International Journal of Game-Based Learning, 4(2), 1-14, April-June 2014 1

Minecraft as a Creative Tool:

A Case Study
Maria Cipollone, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
Catherine C. Schifter, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
Rick A. Moffat, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA

ABSTRACT
Many scholars are enthusiastic about the potential learning opportunities present in the sandbox-style gam-
ing environment, Minecraft. In the following case study, the authors explored the use of Minecraft in a high
school literature class and the presentation of characterization and plot in three student-made machinima,
or films made in the game world. The authors demonstrate that Minecraft offers a unique opportunity for
students to display their creativity and understanding of concepts in ways that are more feasible than if they
were attempted in the “real” world. It is also relevant to point out that the epistemology associated Minecraft
is constructionist in its nature, which implicates a different style of instruction than is typically employed in
the U.S. classroom. The authors pose some questions about the diffusion of games like Minecraft in the future,
based on their discussion of similar technologies in the past.

Keywords: Constructionism, English Literature Curriculum, Learning, Minecraft Video Games

INTRODUCTION James Paul Gee is one of the many scholars

to recognize the benefits of video game-based
Over the last decade, the affinity between learning and its potential for deep and mean-
video games and learning is an energized sub- ingful learning practices. Gee was certainly not
ject across educational and industry settings. the first to advocate for video games as a form
Academics posit that video games provide of learning (McGonigal, 2008; Prensky, 2006;
endless opportunities for players to learn via Salen, 2008; Shaffer, 2006; Squire, 2005), but
innovation, persistence, and problem solving his interpretation of the challenges and op-
(Gee, 2007, Malone & Lepper, 1987; Shaffer, portunities inherent in video games has drawn
2006, Squire, 2005). Connolly (2011) notes that attention to “good video games” (Gee, 2007,
the advantages include, “increased motivation p. 12). To summarize his complex discussion,
and engagement, an enhanced learning experi- “good video games” are games in which game
ence, and improved student achievement and design is dedicated to enjoyment and challenge,
retention” (p. vii). rather than educational ends. The games Gee

DOI: 10.4018/ijgbl.2014040101

Copyright © 2014, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
2 International Journal of Game-Based Learning, 4(2), 1-14, April-June 2014

speaks of happen to be some of the more com- The popularity of both games, and in par-
mercially popular titles (e.g., Halo and Legend ticular, collaborative gaming and knowledge
of Zelda). sharing (like that which occurs in Minecraft),
Scholars at the forefront of this move- represents a practice that might inform suc-
ment claim that game-based learning activities cessful models of twenty-first century learning
are “most powerful when they are personally environments. At this point, the knowledge that
meaningful, experimental, social, and epis- young people gain in these gaming environ-
temological all at the same time” (Shaffer, ments is mostly informal; they get it by asking
Squire, Halverson, & Gee, 2004, p. 105). To friends and searching user-generated content for
investigate the learning outcomes based on instruction, rather than a formal instructional
this claim, the authors conducted a case study experience, or using trial and error (Beck &
using Minecraft, a commercially popular video Wade, 2004). These informal learning net-
game, as a learning tool. The authors discuss the works are of particular interest to many: K-12
results of the case study to elucidate the poten- education reform advocates, economists, video
tial uses of commercially popular video games game developers, and researchers, because the
like Minecraft in formal educational settings. technology of video games provides clues to the
Although Gee is often credited for his types of literacy that will be valuable for future
role in video games and learning scholarship professionals (Beck & Wade, 2004). As digital
(Alexander, Eaton, & Egan, 2010; Epper, Der- technologies like video games proliferate, the
ryberry, & Jackson, 2012; Mishra & Foster, global economy slumps, and U.S. education
2007), other technological and economic fac- systems struggle to prepare students for an
tors have contributed to the growing interest in unprecedented future, many have placed their
the potential of video games. The explosion of hopes on the potential for video games to assist
casual gaming on smart phones and tablets have in education (Gee & Hayes, 2011).
led to presence of digital games in everyday life
(Juul, 2010). Whether through mobile applica- As Old As the Games Themselves
tions (e.g., CandyCrush), “gamified” systems
(e.g., Nike+) or social network site games (e.g., Despite the recent surge, the academic inter-
Farmville or Mafia Wars on Facebook®), many est in the potential learning benefits of video
more people spend their time in the game space. games is almost as old as video games them-
Additionally, research shows that video selves (close to 40 years old); (for a more
game culture is embedded in the culture of most comprehensive review see Ito, 2008; Randel,
young people in the United States. Young people Morris, Wetzel, & Whitehill, 1992). Yet, only
represent a large portion of those who engage in recently have scholars have acknowledged that
these types of game spaces, thus their popular- non-educational games implicate a different
ity among this population presents many clues set of learning practices and epistemological
about their preferred modes of participation, outcomes. Ito’s (2008) thorough analysis of
interaction, and collaboration. The Pew Internet children’s software demonstrates that traditional
and American Life project report summarized instruction-centered views about learning and
the common practice of video gaming in the curriculum can dampen the benefits of video
lives of young people stating, “Video gaming is games, and take motivation completely out of
so widespread among American teenagers that the equation. When game designers try to embed
to paint a portrait of a typical teen gamer is to games with traditional curriculum, the motiva-
hold a mirror to the population of teens as whole. tional, collaborative, and engaging elements
Nearly every teen plays games in some way, of the game are mostly lost on its audience.
regardless of gender, age, or socioeconomic Ito explains that many video games created
status” (Lenhart, Kahne, Middaugh, Macgill, for educational purposes are, “[F]ocused on
Evans & Vitak, 2008, p. 7). curricular content, rather than innovative game

