María A.

Martín Díaz
(+34)92231766458
[email protected]

5. CONNECTED SPEECH AND SANDHI FORMS

 In unit 4 we introduced two new concepts: rhythm and weak forms. Both are
relevant when talking about natural connected speech

 We understand English rhythm as a stress-timed rhythm in which stressed

syllables will tend to occur at relatively regular intervals whether they are
separated by unstressed syllables or not.

 It follows from this that in English all the feet are supposed to be of roughly the
same duration, something that could not be done without the presence of the
above mentioned weak forms or syllables and some linking devices or processes
that are produced when speaking naturally, that is in a continuous stream of
sounds, without clear-cut borderlines between them.

 Now we will examine these processes, by which the phonemic patterns of words
may be altered or changed, and their stylistic implications.

5.1. Linking features: word internal and across words

 A native speaker's aim in connecting words is maximum ease and efficiency of
tongue movement when getting our message across. A consequence of this is a
process of linking evidenced word internally and also across words

 A linking process may imply modifications at the beginnings and ends of words
in connected speech. For instance, the linking /r/, which consists in pronouncing
word final spelling <r> when the next word begins with a vowel, as in later on)

 However, it is also possible for /r/ to be pronounced when no <r> appears in the
spelling. This is called intrusive or intruding /r/ and it is the result of a process of
analogy. For instance, word final /ə/ is generally the result of spelling Vr, as in
father, doctor, but when it is the result of spelling a, as in sofa, many E speakers
tend to insert /r/, unconsciously, in cases such as sofa and chairs, following the
same pattern as in father and mother.

 Other linking processes require no modifications at the edges of words, and yet
they are difficult for the Sp learner, because they involve consonant sequences to
which he is unaccustomed

 For example, in cases where one word ends in a consonant cluster and the next one
begins with a vowel, the student tends to WRONGLY omit the final consonant. So as
to avoid the omission of, for instance, final /t/ or /d/ in He stopped and looked around,
the student should be encouraged to think of the utterances reorganized as /hi ’stͻp tən
’luk tə`raund/
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 Articulatory simplifications such as assimilations, elisions, or compressions can

occur inside words, thus giving rise to new lexical pronunciations, and at word
boundary

 In all languages pronunciation is in a constant state of evolution. English in

particular has been largely affected by these articulatory simplifications although
for the last few hundred years its spelling has not reflected these changes.

 There is evidence that many modern words have undergone historical processes
such as elision, assimilation or compression, and yet their present-day English
spellings still stand for the old pronunciations: comb, knee (ellision); action, sure
(assimilation)

 Many lexical forms resulting from articulatory simplifications are relatively

recent, although not completely consolidated.

 An analysis of current English reveals that sometimes two, and less frequently
three, alternatively lexical pronunciations of the same word may exist
simultaneously:

- territory /’teritəri/ or /’teritri/

- education /’edjukeiʃņ/ or /eʤukeiʃņ/

 The younger generations, for instance, tend to adopt elided, assimilated, and
compressed forms which would even be considered negligent by their elders.

 Phonemic variations inside words help therefore to determine different generational

varieties of RP, and are also closely connected with styles of pronunciations (lexical
forms containing elisions, assimilations and compressions represent a less formal style
of delivery).

5.2. Elision

 On trying to minimize our efforts in connected speech, we weaken our

articulation (economy articulation). If this is weakened too much, the sound may
disappear altogether, a process known as elision. It is the vowels from unstressed
syllables which are the first to be elided in non-precise pronunciation (int(e)rest,
sim(i)lar, lib(a)ry, diff(e)rent, t(o)night), but also consonants are affected, as can
be seen in E postman /pəusmən/, secretary /sekrətri/, or Sp extranjero /estranxero/

 Word internal

 Elision of vowels mainly affects the weak, centralised one /ə, I, U/

when they are preceded and followed by consonants (usually /r, n, l/)
in unaccented syllables:
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- Certain /-tņ/ - Peaceful /-fļ/

- Importance /-tņC/ - Arrival /-vļ/
- Absence /-sņC/ - Cancel /-sļ/
- Caution /-ʃņ/ - Nasal /-zļ/
- Conscience /-ʃņC/ - Special /-ʃļ/
- Allusion /-Ʒņ/ - Animal /-mļ/
- Appearance /-rņC/ - Oral /-rļ/
- Local /-kļ/

