Mechanics

Lab report
Date: 23-5-2022

Group A4
Group members:
(i) Muhammad Zeeshan Ayyub Khan
(ii) Muhammad Asad Saeed
(iii) Mian Muhammad Bilal
 DC ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS
Experiment no.1: Ohm’s Law

Abstract:
The purpose of this lab will be to investigate the three variables involved in a
mathematical relationship known as Ohm’s Law.

Procedure:
I. Choose one of the resistors that you have been given. Using the chart on the next
page, decode the resistance value and record that value in the first column of Table
3.1.
II. MEASURING CURRENT: Construct the circuit shown in Figure 3.1a by pressing
the leads of the resistor into two of the springs in the Experimental Section on the
Circuits Experiment Board.

III. Set the Multimeter to the 200 mA range, noting any special connections needed for
measuring current. Connect the circuit and read the current that is flowing through the
resistor. Record this value in the second column of Table 3.1.
IV. Remove the resistor and choose another. Record its resistance value in Table 3.1 then
measure and record the current as in steps 2 and 3. Continue this process until you
have completed all of the resistors you have been given. As you have more than one
resistor with the same value, keep them in order as you will use them again in the next
steps.
V. MEASURING VOLTAGE: Disconnect the Multimeter and connect a wire from the
positive lead (spring) of the battery directly to the first resistor you used as shown in
 Figure 3.1b. Change the Multimeter to the 2 V DC scale and connect the leads as
shown also in Figure 3.1b. Measure the voltage across the resistor and record it in
Table 3.1.
VI. Remove the resistor and choose the next one you used. Record its voltage in Table 3.1
as in step 5. Continue this process until you have completed all of the resistors.

Reference:

Data Analysis:
I. Construct a graph of Current (vertical axis) vs Resistance.
II. For each of your sets of data, calculate the ratio of Voltage/Resistance. Compare the
values you calculate with the measured values of the current.

Observations and Calculations:

Current Current
Sr.# Resistance Voltage (V)
(Theoretical) (experimental)

68 Ω ± 5%
1. 1 k Ω ± 10% 1.5 1.5 mA 1.56 mA
2. 1.5 21.05 mA 20.7 mA
3. 270 Ω ± 5% 1.5 5.64 mA 5.62 mA

Percentage Error =

 Percentage Error in Current 1:

1.56−1.5
Percentage Error = ×100
1.5
 Percentage Error = 4%

 Percentage Error in Current 2:

21.05−20.7
Percentage Error = = ×100
21.05
Percentage Error =1.66%

 Percentage Error in Current 3:

5.64−5.52
Percentage Error = ×100
5.64
Percentage Error =0.35%

Current Vs Resistance
0.015
Current(A)
0.01

0.005

0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Resistance (Ohm)

Questions:
I. From your graph, what is the mathematical relationship between Current and
Resistance?

Answer: From the above graph, it can be clearly observed that Current and
Resistance are Inversely Proportional to each other.

II. Ohm’s Law states that current is given by the ratio of voltage/resistance. Does your
data concur with this?

Answer: Yes, our data concurs with the statement of the Ohm’s Law.
III. What were possible sources of experimental error in this lab? Would you expect each
to make your results larger or to make them smaller?

Answer: Following Sources can cause Experimental Error in the Lab:

1. Faulty Apparatus
2. Random Error
3. Environmental Error

Result & Conclusion:

From the above results we can see the relations between current, voltage and
resistance which verify Ohm’s law. Also, the percentage error in the readings of current is
less than 5% which shows high accuracy of performance.

_______________________
Experiment no.2: Resistances in circuits
Abstract:
The purpose of this lab is to begin experimenting with the variables that contribute to the
operation of an electrical circuit. This is the first of a three connected labs.