Copyright © 2014, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
 International Journal of Game-Based Learning, 4(2), 1-14, April-June 2014 3

play” (2008, p. 93). These games emphasize Minecraft: A Game World,

external rewards and reinforcement for very Not Just a Game
school-like tasks (p. 94). When educational
content is forced into the video game medium, Minecraft’s lure and charm are difficult to as-
young people are quick to recognize the ruse, sess when taken at face value. The game was
and find the experience mostly distasteful and initially designed as a pure sandbox-style game,
detrimental to their motivation (Bruckman, meaning there is no linear narrative structure
1999; Ito, 2008). that guides players. Like other sandbox-style
Video games (i.e., often those that are games, such as The Sims, the game’s success
commercially popular)—which don’t overlay thrives on the productions that are the result of
traditional instructional practices onto gaming experimentation with the environment, either
landscapes—present players with learning alone or on servers with multiple players. How-
scenarios that different from the structural ele- ever, unlike The Sims, Minecraft’s environment
ments of the typical K-12 learning environment is very graphically simple, and encourages more
(Squire, 2005). This study presents a case in interaction with naturalistic or almost agrarian
which literature concepts were taught using what activities (e.g., mining coal, crafting shelters,
Gee (2007) might call a “good video game”. or harvesting wheat) than the activities that are
In the present study, participants found a associated with contemporary life in The Sims
less costly way of exploring literature concepts (e.g., purchasing prebuilt homes, or working at
that were freed from traditional instruction an advertising agency).
materials using Minecraft. However, as the Markus “Notch” Perrson, the initial game
authors discuss in detail later, if those dedicated designer, created Minecraft to be intentionally
to the potential of video games in the formal simple and open so that users could interact
education setting, the successful use of the with virtual environments that are normally
technology will depend on an acceptance of a static in most video games (Levin, 2013). The
new style of teaching and learning—one that entire game environment (e.g., trees, rivers,
is centered on exploration, production skills, chickens, and zombies) is composed of 1m3
and self-(or collaboratively) authored artifacts blocks that look like Lego™ bricks. The most
(Gee & Hayes, 2011, 2012; McGonigal, 2008). basic goal is to break and place these blocks to
After presenting the case study using Mine- create structures.
craft in the classroom, this paper will discuss There are two options for game play in
the epistemological outcomes that arise when Minecraft: survival mode or creative mode.
implementing video game technology, like In survival mode, players must craft tools by
Minecraft, in the classroom. Moreover, the collecting materials (e.g., cobblestone, oak
authors draw on previous literature from the wood) to harvest food (e.g., wheat for bread)
learning sciences and technology in education and structures (e.g., houses or huts) to survive
to consider lessons from the past to inform the menacing threats (e.g., zombies that eat play-
integration of video game technologies such as ers or skeletons that kill players with arrows).
Minecraft the classroom (Johnson, 2006; Kafai Survival mode is a more goal-oriented mode,
& Resnick, 1996; Papert, 1993; Schifter, 2008). where a player attempts to harvest as many
The next section will describe Minecraft resources and thrive as fruitfully as possible
and its goals and objectives as well the com- given finite resources (i.e., going beyond
munity of practice that has grown around the merely surviving starvation and death, such as
game in a few short years. Then, the authors will mining diamonds or creating fire). A player is
discuss their rationale for studying Minecraft successful in survival mode if he or she can not
in the classroom, followed by an analysis of only survive threats, but also thrive despite that
their observations. threat. A more successful player will be distant
from the threat of death (e.g., having created

Copyright © 2014, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
4 International Journal of Game-Based Learning, 4(2), 1-14, April-June 2014