 The elision of schwa in the sequence <-CVry> may imply or not the
disappearance of the syllable. In secretary and secondary it doesn’t,
so we have /-trI/ or /-drI/. When the resulting word will be disyllabic
it does, as in lottery, mystery, slippery, all with /CŗI/
 /-brI/ is the only recommendation for the spellings –berry and –bury,
as in strawberry, Salisbury
 Elision of consonants inside words mainly affects alveolars,
especially when preceded and followed by other consonants:

- Handsome - Postcard
- Postpone - Postman
- Grandma - Temptation
- Sandwich - Prehistoric
- Directly

 At word boundary

 The word final alveolars /t, d/ are generally elided when preceded
and followed by a consonant, especially when this is a stop:

- next turn
- next stop
- best thing
- cold day
- served drinks
- didn’t call

 /h/ is elided in unaccented, non-initial he, his, her(self), him(self),

have, has, had, and sometimes who, as in Give him his biro /… Im Iz
…/.
 María A. Martín Díaz
(+34)92231766458
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5.3. Assimilation

 Assimilation can be defined as the process by which sounds are influenced by

neighbouring sounds and come to share some or all of their phonetic
characteristics. It is somehow an articulatory simplification.
 It is an articulatory adjustment which is the result of an unconscious propensity
towards ease of articulation and economy. They may take place at the allophonic
level, but the more important assimilations can occur at the phonemic level, e.g. E
don’t you /dəUnʧu:/.
 According to the direction of the change, assimilation can be regressive, when the
initial sound of a word affects the final sound of the previous word (i.e., not
possible /-p p-/, close shave /-ʃ ʃ-/); or progressive, when the initial sound of the
second word is affected (i.e., I told you /aI ‘təUlʤu:/). Of the two, regressive
assimilation is much more common in English than progressive

 Word internal

 The following are examples of words in which the assimilated

variant can be considered the normal lexical form for very many
speakers. The non-assimilated variant may be regarded as belonging
to a more studied, conservative style of speech:
- /ʧ/ ~ /tj/  Mature
Christian
Accentuate
Situation
Importunate

- /ʤ/ ~ /dj/  Education

Individual

- /ʃ/ ~ /sj, sI/  Association

Glacial
Appreciation
 In the following cases, the assimilated forms are the only
recommendation for the learner to adopt:
- /ʧ/  Eventually
Factual
Fatuous
Fortune
Saturation
Statue
Virtue

- /ʤ/  Gradual
Graduate (n.)
Procedure
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- /ʃ/  Appreciate
Associate
Depreciation
Differentiation
Issue
Negotiate
Sensual
Sensuous
Sexual
Tissue

 At word boundary

 This type of assimilation is often referred to as juxtapositional or

contextual.
 The English consonant sounds most easily influenced by adjacent
sounds in connected speech are the alveolars /t, d, s, z, n/
 Assimilation of place of articulation  /t, d, n/ may be assimilated to
/p, b, m/ or to /k, g, ŋ/ respectively under the influence of the bilabials /p,
b, m/ or the velars /k, g/, respectively:

- That plan /’ðæp plæn/

- You’d better /jub betə/
- On purpose /om pə:pəs/
- Hot cakes /’hᴐk keIks/
- I should go /aI ʃUg ‘gəU/
- His own car /hIz əUŋ ka:/
- He won’t play /hi: ’wəUŋk gəu/

 Assimilation of manner  Very rare in English. It involves a

change from a “stronger/more difficult” consonant (one making a
more substantial obstruction to the flow of air, i.e., a plosive) to a
“weaker/easier” one (one which makes less obstruction to the
airflow, i.e., a fricative or nasal. It is typical of rapid speech:
- That side becomes /đæs saId/
- Good night becomes /gƱn naIt/
 Yod coalescence  /t, d/ may be assimilated to /ʧ, ʤ/ respectively
when immediately followed by /j/, as in last year /la:sʧIə/, or behind you
/bIhaInʤu:/
 /s, z/ may be assimilated to /ʃ, Ʒ/ respectively when /ʃ, j/ + rounded
vowel follow, as in her voice shook /hə: voIʃ ʃUk/; in case you do /Iŋ
‘keIʃ ju:…/ or /In ‘keIʃ ʃu: …/; he was shot /hi: wəh ʃᴐt/
 María A. Martín Díaz
(+34)92231766458
[email protected]

 Assimilation of voice  The fact of the final consonant of a word being

voiced or not determines the choice of whether the suffix will be voiced
or voiceless. However, this type of assimilation can radically change the
sound of several common constructions:
- Have to /hæv tu:/ becomes /hæftə/
- Has to /hæz tu:/ becomes /hæstə/
- Used to /ju:zd tu:/ becomes /ju:stə/