Equipment Needed:
▪ AC/DC Electronics Lab Board: Wire Leads
▪ Multimeter

Procedure:
I. Choose three different resistors. Enter those sets of colors in Table 4.1 below. We will
refer to one as #1, another as #2 and the third as #3.
II. Determine the coded value of your resistors. Enter the value in the column labelled
“Coded Resistance” in Table 4.1. Enter the Tolerance value as indicated by the color
of the fourth band under “Tolerance.”
III. Use the Multimeter to measure the resistance of each of your three resistors. Enter
these values in Table 4.1.
IV. Determine the percentage experimental error of each resistance value and enter it in
the appropriate column.
Measured−Coded
Experimental Error= × 100
Coded
 V. Now connect the three resistors into the SERIES CIRCUIT, figure 4.1, using the
spring clips on the Circuits Experiment Board to hold the leads of the resistors
together without bending them. Measure the resistances of the combinations as
indicated on the diagram by connecting the leads of the Multimeter between the
points at the ends of the arrows.
VI. Construct a PARALLEL CIRCUIT, first using combinations of two of the resistors,
and then using all three. Measure and record your values for these circuits.

Data Analysis:

Color Coded Measured % Tolerance

Trials
1st 2nd 3rd 4th Resistance Resistance Error (%)

1 Brown Black Red Silver 1 k Ω ± 10% 986 1.4 10

2 Blue Gray Black Golden 68 Ω ± 5% 67 1.47 5

3 Red Violet Brown Golden 270 Ω ± 5% 269 0.37 5

1.Series Combination:

Resistance Experimental value Theoretical Value

R12 = R1 + R2 1053 Ω 1068 Ω
R23 = R2 + R3 336 Ω 338 Ω
R123 = R1 + R2 + R3 1325 Ω 1338 Ω

Percentage Error:
 %Error=
1068−1053
i. %Error = ×100
1068
=1.4%
338−336
ii. %Error = ×100
338
= 0.59%
1338−1325
iii. %Error = ×100
1338
= 0.97%

2.Parallel Combination:

Resistances Experimental Value Theoretical Value

R12 = 1 / (1/R1 + 1/R2) 65.3 63.67
R23 = 1 / (1/R2 + 1/R3) 52.9 54.31

Percentage Error:

%Error =
65.3−63.67
i. %Error = ×100
63.67
=2.59 %
54.31−52.9
ii. %Error = × 100
54.31
=2.48%

Questions:
I. How does the % error compare to the coded tolerance for your resistors?
 Answer: The % Error is comparable to the coded tolerance in a way that the % Error
measured for each resistor was in the range of the coded tolerance which was 5% for all
the resistors.

II. What is the apparent rule for combining equal resistances in series circuits? In parallel
circuits? Cite evidence from your data to support your conclusions.

Answer: In a Series Circuit, the equal resistances are just added up for combining
e.g., R1 + R2. In a Parallel Circuit, the formula is 1 / (1/R1 + 1/R2 + … + 1/Rn).

III. What is the apparent rule for combining unequal resistances in series circuits? In
parallel circuits? Cite evidence from your data to support your conclusions.

Answer: In a Series Circuit, the unequal resistances are just added up for combining
e.g., R1 + R2.
In a Parallel Circuit, the formula is R = R1 × R2 / (R1 + R2).

IV. What is the apparent rule for the total resistance when resistors are added up in series?
In parallel? Cite evidence from your data to support your conclusions.

Answer: For a Series Combination, Total R = R1 + R2 + … + Rn.

For a Parallel Combination, Total R = 1 / (1/R1 + 1/R2 + … + 1/Rn).

Result & Conclusion:

From the above results we can conclude that:
I. The percentage error is less than tolerance in trial 3 but it is greater in trial 1 and
trial2.
II. The rule of combining two resistors in series is to sum up both the resistances for
example when resistor 1 is connected in series with itself the total resistance is
9.4KΩ. The resistance total in a parallel combination is the sum of reciprocal of the
two resistances such as.
 ______________________

Experiment 3: Voltages in Circuits

Abstract:
The purpose of this lab will be to continue experimenting with the variables that contribute to
the operation of an electrical circuit. You should have completed Experiment 4 before
working on this lab.