an underground city, free from the threat of a modification called MinecraftEDU was cre-
zombies or being able to harvest a vast amount ated specifically for use in educational settings
of food and materials). In contrast, creative (Levin, 2013). Truly, the Minecraft community
mode offers the player an unlimited amount of players is based on creative prowess, from
of resources with no threat of death or starva- the ingenuity inside game worlds to the creative
tion. Although creative mode is safer, players modifications that players make to the game
demonstrate creativity and skill in the way they experience itself. The case study presented in
chose to survive. The goal in creative mode is the paper accepts Lastowka’s (2012) argument
to explore the environment and to construct any that Minecraft is rooted in the free exchange
landscape, structure, or scene that the player or of creativity and users’ creations, and shows
players desire. that Minecraft can serve as a creative space
Though there are millions of other games for students to express their understanding of
that involve the elements of survival, creation, literary concepts. The next section of the paper
and multiplayer collaboration, Minecraft’s describes the research setting and the student
game developer, Mojang, has intentionally films that served as data for the case study.
legitimized and relied upon the contributions
of its player community in ways unlike many
other game developers. The game’s popular- PROCEDURES
ity has been partly based on the fact that the
This case study presents a research scenario
player community has created a vast and
where one English teacher from the North-
well-documented community of practice that
eastern region of the United States used the
includes tutorials, modifications, communal
game Minecraft to explore literary concepts
servers for multiplayer engagement, and cre-
required by the state’s core curriculum in the
ations that have incorporated Minecraft-based
high school classroom. The authors agreed to
recreation of popular culture. For example,
provide a communal server for the participants
players have created a replica, to scale, of the
and instructor to produce their creations, and
Starship Enterprise and the Hogwarts School
they observed the participants’ films, or ma-
from Harry Potter. There is even a modifica-
chinima, as a demonstration of their learning.
tion to the game to make the landscape into
The also interviewed the instructor at during
the space from the popular literature series the
and at the end of the six week unit.
Hunger Games, where players can act as the
The high-school instructor proposed that
characters. Lastowka (2012) aptly points out that
he would use the game to explore the concepts
this “amateur” production is typical in digital
of characterization and plot with a small sample
gaming (and germane to Web 2.0 practices),
of ninth and tenth (n= 20) grade participants in
but Minecraft’s commercial success is based
his English literature course. The participants
on the creative production of “amateurs”. In
were divided into five groups of four participants
Lastowka’s words, “To play Minecraft is to use
each. According to the instructor’s informal
the game as a creative tool. Minecraft requires
survey of the class, only one student was play-
players to be creative, even if that creativity is
ing the game at that time. Thus, 19 out of 20
limited to designing a crude shelter or tunneling
participants were unfamiliar with the game and
the layout of a mine” (2012, p. 10).
how it was played. After introducing them to
Another creative aspect of the game is the
the game environment, he then introduced the
continuing updates, which can have users import
assignment. The instructor gave the participants
and share pre-built structures as modifications-
a prompt that they could use (it was optional to
-most of these were not initiated by the creator
use this plotline) to assist their creativity. The
of the game but by users who saw a need and
assignment was as follows:
“created” a modification to solve the need, thus
transforming the game environment. In 2012,

Copyright © 2014, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
 International Journal of Game-Based Learning, 4(2), 1-14, April-June 2014 5

Parents are out of town and kid is being pres- Prior to the first of these five class periods, the
sured to host a party. He/she agrees and the participants were to collaborate outside of class
party quickly gets out of hand. to start to develop their storyline. Then, during
these class periods, the participants went to a
The desired outcome of this assignment computer lab to practice their stories, capture
was a video of the narrative, or machinima, pieces in video to review, and then given time
developed by each group to demonstrate their to revise their stories. The all-female group was
understanding of the literary concepts. Ma- also given time to capture their storyline using
chinima (the amalgamation of “machine” and the video camera. When the Minecraft groups
“cinema”) are 3D animated films created within were capturing their video within the game, the
a gaming environment. They are a common cul- authors observed how the teacher interacted
tural practice among more dedicated (i.e., “hard with them in that environment to assess how
core”) video gamers (Johnson & Pettit, 2012). the instructor facilitated the participants’ use
The high school instructor gave the par- of the game environment.
ticipants two options to achieve the assignment
– they could use Minecraft to create their video Creativity That is Less Costly
using game play captured using free software
The case study presented in this paper demon-
called Bandicam (Bandisoft, 2013), or they
strates that Minecraft can be used a space for
could video their story using a video camera.
participants to express their creativity in ways
One group of four female participants decided
that would typically be much more costly. Also,
to physically act in their own film, while the
the open-nature of the game allows the partici-
other four groups (one of which did not finish
pants to experiment with various conceptions
the final film) groups chose to develop their
of characterization and plot that are not limited
stories using Minecraft. When the authors fol-
to physical materials. They are able to create
lowed up with the participants about why they
fantastical characters and storylines because
preferred not to use the game and why some
the game world provides participants with the
did not finish the project, they expressed a
space to do so. The authors will now discuss
lack of interest in the game or that they found
the type of plots and characterizations that they
it boring. Although they did not have time to
observed in the machinima, and try to assess
follow up further on why these participants
the understanding of characterization and plot
found the game boring, the authors found this
the participants demonstrated.
result to be both a limitation and an opportunity
The older (n= 4, ages 15-16) participants
for further research. The outcome suggests that
in the study took a complete departure from the
simply bringing a commercially popular video
suggestion prompt, and developed their own
game into the classroom will not automatically
story, “A Burning Passion”. The story features
encourage all audiences, and there are techno-
Joseph, a young man who had the unfortunate
logical and motivational barriers that will fail to
experience of watching his parents burn in a
engage some learners. Furthermore, the teacher
fire when he was very young; a fire that he
did not provide the authors with the film that
mysteriously caused. The first scene features
the participants in this group had made, or the
him weeping by his parents’ graves, and refusing
authors might have been able to look at differ-
to go and live with his uncle because if Joseph
ences in the creative expressions. Instead, this
lives with him, his uncle will soon meet a similar
case study focuses on the machinima that the
fate. As Joseph warns his uncle, the audience
participants produced.
sees a lightning bolt ignite a fire in the distance.
The instructor carved five class periods
Here the participants offer the audience their
for the participants to capture their narratives
version of characterization by introducing a
using either Minecraft (the “classic” version,
not MinecraftEDU) or using the video camera.