5.4. Compression
 It is a process derived out of a stressed-timed language in which we can have
strong and weak forms and a given vowel or consonant is performed in a shorter
space of time.
 This occurs when:
 Vowels are reduced to semivowels, as in English To open /’twəupən/
 Diphthongs are reduced to monophthongs, as in English Tomorrow morning
/təmͻrə mͻ:niη/
 Syllabic consonants lose their simplicity, as in E A couple of… /ə ‘kɅpləv…/

 Types of compression:
 Word internal
 The forms with either /U/ or /ə/ instead of /Uə/ in the central syllables
of actually, usually and valuable constitute the normal citation form
for many speakers. The same applies to words such as envious,
brilliant, influence, annual, with /jə, wə/ instead of /Iə, Uə/.
 Pronunciations with /ə/ rather than /əU/ could be said to represent a
more casual style in words such as automobile, extrovert, mobility,
November, omission, romantic, vocation, although for many
speakers the compressed form is their normal lexical pronunciation

 At word boundary
 In all cases the compressed forms denote a fast style, as in the apple
of my eye /djæpləv ma(I) aI/

5.5. Styles of pronunciation

 We do not always speak in the same way, but adapt ourselves to situations by
using different styles. We may vary our choice of vocabulary and grammatical
structures depending on the formality or informality of the circumstances
 Likewise, we make a series of phonetic adjustments which include a great
complexity of features such as tempo, rhythm, continuity, muscular tension,
gradation, compression, elision, and assimilation
 Important changes have been taking place over the last fifty years in the matter of
styles of pronunciation.
 One of the most decisive is the fact that English spoken by the present generation
is perceptibly quicker, both at word and connected speech level, than that of
previous generations.
 María A. Martín Díaz
(+34)92231766458
[email protected]

 Factors that have contributed to this speeding up and flexibility are widespread
radio and television broadcasting, and the increasing informality in public
speaking and social behaviour.
 These changes, together with the elusive nature of some of the phonetic features
mentioned above, make it difficult for phoneticians to coincide in their views and
draw exact dividing lines between different styles.
 However, for practical reasons, we can talk about the following styles of
pronunciation: formal, unhurried colloquial and informal colloquial:
 Formal
 Characterized by a slow speed of delivery or tempo, a precise
articulation, a high frequency of accented words, and a extreme clarity
 Its use is limited to very specific occasions: formal recitations,
church services, etc.
 Unhurried colloquial
 It is a clear and slow conversational style which makes most use of
the ‘ideal’ citation forms, i.e., those appearing in pronouncing
dictionaries.
 Its slow tempo requires a high frequency of accented words, a
minimum number of contextual assimilations and elisions, and a
precise articulation
 Depending on the age of the speaker, it may also include word-
internal elisions and assimilations
 Informal colloquial
 It is the most informal conversational style, generally referred to as
‘rapid’ colloquial
 It is not simply a quicker version of the unhurried colloquial style. It
rather is the result of a series of phonetic simplifications of the ideal
citation forms
 These simplifications take the form of a maximum number of
assimilations, elisions and compressions, lax, slurred articulations,
and a reduction of accented words
 Examples of these possible assimilations, elisions and compressions are:
i. assimilation of /t, d, n/ to /p, b, m/ before /w/, e.g. in winter /Im
‘wIntə/
ii. assimilation of /d/ to /n, m/, e.g. good night /gun ’naIt/, good
morning /gum ’mͻn Iŋ/
iii. Elision of certain consonants, as /d/ in wild west /waIl west/;
/v/ when of, have are followed by a consonant, as in a cup of
tea /ə ‘kɅp ə ti:/; /l when following /ͻ/, as in already /ͻ’redI/
iv. Elision of weak, unaccented vowels before the main accent,
e.g. suppose /spəuz/, police /pli:s/
v. Compression of syllabic consonants, which become non-
syllabic, e.g. totally /təutlI/, library /laIbrI/
vi. Compression of double (geminated) consonants, e.g. in my
class /ImaI ’kla:s/, take care /teI ’keə/
 María A. Martín Díaz
(+34)92231766458
[email protected]

5.6. Exercises

 Aspects of connected speech:

 Exercises on weak forms
 Exercises on the different types of assimilation
 Exercises on r-linking
 Exercises on elision
 Transcriptions (direct and reverse)