Equipment Needed:
▪ AC/DC Electronics Lab Board: Wire Leads
▪ D-cell Battery
▪ Multimeter

Procedure:
I. Connect the three resistors that you used in Experiment 4 into the series circuit shown
below, using the springs to hold the leads of the resistors together without bending
them. Connect two wires to the D-cell, carefully noting which wire is connected to the
negative and which is connected to the positive.
II. Now use the voltage function on the Multimeter to measure the voltages across the
individual resistors and then across the combinations of resistors. Be careful to
observe the polarity of the leads (red is +, black is -). Record your readings below.
III. Now connect the parallel circuit below, using all three resistors. Measure the voltage
across each of the resistors and the combination, taking care with the polarity as
before.
IV. Keep all three resistors connected throughout the time you are making your
measurements. Write down your values as indicated below.
V. Now connect the circuit below and measure the voltages. You can use the resistance
readings you took in Experiment 4 for this step.

Data Analysis:
 Series Combination:

Experimental values
Resistances Voltages (V)
R1 = 1 k Ω V1 = 1.16
R2 = 68 Ω V2 = 0.079
R3 = 270 Ω V3 = 0.315
R12 = 1053 Ω V12 = 1.239
R23 = 336 Ω V23 = 0.394
R123 = 1325 Ω V123 = 1.554

 Parallel Combination:

Experimental Values
Resistances Voltages (V)
R1 = 1 k Ω V1 = 1.52
R2 = 68 Ω V2 = 1.51
R3 = 270 Ω V3 = 1.529
R123 = 13.7 k Ω V0 = 1.527
Questions:
I. Based on the data, you recorded on the table with Figure 5.1, what is the pattern for
how voltage gets distributed in a series circuit with equal resistances?

Answer: In a Series circuit, Current remains the same while Voltage is distributed in
such a way that each incoming resistor receives lesser and lesser amount of voltage
from the Battery, such that the total amount of voltage in the circuit equals to that of
the Battery.

II. Utilizing the data from Figure 5.2, what is the pattern for how voltage distributes itself
in a parallel circuit for unequal resistances?

Answer: By observing the data closely in Table 5.2, we can see that Voltage remains
Same in a Parallel Circuit.

III. Do the voltages in your combination circuits (see Figures 5.3) follow the same rules
as they did in your circuits which were purely series or parallel? If not, state the rules
you see in operation.

Answer: Yes, the Voltages in the combination circuits follow the Same Rules as the
rules which are followed in a purely Series or Parallel Combination.

Result and Conclusion:

Following conclusions can be inferred from this experiment:
1. Voltage remains Same throughout a Circuit in a Parallel Combination.
2. When in Series Combination, Voltage is distributed such that every latter component
receives less voltage than the former component. Also, the Voltage given to each component
sums up to provide the Voltage of Battery.

______________________
Experiment no.4: Currents in circuits

Abstract:
The purpose of this lab will be to continue experimenting with the variables that contribute to
the operation of electrical circuits.
Procedure:
I. Connect the same three resistors that you used in Experiments 3 and 4 into the series
circuit shown below, using the springs to hold the leads of the resistors together
without bending them. Connect two wires to the D-cell, and carefully note which lead
is negative and which is positive.
II. Now change the leads in your DMM so that they can be used to measure current. You
should be using the scale which goes to a maximum of 200 mA. Be careful to observe
the polarity of the leads (red is +, black is -). In order to measure current, the circuit
must be interrupted, and the current allowed to flow through the meter. Disconnect
the lead wire from the positive terminal of the battery and connect it to the red (+)
lead of the meter. Connect the black (-) lead to R1, where the wire originally was
connected. Record your reading in the table as Io. See Figure 6.3.
III. Now move the DMM to the positions indicated in Figure 6.3, each time interrupting
the circuit, and carefully measuring the current in each one. Complete the table on the
top of the back page.
IV. You will be carrying values from Experiments 3 and 4 into the table on the back.
V. Connect the parallel circuit below, using all three resistors. Review the instructions
for connecting the DMM as an ammeter in step 2. Connect it first between the
positive terminal of the battery and the parallel circuit junction to measure I0. Then
interrupt the various branches of the parallel circuit and measure the individual branch
currents. Record your measurements in the table below.