Copyright © 2014, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
6 International Journal of Game-Based Learning, 4(2), 1-14, April-June 2014

Figure 1. In “A Burning Passion”, participants crafted a character that struggles with his fatal
flaw--those he loves are doomed to burst into flames

character with a tragic flaw—everyone he loves The third group of participants created a
is doomed to burst into flames. horrific tale called, “Flesh Eating Predator”
In their story, “The Hole”, (n= 4, ages (n=4, ages 13 and 14), where three friends are
13 and 14) a group of ninth graders introduce trying to find a party, but they seem to show
the audience to another type of characteriza- up to an empty house with a creepy host (who
tion via Roy, a delusional young man who is is potentially the predator). Two of the friends,
restrained by his family because he insists on Anna and Caroline, are relatively concerned
digging holes. Roy digs holes because he is with the appropriate social behavior (wanting
instructed to do so by a fun-loving bunny rabbit, to party), but their other friend, Kelly, seems
that only he sees. Beneath his house, Roy has intent on saying socially inappropriate things
constructed an entire world where he and his about her dog and her mom. The character of
bunny friend can cause destruction. When Roy Kelly seems to represent a social outcast. Once
expresses his distaste for the rabbit’s incessant again, the participants are experimenting with
chattering (about nonsensical things), he barks different types of characterization, and Mine-
at the rabbit: “Who are you, anyway?” The craft provides them with a world in which to
rabbit answers: “But Roy, I am you!” Here, the explore these concepts.
participants create Roy, who is odd and anti- In both of the stories “The Hole” and
social, but who has control in his purpose (to “A Burning Passion”, the audience witnesses
create underworlds), even if his mind deviates participants developing characters that who
from reality. The participants have developed a struggle with character flaws. These flaws offer
character with multiple personalities, using the the promise of doom, but overcoming the flaws
space of the game to explore a complex range offer the promise of stability. In the case of “A
of character traits. Burning Desire”, the plot centers on Joseph’s
struggle to be intimate with others, because

Copyright © 2014, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
 International Journal of Game-Based Learning, 4(2), 1-14, April-June 2014 7

Figure 2. In “The Hole” Roy is a character who must choose between the love of his family and
his alter ego--a bunny rabbit who wants him to commit evil deeds

he fears that they will catch on fire (as all the (where the walls are lined with explosives),
people that Joseph tends to love happen to do). when his sister comes to rescue him, she is
The participants also grappled with the idea that able to coax him back from his violent ways.
character flaws may or may not be overcome, In the final climax, Roy battles his alternate
as was demonstrated in their plot constructs. ego and destroys him in order to join the ranks
In “A Burning Passion”, Joseph’s contin- of his more “normal” family. Minecraft gives
ued struggle with his flaw may demonstrate the participants the space to experiment with
that participants have observed many types of creative plot lines to understand how characters
characters throughout their development, both resolve or succumb to their flaws. In this case,
via traditional print texts, films, and television. Minecraft is a vehicle where the participants
Joseph’s story is reminiscent of a superhero that can creatively express their conceptions of
struggles with his powers, and is isolated from characterization and plot in less costly and
the thing he desires most: love and intimacy. accessible ways.
In the story, Joseph finally opens his heart to “The Flesh-Eating Predator” narrative is
another (Jessica) and has a child, only to watch less resolute. Kelly is murdered by the predator,
them both be engulfed in flames as the dénoue- and her friends meet a similar end. In a follow-
ment to the tale. Minecraft gives the participants up discussion with the instructor, he explained
a space in which to explore these types of nar- to the authors that the participants in this group
ratives that would otherwise be costly or near failed to plan their machinima well. This lack
impossible in a formal educational setting. of planning holds implication for the type of
In “The Hole”, Roy, a delusional young instruction that is needed to scaffold Minecraft
man, also struggles with his character flaw, this in the classroom because the teacher does not
time presented as a mental illness. Although Roy directly transmit material to the participants, but
develops an alternative personality that com- rather allows them to create their own characters.
pels him to dig holes, and build an underworld Not every student will naturally succeed at this

Copyright © 2014, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
8 International Journal of Game-Based Learning, 4(2), 1-14, April-June 2014

type of project because they are interested in from constructionist practices and technology
Minecraft. The authors discuss this issue later in education to pose potential questions about
in the discussion section. the implementation of games like Minecraft in
The development of the plot in the partici- educational settings in the future.
pants’ film gives them a chance to explore the
concept of characterization in a way similar to
a cinematic perspective, rather than the static DISCUSSION
identification of elements that are offered in
The goal of this section is to discuss two
more traditional texts. The open nature of Mine-
implications that resulted from the authors’
craft gives the participants (or players) the tools
observation of the present case study. First, that
to construct characters and plots that, while ar-
Minecraft implies a more constructionist form
chetypal in their nature, represent their creative
of epistemology. Second, that most teachers
understanding of characterization and character
can’t embrace this type of learning and trans-
development, and are not tied to specific text.
late it into instruction practices because of the
Squire (2008) calls sandbox games like Mine-
constraints of the US institutional culture of
craft “ideological worlds” where players can
formal education. The authors pose some of
develop their own creations, concepts and value
the reasons why this may be true, and what it
systems. Motivated to build a theoretical model,
means for digital tools like Minecraft.
he explains that “epistemic” video games, such
as Supercharged!, teach students about specific Constructionism in Minecraft
knowledge systems (in this case, physics), but
open-ended games provide a much different From a learning sciences perspective, the type
and extended experience. Squire sees games of knowledge production that is encouraged
like Minecraft (in his essay; Civilization III and by Minecraft can be seen as a constructionist
The Sims) as a place for players to try on new epistemology. Contructionist, the adjectival
identities and experiment with them via creative version of constructionism, is a way of building
production (p. 172). Squire’s description of the knowledge through meaningful interaction and
possibilities in sandbox games resonates with experimentation with content. In some ways,
the observations presented in this study: “As one might see the observations from this case
learning contexts, these sandbox games function study as an account of students experimenting
as design possibility spaces for people, spaces with literary content. Constructionism “shares
wherein they can develop along trajectories of constructivism’s connotation of learning as
experience into new ways of knowing, learn- ‘building knowledge structures’ irrespective
ing, and being in the world” (Squire, 2008, p. of the circumstances of the learning” (Harel &
172). The authors of this paper posit that there Papert, 1991, p. 1). It focuses on two processes:
are many examples of digital tools that draw an active process through which people con-
on similar experiences, but that teachers have struct knowledge in “real” world experiences,
not been able to easily incorporate them into which is based in Piagetian constructivism,
the school day in a consistent manner. In the and a the creation of a personally meaningful
discussion section, the authors address Squire’s product (Kafai & Resnick, 1996). In this study,
point about implementation. the authors observed the process of meaningful
Minecraft provides students and teachers interaction with content, but the analysis focused
with an accessible and low-cost space to express on the machinima, or final outcome, in order
their creativity with literary concepts, but the to point to the practical ways that games like
type of teaching and learning that are implicated Minecraft can be tools of creativity.
when using Minecraft signify a different set In the section below, barriers to lasting
of skills for both instructor and student. In the implementation of tools like Minecraft are
section below, the authors draw on the literature discussed. First, the authors discuss the initial

