of the IP. For IPv6, the value is 6.
● Traffic class. The 8-bit traffic class field is used to distinguish different payloads with
different deliveryrequirements. It replaces the type-of-service field in IPv4.
● Flow label. The flow label is a 20-bit field that is designed to provide special handling
for a particular flow of data. We will discuss this field later.
● Payload length. The 2-byte payload length field defines the length of the IP datagram
excluding the header. Note that IPv4 defines two fields related to the length: header length
and total length. In IPv6, the length of the baseheader is fixed (40 bytes); only the length of
the payload needs to be defined.
● Next header. The next header is an 8-bit field defining the type of the first extension
header (if present) or the type of the data that follows the base header in the datagram. This
field is similar to the protocol field in IPv4
● Hop limit. The 8-bit hop limit field serves the same purpose as the TTL field in IPv4.
● Source and destination addresses. The source address field is a 16-byte (128-bit)
Internet address that identifies the original source of the datagram. The destination address
field is a 16-byte (128-bit) Internet address that identifies the destination of the datagram.
● Payload. Compared to IPv4, the payload field in IPv6 has a different format and
meaning, as shown in Figure below.
 6.ARP

ARP: Address Resolution Protocol

ARP maps a logical address to a physical address

ARP Operation

To find the physical address of another host or router on its network n

Send an ARP request message

ARP request message

● The physical address of the sender

● The IP address of the sender

● The physical address of the receiver is 0s

● The IP address of the receiver

Then, ARP request message is broadcast by the physical layer

For example: in Ethernet, MAC header ’ s destination address is all 1s (broadcast address)
 Received by every station on the physical network

The intended recipient send back an ARP reply message

ARP reply message packet is unicast

Packet Format
 ● HTYPE (Hardware type):16-bit field defining the underlying type of the network
o Ethernet is given the type 1
o ARP can be used on any physical network

● PTYPE (Protocol type) :16-bit field defining the protocol

o IPv4 is 080016
o ARP can be used with any higher-level protocol

● HLEN (Hardware length) : 8-bit field defining the length of the physical address in
bytes
o Ethernet has the value of 6

● PLEN (Protocol length) :8-bit field defining the length of the logical address in bytes
o IPv4 has the value of 4 o OPER (Operation) n 16-bit field defining the type of
packet n (1) = ARP request, (2) = ARP reply

● SHA (Sender hardware address) :A variable-length field defining the physical

address of the sender

● SPA (Sender protocol address) : A variable-length field defining the logical address
of the sender

● THA (Target hardware address) : A variable-length field defining the physical

address of the target

● For an ARP request operation packet o This field is all 0s o TPA (Target protocol
address) n A variable-length field defining the logical address of the target

Encapsulation of ARP Packet

● An ARP packet is encapsulated directly into a data link frame

● Type field indicates that the data carried by the frame is an ARP packet
 ● Every host or routers receives the frame and since the destination address is
broadcast, pass it to the ARP
● All machines ’ ARP except the one targeted drop the packet
● The target reply with an ARP reply message that contains its physical address and is
unicast o
● The sender receives the reply message and knows the target’ s physical address

Four Cases to Use ARP

Case 1: The sender is a host and wants to send a packet to another host on the same
network
Use ARP to find another host’ s physical address
Case 2: The sender is a host and wants to send a packet to another host on another network
Sender looks at its routing table
Find the IP address of the next hop (router) for this destination
Use ARP to find the router ’ s physical address
Case 3: the sender is a router and received a datagram destined for a host on another
network
Router check its routing table
Find the IP address of the next router
Use ARP to find the next router ’ s physical address

Case 4: the sender is a router that has received a datagram destined for a host in the same
network
Use ARP to find this host’ s physical address
Proxy ARP

● A proxy ARP is an ARP that acts on be half of a set of host..

● Whenever the the router running a proxy ARP receives an ARP request looking for
the IP address of one of these hosts, the router sends an ARP reply announcing its
own hardware(physical) address.

● Later when the router receives the actual IP packet, it will send the packet to the
appropriate host or router.

ARP DESIGN

ARP package involves five component:

– A cache table

–A queues

–An output module

–An input module

–A cache-control module

Cache Table
 When a host or router receives the corresponding physical address for IP datagram,
the address can be saved in the cache table.

This address can be used for the datagram destined for the same receiver within the
next few minutes.

Cache Table.. .

The cache table is implemented as an array of entries, In our design, each entry contains
the following fields:

State: This column shows the state of the entry. It can have one of three values:

FREE: The time-to-live for this entry has expired. The space can be used for a new entry.
PENDING: A request for this entry has been sent, but the reply has not yet been received. –
RESOLVED: The entry is complete. The entry now has the physical address of the
destination. The packets waiting to be sent this destination can use information in this
entry.
Hardware type : This field is the same as corresponding field in the ARP packet.

Protocol type: This field is the same as corresponding field in the ARP packet.

Hardware length : This field is the same as corresponding field in the ARP packet.

Protocol length : This field is the same as corresponding field in the ARP packet.

Interface number: A router (or multihomed host) can be connected to different networks,
each with a different interface number. Each networks can have different hardware and
protocol types.

Queue number: ARP uses different queues to enqueue the packets waiting for address
resolution. Packets for the same destination are usually enqueued in the same queue. The
queue number refers to the queue whose packets are waiting for this entry to be resolved.