Data Analysis:
 Series Combination:

Experimental values
Resistances Current (mA) Voltages (V)
R1 = 1 k Ω I0 = 1.16 V1 = 1.16
R2 = 68 Ω I1 = 1.16 V2 = 0.079
R3 = 270 Ω I2 = 1.17 V3 = 0.315
R123 = 1338 Ω I3 = 1.16 V123 = 1.554

 Parallel Combination:
 Experimental values
Resistances Current (mA) Voltages (V)
R1 = 1 k Ω I0 = 22.0 V1 = 1.52
R2 = 68 Ω I1 = 1.5 V2 = 1.51
R3 = 270 Ω I2 = 20.6 V3 = 1.529
R123 = 13.7 k Ω I3 = 5.5 V0 = 1.527
Questions:
I. Based on your first set of data, what is the pattern for how current behaves in a series
circuit? At this point you should be able to summarize the behavior of all three quantities
- resistance, voltage and current - in series circuits.

Answer: Based on our first set of Data, we can infer that Current remains almost Same
throughout the circuit in a Series Combination.

II. Based on your second set of data, are there any patterns to the way that currents behave in
a parallel circuit? At this time, you should be able to write the general characteristics of
currents, voltages, and resistances in parallel circuits.

Answer: In a parallel circuit, Current divides following the pattern that each former
component in a circuit receives Greater Amount of Current, while the latter components
receive lesser and lesser amounts of current.

Quantity Series Parallel

Current Same in the whole circuit Different in each branch

Resistance Sum up to find total Reciprocal of total to find

total resistance
Voltage Different across each Same in each branch of the
component circuit
Result & Conclusion:
From the above results we can conclude that:
1. The current remains the same throughout the series circuit.
2. The current in a parallel circuit split into different branches then combines again before it
goes back into the supply. When the current splits, the current in each branch after the split
adds up to the same as the current just before the split.

Resistance in combination of resistors

Abstract:
Purpose of this experiment is to measure the experimental and theoretical value of
resistance of resistors in combination

Required Equipment:
 Multimeter
 Resistors
 AC/DC Electronics Lab Board
 D-cell Battery
 Wire leads
Procedure:
 Choose three different resistors. We
will refer to one as #1, another as #2
and the third as #3.
 Use the Multimeter to measure the
resistance of each of your three
resistors. Enter these values in Table
4.1.
 Measure different values of
resistance such as, R23, R123,
experimentally and theoretically.
 Measure the error in experimental value.

Data Analysis:
R1 = 9.54KΩ
R2 = 0.981KΩ
R3 = 2.13KΩ
 Resistance Experimental Value Theoretical Value
R23 0.676KΩ 0.671KΩ
R123 10.1KΩ 10.21KΩ
Percentage error:
 R23 :
R theoratical−R experimental
Percentage error = × 100
Rtheoratical
0.005
= × 100=0.74 %
0.671
 R123 :
0.11
×100=1.07 %
10.21
Conclusion:
Results show that the resistors R1 is connected in series fashion with R2 and R3, while
the resistors R2 and R3 are connected in parallel fashion with each other.

_____________________
Voltage in the combination of resistors
Abstract:
Purpose of this experiment is to measure the voltage in the combination of resistors

Required Equipment:
 AC/DC Electronics Lab Board
 Wire Leads
 Multimeter

Procedure:
 Choose three different resistors. We will
refer to one as #1, another as #2 and the third
as #3.
 Connect the whole assembly with the
voltage source of 1.5 V

 Now connect the circuit below and measure

the voltages V1, V23, V123.

 Note the readings.

Data Analysis:
V1 = 1.42 V
V23 = 0.09 V
V123 = 1.51 V

Conclusion:
Results show that the resistors R1 is connected in series fashion with R2 and R3, while
the resistors R2 and R3 are connected in parallel fashion with each other.