Copyright © 2014, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
 International Journal of Game-Based Learning, 4(2), 1-14, April-June 2014 9

impulse to blame teachers, and then they discuss it to students (until 1994). Mr. DeTolla was a
the kind of teachers that typically gravitate to similar story--a teacher who saw the value of
digital tools like Minecraft. This discussion programming, and with some administrative
leads to a larger contextual dissection of the support, found ways of teaching the language
institutional culture of formal education in to as many students as he could reach. These
the United States, and the ways in which con- teachers share some major similarities. Cuban
structionism does not fit well into that culture. (2001) would call these teachers “early adopt-
Finally, in conclusion, there is a discussion of ers” who are technological trendsetters in
the implications of these past lessons, and what their school. These individuals are somewhat
that might signify for game-based learning in personally vested in learning the technology
formal educational settings. (e.g., programming, or playing Minecraft), and
they insist that the skills they’ve learned are
Blame the Teacher invaluable to students. They are often correct,
but the skills they promote are often lost on other
Seymour Papert, a prominent student of Piaget’s, teachers, who are unwilling or uncomfortable
was one of the first scholars to infuse construc- with the type of investment it takes to learn
tionist practices into digital environments for the technology they are promoting. In his case
K-12 students. Papert’s Logo™, was designed studies, Papert (1993) describes one teacher
with constructivist (which he later termed who was not an early adopter. She stopped using
contructionist) learning theories in mind (Ito, Logo™ in the classroom because she began to
2008). Logo™ is a language designed to teach become anxious about having to constantly keep
computer programming via the construction- up with her students, and continually learn just
ist tradition in K-12 schools. Papert believed, beyond their level of expertise. “Early adopt-
that through experimental interaction with the ers” like Mr. Levin and DeTolla don’t face this
computing language, students would understand anxiety, because they are motivated to keep up
the symbolic functions of the machine on many with the technology no matter the cost of their
levels. Although many iterations of Logo™ have personal time. But more importantly, they are
been introduced since Papert’s initial formula- willing to let students be experts, and be taught
tion, lessons in computing language still largely by their own students. Teachers like Levin and
remain outside of the formal educational experi- DeTolla see the technology as inherently fun,
ence. The authors of this paper feel that this is and in many ways, it’s not work for them to
due to two distinct factors. First, the teachers train themselves using the tool (Schifter, 2008).
who embrace constructionist technologies or Like Mr. Levin and Mr. DeTolla (Schifter,
tools are unique compared to the rest of their 2008), the instructor in the present case study
profession, and second, they value a different was an “early adopter”. He was the only indi-
type of teaching. A glimpse backwards at the life vidual teacher in his school to use Minecraft to
of Logo™ will inform some of the observations teach literary concepts (or any curriculum at all).
from the current case study. In an open-ended response survey instrument,
In her work on technology infusion in the the instructor indicated that he plays Minecraft
classroom, one of the authors of this paper, in his personal time, and that he continued to
Schifter (2008), offers two case studies of play after the study (C. Reeves, personal com-
teachers who successfully integrated Logo™ munication, June 28, 2012). For the instructor
into their classroom curriculum. The first is in the present study, there was no steep learning
Mr. Levin, who thought that microcomputing curve; his drive to learn how to play the game
would sharpen his students’ analytical and was strengthened by his own personal interest
problem solving skills. Levin learned the pro- in it. While this provides an optimal scenario
gramming language in the early eighties, and for “early adopters”, these teachers are typi-
for twelve years, carried out workshops to teach cally the minority in their profession, and their