Attempts : This column shows how many times an ARP requesu is sent out for this entry.

Time-out : This column shows the lifetime of an entry in seconds.

Hardware address : This column shows the destination hardware address. It remains
empty until resolved by an ARP reply.

Protocol address : This column shows the destination IP address.

Queues

The ARP package maintains a set of queues, one for each destination, to hold the IP packets
while ARP tries to resolve the hardware address.

The output module sends unresolved packets into the corresponding queue.

The input module removes a packet from a queue and sends it, with the resolved physical
address, to the data link layer for transmission.

OUTPUT MODULE

1.Sleep until an IP packet is received from IP software.

2.Check the cache table to find an entry corresponding to this IP packet.
3.If (found)
1.If (the state is RESOLVED)
1.Extract the value of the hardware address from th entry.
2.Send the packet and the hardware address to data link layer.
3.Return.
 2.If (the state is PENDING)
1.Enqueue the packet to the corresponding queue.
2.Return.
4.If (not found)
1.Create a queue.
2.Enqueue the packet.
3.Create a cache entry with state set to PENDING and ATTEMPTS set to 1.
4.Send an ARP request.
5.Return.
Input Module
1.Sleep until an ARP packet(request or reply) arrives.
2.Check the cache table to find an entry corresponding to this ARP packet.
3.If (found)
1.If (the state is PENDING)
1.Update the entry.
2.While the queue is not empty.
1.Dequeue one packet.
2.Send the packet and the hardware address to data link.
2.If (the state is RESOLVED)
1.Update the entyry.
4.If (not found)
1.Create an entry.
2.Add the entry to the table.
5.If (the packet is a request)
1.Send an ARP reply
6.Return.

Cache-Control Module
1.Sleep until the periodic timer matures.
2.For every entry in the cache table.
1.If (the state is FREE)
1.Continue.
2.If (the state is PENDING)
1.Increment the value of attempts by 1.
2.If (attempts greater than maxium)
1.Change the state to FREE
2.Destroy the corresponding queue.
3.If (not) 1.Send an ARP request.
4.Continue.
3.If (the state is RESOLVED)
1.Decrement the value of time-out by the value of elapsed time.
2.If (time-out less than or equal to zero)
1.Change the state to FREE
2.Destroy the corresponding queue.
3.Return.

7.RARP

● The RARP is designed to resolve the address mapping problem in which a machine
knows its physical address but does not know its logical address.
● To create an IP datagram, a host or a router needs to know its own IP address or
address.
● The IP address of a machine is usually read from its configuration file stored on a disk
file.
● However, a diskless machine is usually booted from ROM, which has minimum
booting information.
● The machine can get its physical address (by reading its NIC, for example), which is
unique locally. It can then use the physical address to get the logical address using the
RARP protocol.
● A ARP request is created and broadcast on the local network.
● Another machine on the local network that knows all the IP address will respond with
RARP reply.

RARP Packet
Encapsulation of RARP Packet

8.ICMP

The IP protocol has no error-reporting or error correcting mechanism. The IP protocol also
lacks a mechanism for host and management queries. The Internet Control Message Protocol
(ICMP) has been designed to compensate for the above two deficiencies. It is a companion to
the IP protocol.
General format of ICMP messages

Types of Messages

ICMP messages are divided into two broad categories:

Error-reporting messages and
Query messages

Error-reporting messages

Contents of data field for the error messages

Query messages

Echo Request and Reply: The echo-request and echo-reply messages are designed for
diagnostic purposes

Timestamp Request and Reply Two machines (hosts or routers) can use the timestamp
request and timestamp reply messages to determine the round-trip time needed for an IP
datagram to travel between them. It can also be used to synchronize the clocks in two
machines

Address-Mask Request and Reply

A host may know its IP address, but it may not know the corresponding mask.

Router Solicitation and Advertisement

A host that wants to send data to a host on another network needs to know the address of
routers connected to its own network.

checksum In ICMP the checksum is calculated over the entire message (header and data).

Encapsulation of ICMP query messages

 8.DHCP

• Dynamic assignment of IP addresses is desirable for several reasons:

– IP addresses are assigned on-demand
– Avoid manual IP configuration
– Support mobility of laptops
– DHCP is the preferred mechanism for dynamic assignment of IP addresses
– DHCP can interoperate with BOOTP clients.

DHCP Interaction (simplified)

DHCP Message Format

 • OpCode: 1 (Request), 2(Reply) Note: DHCP message type is sent in an option

• Hardware Type: 1 (for Ethernet)

• Hardware address length: 6 (for Ethernet)
• Hop count: set to 0 by client
• Transaction ID: Integer (used to match reply to response)
• Seconds: number of seconds since the client started to boot
• Client IP address, Your IP address, server IP address, Gateway IP address,
client hardware address, server host name, boot file name:
client fills in the information that it has, leaves rest blank

Message Type
DHCP Operation

• DCHP DISCOVER
• DCHP OFFER
• DCHP RELEASE

• DCHP DISCOVER
• At this time, the DHCP client can start to use the IP address
• Renewing a Lease(sent when 50% of lease has expired)

If DHCP server sends DHCPNACK, then address is released.

• DCHP RELEASE
• At this time, the DHCP client has released the IP address