Copyright © 2014, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
10 International Journal of Game-Based Learning, 4(2), 1-14, April-June 2014

interest in the technology has little to do with its develop a stronger rapport with his students. The
widespread acceptance in the school (Johnson, authors believe this evidences Cuban’s (2001)
2006). The authors feel it is important to note concept of the “early adopter”, or Papert’s
that the teacher in the present case study was (1993) “progressive educator”, who is inclined
not a technology teacher in the school as Mr. to dive into a digital world with students, unlike
Levin and Mrs. DeTolla were. Typically, “early many of his or her colleagues.
adopters” are teachers that are technology teach- The authors of this article posit this discus-
ers to begin with (Schifter, 2008). sion to link Minecraft’s recent popularity in for-
In his essay on schools, Papert (1993) uses mal learning environments (Levin, 2013) with
the term “progressive” educators for a similar other formulations of constructionist learning
phenomenon. Papert explains, “Progressive tools such as Papert’s Logo™. Lessons from
educators do not see themselves as offering an technologies past show educators that similar
alternative way to for students to learn the same patterns emerge when examining the type of
list of items of knowledge. They value a different teacher that gravitates toward these types of
type of knowledge” (1993, p. 63). The authors technologies. These lessons hold implications
of this paper would extend Papert’s claim, say- for the diffusion of game-based learning envi-
ing that “progressive” instructors also value a ronments in the future.
different type of teaching, where the teacher However, the blame for the prior lack of
supports students in non-traditional ways, diffusion should not be squarely placed on the
and grows personally with the students. The heads of instructors who are reticent to experi-
instructor in the present case study expressed ment with them. There are many instructors who
similar sentiments when he explained, “It felt are willing and invest a great deal of professional
great [to relinquish authority]. I love the idea time into learning new digital technologies
and the practice of being a facilitator, coach, (Schifter, 2008). It seems that the culture of
or mentor, rather than the seat of knowledge. I formal education in the United States, and its
[previously] had an excellent rapport with this institutional structure, meets tools like Minecraft
year’s students, so I can’t speak to whether or not with opposition. The next section gives read-
this project changed anything on a relationship ers a glimpse of the institutional approach to
level. This was not scary at all--as some might literary concepts of characterization and plot,
think” (C. Reeves, personal communication, and how they denote a type of knowledge that
June 28, 2012). In this case, the instructor valued is different from the constructionist knowledge
that the students were commanding their own presented in the case study. Finally, the authors
experiences with the machinima, and that the conclude with some relevant questions about
responsibility of being the “seat of knowledge” how the current study and past scholarship
was off of his plate. might inform the implementation of “good
Papert (1993) discusses a similar experi- video games” like Minecraft in the classroom.
ence with teachers who were anxious about the
implementation of Logo™, which he equates Blame the Institution
with a type of “learning in use”. In his words,
“Learning-in-use liberates the students to learn To add some perspective on how the literary
in a personal way, and this in turn liberates concepts are typically conceived in U.S. class-
teachers to offer their students something more rooms (particularly in the Northeast United
personal and more rewarding for both sides. But States), the authors consulted the Common
this prospect does not come without problems, Core State Standards, which were defined by
and some teachers will see it more as a threat the U.S. federal government in 2010 as “core”
than as a liberation” (Papert, 1993, p. 65). In curricula to standardize all versions of teach-
the current case study, the instructor did not ing foundational conception to students. Not
perceive Minecraft as a threat, but as a way to without controversy, the Common Core State

Copyright © 2014, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
 International Journal of Game-Based Learning, 4(2), 1-14, April-June 2014 11

Standards attempt to align the curricular goals the same time, he implicates an institutional
of all 50 states, in order to ensure more efficient culture that is very real in the United States.
teaching, and of course, to ensure that students Lipman (2011) suggests that these orga-
are taught to take the federally mandated as- nizational structures are driven by the need
sessments (Krashen, 2012). The state where the for United States’ urban centers to be more
study was conducted (Northeast United States) attractive to global investors. Administrators
has aligned their K-12 curriculum to match the incorporate high-stakes testing and account-
recommendations of the federal government in ability in public school systems in an attempt
2011 (Common Core State Standards Initiative, to clean up visible economic disparities that
2012). This comparison serves to demonstrate often appear in achievement gaps. In her study
the how K-12 teachers are trained to teach of Chicago schools, Lipman (2011) compares
these abstract concepts, and that the type of the institutional climate of U.S. schools to a
instruction is explicitly tied to the standardized corporate culture where top-down mandates that
assessment tools. drive accountability leave instructors unable to
The Core Curriculum State standards for experiment with innovative curriculum because
ninth and tenth grade students do suggest a more they fear losing their jobs. As long as teachers
complex understanding of diverse perspectives, and schools are held accountable for standard-
much like the ones observed in the machinima. ized indicators as though they are corporate-like
For example: “Analyze how an author’s choices employees, then video games may continue to be
concerning how to structure a text, order events antithetical to 21st century classrooms because
within it (e.g., parallel plots), and manipulate they represent a risky choice.
time (e.g., pacing, flashbacks) create such ef- The authors hope that this discussion
fects as mystery, tension, or surprise” (Com- contextualizes some of the reasons that teach-
mon Core State Standards Initiative, 2012). ers seldom venture into--or stay in--the world
But, a more specific example demonstrates of digital technologies, because the institution
how a teacher might implement this: “students that they work in is not structured to assess or
summarize the development of the morality of reward their success with these tools. In many
Tom Sawyer in Mark Twain’s novel of the same ways, the institutional culture of the U.S. edu-
name and analyze its connection to themes of cation system encourages instructors to stay
accountability and authenticity by noting how within the confines of the hierarchy because it
it is conveyed through characters, setting, and values hierarchical knowledge for student and
plot” (Common Core State Standards Initia- employee assessment.
tive, 2012). The authors of this article acknowledge
The type of knowledge disseminated by the that tools like the Common Core are valuable
core standards is different than asking students for certain types of teaching and learning, but
to build their concepts of characterization and they feel it important to point out that so long as
plot in a virtual space. Here, the knowledge is there stands the opposition between the culture
structured and tethered to specific examples, of games like Minecraft and the institutional
so that it is organized, catalogued, and easily practices of U.S. education systems, the par-
transmitted to students. Papert (1993) might ticipants’ experiences that are presented here
describe the objectives of the Common Core will not be common or mainstream.
in this way, “the knowledge [has been placed]
into teachable bites so that they can be fed to the
students one at a time by a teacher, and this leads CONCLUSION
straight into the traditional paraphernalia of cur-
The authors have provided one case study that
riculum, hierarchy, and control” (p. 65). While
demonstrates the potential for Minecraft to
Papert’s commentary is unnecessarily dark, at
provide meaningful learning scenarios, of which

Copyright © 2014, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
12 International Journal of Game-Based Learning, 4(2), 1-14, April-June 2014

others have discussed (Gee, 2007; Shaffer, 2006; Connolly, T. (2011). Introduction to leading issues in
Squire, 2005). Furthermore, it can provide a games-based learning research. In T. Connolly (Ed.),
Leading issues in games-based learning research
space for students to create works that would
(pp. v–xii). Reading, UK: Academic Publishing
be costly or impossible otherwise. As a point International, Ltd.
of discussion, this paper presents the notion
that there is a tension between the knowledge Cuban, L. (2001). Oversold and underused: Com-
puters in the classroom. Cambridge, MA: Harvard
production that is characteristic of the game, University Press.
and the culture of the formal education system
in the United States. This leads the authors to Duncan, S. C. (2011). Minecraft, beyond construction
question the future of digital learning tools like and survival. Well-Played, 1(1), 1–22.
Minecraft. The authors ask: if learning tools Epper, R., Derryberry, A., & Jackson, S. (2012).
similar to Minecraft have existed for for nearly Game-based learning: Developing an institutional
30 years, and scholars call for the integration of strategy. Louisville, CO: EDUCAU.S.E Center for
Applied Research. Retrieved November 3, 2013
these tools into the mainstream environment, from http://www.educause.edu/ecar
does the presence of easy, low-cost options
like Minecraft necessarily mean that the digital Gee, J. (2007). What video games have to teach us
revolution of classrooms is now poised to oc- about learning and literacy (2nd ed.). New York,
NY: Palgrave Macmillan.
cur? Will educational versions of “good video
games” succeed (e.g., MinecraftEDU or SimCi- Gee, J., & Hayes, E. (2011). Language and learning
tyEDU) where Logo™, has failed? The authors in the digital age. New York, NY: Routledge.
feel that, although digital learning tools have Gee, J., & Hayes, E. (2012). Women and gaming:
transformed greatly since the time of Papert, it The Sims and 21st century learning. New York, NY:
is the institutional culture of formal education Palgrave McMillan.
in the U.S. that does not support the type of Harel, I., & Papert, S. (1991). Constructionism:
learning inherent in constructionist experiences Research reports and essays, 1985-1990. New York,
like Minecraft. It may be necessary to consider NY: Ablex Publishing Corp.
organizational shifts that better accommodate Ito, M. (2008). Education vs. entertainment: A cultural
more of these experiences in the future. history of children’s software. In K. Salen (Ed.). The
Ecology of games: Connecting youth, games and
learning (pp. 89-116). The John D. and Catherine T.
REFERENCES MacArthur Foundation Series on Digital Media and
Learning. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
Alexander, G., Eaton, I., & Egan, K. (2010). Cracking Johnson, B. (2006). Frustrations, realities and pos-
the code of electronic games: Some lessons for educa- sibilities in the quest for technology driven instruc-
tors. Teachers College Record, 112(7), 1830–1850. tion: An organizational theory approach. Journal of
Thought, 41(1), 9–26.
Bandisoft, Inc. (2013). Bandicam (Version 1.9.505).
[Screen recording software]. Available at http://www. Johnson, P., & Pettit, D. (2012). Machinima: The art
bandicam.com/ and practice of virtual filmmaking. Jefferson, NC:
McFarland & Company, Inc.
Beck, J., & Wade, M. (2004). Get game: How the
gamer generation is reshaping business forever. Juul, J. (2010). Casual games: Reinventing video
Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press. games and their players. Cambridge, MA: The
MIT Press.
Bruckman, A. (1999, March). Can educational be
fun? Paper presented at the Meeting of the Game Kafai, Y., & Resnick, M. (1996). Constructionism
Developers Conference. San Jose, CA. in practice: Designing, thinking & learning in a
digital world. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
Common Core State Standards Initiative. (2012). Im-
Associates, Inc.
plementing common core state standards. Retrieved
October 1, 2012 from http://www.corestandards.org/

Copyright © 2014, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
 International Journal of Game-Based Learning, 4(2), 1-14, April-June 2014 13

Krashen, S. (2012). How the common core will New Hampshire Department of Education. (2012).
change testing in schools. Retrieved October 4, 2012 Common core state standards. Retrieved October 4,
from http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/answer- 2012, from http://www.education.nh.gov/spotlight/
sheet/post/how-common-core-will-change-testing- ccss/index.htm
in-schools/2012/07/25/gJQAzIJB9W_blog.html
Papert, S. (1993). The children’s machine: Rethink-
Lastowka, G. (2013). Minecraft as web 2.0: Amateur ing school in the age of the computer. New York,
creativity & digital games. In D. Hunter, R. Lobato, NY: Basic Books.
M. Richardson, & J. Thomas (Eds.), Amateur media:
Social, cultural and legal perspectives (pp. 153–170). Prensky, M. (2006). Don’t bother me mom--I’m
New York, NY: Routledge. learning. St. Paul, MN: Paragon House.

Lenhart, A., Kahne, J., Middaugh, E., Macgill, A., Randel, J., Morris, B., Wetzel, C., & White-
Evans, C., & Vitak, J. (2008). Teens, video games, hill, B. (1992). The effectiveness of games for
and civics: Teens’ gaming experiences are diverse educational purposes: A review of recent re-
and include significant social interaction and search. Simulation & Gaming, 23(3), 261–276.
civic engagement [Research bulletin and data file]. doi:10.1177/1046878192233001
Washington, DC: Pew Internet & American Life Salen, K. (2008).Toward an ecology of gaming. In
Project. Retrieved October 4, 2012, from http:// K. Salen (Ed.), The ecology of games: Connecting
www.pewinternet.org/~/media/Files/Reports/2008/ youth, games and learning (pp. 1-20). The John D.
PIP_Teens_Games_and_Civics_Report_FINAL.pdf and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation Series on
Levin, J. (2013). The Minecraft teacher. Retrieved Digital Media and Learning. Cambridge, MA: The
from http://minecraftteacher.tumblr.com/ MIT Press.

Lipman, P. (2011). The new political economy of Schifter, C. (2008). Infusing technology into the class-
urban education. New York, NY: Routledge. room: Continuous practice improvement. Hershey,
PA: IGI Global. doi:10.4018/978-1-59904-765-2
Machinima. (2012). About us. Retrieved from http://
www.machinima.com/about Shaffer, D. (2006). How computer games help chil-
dren learn. New York, NY: Palgrave MacMillan.
Malone, T., & Lepper, M. (1987). Making learning doi:10.1057/9780230601994
fun: A taxonomy of intrinsic motivations for learn-
ing. In R. E. Snow, & M. J. Farr (Eds.), Aptitude, Shaffer, D., Squire, K., Halverson, R., &
learning, and instruction: Conative and affective Gee, J. (2004). Video games and the future of
process analyses (Vol. 3, pp. 223–254). Hillside, learning. Phi Delta Kappan, 87(2), 105–111.
NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. doi:10.1177/003172170508700205

McGonigal, J. (2008). Why I love bees: A case study Squire, K. (2005). Changing the game: What happens
in collective intelligence gaming. In K. Salen (Ed.), when video games enter the classroom? Journal of
The ecology of games: Connecting youth, games and Online Education, 1(6). Retrieved September 26,
learning (pp. 199-228). The John D. and Catherine T. 2012 from http://website.education.wisc.edu/kds-
MacArthur Foundation Series on Digital Media and quire/tenure-files/26-innovate.pdf
Learning. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. Squire, K. (2008). Open-ended video games: A Model
Mishra, P., & Foster, A. (2007). The claims of games: for developing learning for the interactive age. In
A comprehensive review and directions for future K. Salen (Ed.), The ecology of games: Connecting
research. In R. Carlsen, K. McFerrin, J. Price, R. youth, games and learning (pp. 167-198). The John
Weber, & D. A. Willis (Eds.), Proceedings from SITE D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation Series
‘07: The Annual Society for Information Technology on Digital Media and Learning. Cambridge, MA:
and Teacher Education. Chesapeak, VA: AACE. The MIT Press.

Copyright © 2014, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
14 International Journal of Game-Based Learning, 4(2), 1-14, April-June 2014

Maria Cipollone is Minecraft n00b, a Ph.D. candidate in Media and Communication at Temple University,
and a User Experience Researcher at a gaming company. Her research focuses on video games, and their
relationship with motivation, learning and telepresence. She is particularly interested in the conditions
that lead people to be productive and happy gamers.
Catherine Schifter, Ph.D. is also a Minecraft n00b, an associate professor in Psychological, Organizational
and Leadership Studies (POLS) at Temple University, and a Carnegie Scholar (20002001). She directs the
Instruction, Learning and Technology certificate program at Temple’s College of Education. Her research
over the last two decades has focused on distance education and technology integration in education, with
recent interest in game based design to assess understanding of science inquiry. In addition to publishing
numerous articles, she coedited The Distance Education Evolution: Issues and Case Studies (2004), sole
authored Infusing Technology into the Classroom: Continuous Practice Improvement (2008), and coedited
New Media in Education: Beyond Constructivism (2010).
Rick A. Moffat is a hard core Minecraft afficionado and an expert in educational technology implementation.
He created and led the Temple University Committee on Games and Play, and was selected to organize and
host a month long “Minecraft in Education” webinar series for the MacArthur Foundation’s Connected
Learning group. He hosts numerous Minecraft servers for research projects at Temple and around the
world, and serves as an advisor on the impact and value of video games.

Copyright © 2014, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.